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a g r e at e r m e a s u r e o f c o n f i d e n c e
Low Level
Measurements
Handbook
Precision DC Current, Voltage,
and Resistance Measurements
SIXTH EDITION
A G R E A T E R M E A S U R E O F C O N F I D E N C E
TA B L E OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1 Low Level DC Measuring Instruments
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................1-3
iv
3.3 Low Resistance Measurements..............................................3-16
3.3.1 Lead Resistance and Four-Wire Method ....................3-16
3.3.2 Thermoelectric EMFs and
Offset Compensation Methods ..................................3-19
3.3.3 Non-Ohmic Contacts ..................................................3-23
3.3.4 Device Heating ..........................................................3-24
3.3.5 Dry Circuit Testing......................................................3-25
3.3.6 Testing Inductive Devices ..........................................3-26
SECTION 4 Applications
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................4-2
vi
SECTION 1
Low Level DC
Measuring
Instruments
FIGURE 1-1: Standard Symbols Used in this Text
Prefixes
Symbol Prefix Exponent
y yocto- 10–24
z zepto- 10–21
a atto- 10–18
f femto- 10–15
p pico- 10–12
n nano- 10–9
µ micro- 10–6
m milli- 10–3
(none) (none) 100
k kilo- 103
M mega- 106
G giga- 109
T tera- 1012
P peta- 1015
E exa- 1018
Z zetta- 1021
Y yotta- 1024
Quantities
Symbol Unit Quantity
V volts EMF
A amperes current
Ω ohms resistance
C coulombs charge
s seconds time
W watts power
F farads capacitance
Hz cycles/s frequency
K degrees temperature
1-2 SECTION 1
1.1 Introduction
DC voltage, DC current, and resistance are measured most often with digi-
tal multimeters (DMMs). Generally, these instruments are adequate for
measurements at signal levels greater than 1µV or 1µA, or less than 1GΩ.
(See Figure 1-1 for standard symbols used in this text.) However, they don’t
approach the theoretical limits of sensitivity. For low level signals, more sen-
sitive instruments such as electrometers, picoammeters, and nanovolt-
meters must be used.
Section 1 offers an overview of the theoretical limits of DC measure-
ments and the instruments used to make them. It includes instrument
descriptions and basic instrument circuit designs. For easier reference, this
information is organized into a number of subsections:
1.2 Theoretical Measurement Limits: A discussion of both the theoretical
measurement limitations and instrument limitations for low level meas-
urements.
1.3 Instrument Definitions: Descriptions of electrometers, DMMs, nano-
voltmeters, picoammeters, source-measure units, SourceMeter® instru-
ments, low current preamps, and micro-ohmmeters.
1.4 Understanding Instrument Specifications: A review of the terminology
used in instrument specifications, such as accuracy (resolution, sensi-
tivity, transfer stability), deratings (temperature coefficient, time drift),
noise (NMRR and CMRR), and speed.
1.5 Circuit Design Basics: Describes basic circuit design for voltmeter cir-
cuits (electrometer, nanovoltmeter) and ammeter circuits (shunt amme-
ter, feedback picoammeter, high speed picoammeter, logarithmic
picoammeter).
1kV 103
input offset current1 when measuring voltage and lower input resistance
compared to more sensitive instruments intended for low level DC meas-
urements. These characteristics cause errors in the measurement; refer to
Sections 2 and 3 for further discussion of them.
Given these DMM characteristics, it’s not possible to use a DMM to
measure signals at levels close to theoretical measurement limits, as shown
in Figure 1-3. However, if the source resistance is 1MΩ or less, or if the
desired resolution is no better than 0.1µV (with low source resistance), the
signal level isn’t “near theoretical limits,” and a DMM is adequate. If better
voltage sensitivity is desired, and the source resistance is low (as it must be
because of theoretical limitations), a nanovoltmeter provides a means of
measuring at levels much closer to the theoretical limits of measurement.
With very high source resistance values (for example, 1TΩ), a DMM isn’t a
suitable voltmeter. DMM input resistance ranges from 10MΩ to 10GΩ—sev-
eral orders of magnitude less than a 1TΩ source resistance, resulting in
severe input loading errors. Also, input currents are typically many
picoamps, creating large voltage offsets. However, because of its much high-
er input resistance, an electrometer can make voltage measurements at lev-
els that approach theoretical limits. A similar situation exists for low level
current measurements; DMMs generally have a high input voltage drop
1 Input current flows in the input lead of an active device or instrument. With voltage measurements, the
input current is ideally zero; thus, any input current represents an error. With current measurements, the
signal current becomes the input current of the measuring instrument. However, some background cur-
rent is always present when no signal current is applied to the instrument input. This unwanted current
is the input offset current (often called just the offset current) of the instrument.
The source and test connections can also generate unwanted offset currents and offset voltages.
A leakage current is another unwanted error current resulting from voltage across an undesired resist-
ance path (called leakage resistance). This current, combined with the offset current, is the total error
current.
