Anatomy and Physiology

The limbic system is a set of evolutionarily primitive brain structures located on top of

the brainstem and buried under the cortex. Limbic system structures are involved in

many of our emotions and motivations, particularly those that are related to survival.

Such emotions include fear, anger, and emotions related to sexual behavior. The limbic

system is also involved in feelings of pleasure that are related to our survival, such as

those experienced from eating and sex.

Certain structures of the limbic system are involved in memory as well. Two large limbic

system structures, the amygdala and hippocampus play important roles in memory. The

amygdala is responsible for determining what memories are stored and where the

memories are stored in the brain. It is thought that this determination is based on how

huge an emotional response an event invokes. The hippocampus sends memories out

to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieves
them when necessary. Damage to this area of the brain may result in an inability to form

new memories.

Part of the forebrain known as the diencephalon is also included in the limbic system.

The diencephalon is located beneath the cerebral hemispheres and contains the

thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is involved in sensory perception and

regulation of motor functions (i.e., movement). It connects areas of the cerebral cortex

that are involved in sensory perception and movement with other parts of the brain and

spinal cord that also have a role in sensation and movement. The hypothalamus is a

very small but important component of the diencephalon. It plays a major role in

regulating hormones, the pituitary gland, body temperature, the adrenal glands, and

many other vital activities.

Limbic System Structures:

Amygdala - almond shaped mass of nuclei involved in emotional responses, hormonal

secretions, and memory.

Cingulate Gyrus - a fold in the brain involved with sensory input concerning emotions

and the regulation of aggressive behavior.

Fornix - an arching, fibrous band of nerve fibers that connect the hippocampus to the

hypothalamus.
Hippocampus - a tiny nub that acts as a memory indexer -- sending memories out to the

appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them

when necessary.

Hypothalamus - about the size of a pearl, this structure directs a multitude of important

functions. It wakes you up in the morning, and gets the adrenaline flowing. The

hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the molecules that

make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy.

Olfactory Cortex - receives sensory information from the olfactory bulb and is involved in

the identification of odors.

Thalamus - a large, dual lobed mass of grey matter cells that relay sensory signals to

and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum.

Neurotransmitters:

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter, involved in the transmission of nerve impulses. It is

manufactured in your body using the amino acid tryptophan. It is manufactured in your

body using the amino acid tryptophan. Release of serotonin or other drugs (depending

on the type of nerve) causes the other nerve to fire and continue the message along the

"cable"..
The neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. At the

neurochemical and physiological level, neurotransmitters are extremely important, since

they carry impulses between nerve cells. The substance that processes the

neurotransmitter called serotonin is the amino acid tryptophan. It increases the amount

of serotonin made by the brain.

Certain aminos cause you to have better feeling of well being. Serotonin is a chemical

that helps maintain a "happy feeling," and seems to help keep our moods under control

by helping with sleep, calming anxiety, and relieving depression. The brain also makes

Dopamine, which makes people more talkative and excitable. It affects  brain processes

that control movement, emotional response, and ability to experience pleasure and

pain. All of these chemicals are natural chemicals that affect our bodily processes.

Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals,

including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this phenethylamine functions

as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4,

and D5—and their variants. Dopamine is produced in several areas of the brain,

including the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area. Dopamine is also a

neurohormone released by the hypothalamus. Its main function as a hormone is to

inhibit the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary.

Also known as adrenalin, epinephrine is a naturally occurring hormone. During the fight-

or-flight response response, the adrenal gland releases epinephrine into the blood

stream, along with other hormones like cortisol, signaling the heart to pump harder,
increasing blood pressure, opening airways in the lungs, narrowing blood vessels in the

skin and intestine to increase blood flow to major muscle groups, and performing other

functions to enable the body to fight or run when encountering a perceived threat.

The term perceived threat makes an important distinction and brings up a critical point

to remember: as in the case of chronic stress, the body's stress response is repeatedly

triggered on a daily basis in response to actual physical and psychological threats as

well as perceived psychological threats. As a result, the body can become exhausted,

and the overabundance of epinephrine and cortisol, as well as other aspects of the

body's stress response can become maladaptive, resulting in lowered immunity and

other health problems.

Another important thing to remember about epinephrine and the body's stress response

is that it can be triggered in response to negative stress as well as excitement or

eustress. While eustress, or 'positive stress' can help maintain vitality, it's still important

to maintain balance in how much your stress response is triggered, and to avoid too

much total stress.

Norepinephrine or noradrenaline (chemical formula C 8H11NO3) is a catecholamine and

phenethylamine chemical. It functions as a neurotransmitter as well as a hormone, and

is secreted and released by the adrenal glands and by the noradrenergic neurons

during synaptic transmission.

Norepinephrine is a stress hormone. The human brain releases it in times of stress,

when the fight-or-flight response kicks in, in order to release energy from fat, increase

heart rate, and increase muscle readiness. It also has an effect on the brain's attention

and impulsivity.

The nucleus of the locus ceruleus in the brain stem is the origin of most of the brain's

norepinephrine pathways; when stimulated, it triggers the physiological changes

associated with a stressful event. Norepinephrine-stimulated neurons project from the

locus ceruleus on paths to the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and the spinal cord.