1-4 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-3: Typical Digital Multimeter (DMM), Nanovoltmeter (nVM), Nanovolt
Preamplifier (nV PreAmp), and Electrometer Limits of Measurement at
Various Source Resistances
1V 100
Noise
Voltage 1mV 10–3
nVM
1nV 10–9
nV PreAmp
1pV 10–12
10–3 100 103 106 109 1012 1015
1mΩ 1Ω 1kΩ 1MΩ 1GΩ 1TΩ 1PΩ
Source Resistance
(input burden), which affects low level current measurements, and DMM
resolution is generally no better than 1nA. Thus, an electrometer or picoam-
meter with its much lower input burden and better sensitivity will operate
at levels much closer to the theoretical (and practical) limits of low current
measurements.
1-6 SECTION 1
Coulombmeter Function
Current integration and measurement of charge are electrometer coulomb-
meter capabilities not found in multimeters. The electrometer coulombme-
ter can detect charge as low as 10fC (10–14C). It’s equivalent to an active
integrator and, therefore, has low voltage burden, typically less than 100µV.
The coulombmeter function can measure lower currents than the
ammeter function can, because no noise is contributed by internal resistors.
Currents as low as 1fA (10–15A) may be detected using this function. See
Section 2.3.8 for further details.
1-8 SECTION 1
1.3.6 The SourceMeter® Instrument
The SourceMeter instrument is very similar to the source-measure unit in
many ways, including its ability to source and measure both current and
voltage and to perform sweeps. In addition, a SourceMeter instrument can
display the measurements directly in resistance, as well as voltage and
current.
The typical SourceMeter instrument doesn’t have as high an input
impedance or as low a current capability as a source-measure unit. The
SourceMeter instrument is designed for general-purpose, high speed pro-
duction test applications. It can be used as a source for moderate to low
level measurements and for research applications.
Unlike a DMM, which can make a measurement at only one point, a
SourceMeter instrument can be used to generate a family of curves, because
it has a built-in source. This is especially useful when studying semiconduc-
tor devices and making materials measurements.
When used as a current source, a SourceMeter instrument can be used
in conjunction with a nanovoltmeter to measure very low resistances by
automatically reversing the polarity of the source to correct for offsets.
1.4.2 Accuracy
One of the most important considerations in any measurement situation is
reading accuracy. For any given test setup, a number of factors can affect
accuracy. The most important factor is the accuracy of the instrument itself,
which may be specified in several ways, including a percentage of full scale,
1-10 SECTION 1
TABLE 1-1: Specification Conversion Factors
Number of time
Portion constants to settle
Percent PPM Digits Bits dB of 10V to rated accuracy
10% 100000 1 3.3 –20 1 V 2.3
1% 10000 2 6.6 –40 100mV 4.6
0.1% 1000 3 10 –60 10mV 6.9
0.01% 100 4 13.3 –80 1mV 9.2
0.001% 10 5 16.6 –100 100 µV 11.5
0.0001% 1 6 19.9 –120 10 µV 13.8
0.00001% 0.1 7 23.3 –140 1 µV 16.1
0.000001% 0.01 8 26.6 –160 100 nV 18.4
0.000001% 0.001 9 29.9 –180 10 nV 20.7
Resolution
The resolution of a digital instrument is determined by the number of
counts that can be displayed, which depends on the number of digits. A typ-
ical digital electrometer might have 51⁄2 digits, meaning five whole digits
(each with possible values between 0 and 9) plus a leading half digit that
can take on the values 0 or ±1. Thus, a 51⁄2-digit display can show 0 to
199,999, a total of 200,000 counts. The resolution of the display is the ratio
of the smallest count to the maximum count (1/200,000 or 0.0005% for a
51⁄2-digit display).
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a measurement is the smallest change of the measured sig-
nal that can be detected. For example, voltage sensitivity may be 1µV, which
simply means that any change in input signal less than 1µV won’t show up
in the reading. Similarly, a current sensitivity of 10fA implies that only
changes in current greater than that value will be detected.
The ultimate sensitivity of a measuring instrument depends on both its
resolution and the lowest measurement range. For example, the sensitivity
of a 51⁄2-digit DMM with a 200mV measurement range is 1µV.
NIST
Standard
Secondary
Standard
Absolute
Accuracy
Measuring Relative
Instrument Accuracy
Device
Under Test
1-12 SECTION 1
Transfer Stability
A special case of relative accuracy is the transfer stability, which defines
instrument accuracy relative to a secondary reference standard over a very
short time span and narrow ambient temperature range (typically within
five minutes and ±1°C). The transfer stability specification is useful in situ-
ations where highly accurate measurements must be made in reference to a
known secondary standard.
Calculating Error Terms from Accuracy Specifications
To illustrate how to calculate measurement errors from instrument specifi-
cations, assume the following measurement parameters:
Accuracy: ±(25ppm of reading + 5ppm of range)
Range: 2V
Input signal: 1.5V
The error is calculated as:
Error = 1.5(25 × 10–6) + 2(5 × 10–6)
= (37.5 × 10–6) + (10 × 10–6)
= 47.5 × 10–6
Thus, the reading could fall anywhere within the range of 1.5V ±
47.5µV, an error of ±0.003%.
1.4.3 Deratings
Accuracy specifications are subject to deratings for temperature and time
drift, as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Temperature Coefficient
The temperature of the operating environment can affect accuracy. For this
reason, instrument specifications are usually given over a defined tempera-
ture range. Keithley accuracy specifications on newer electrometers, nano-
voltmeters, DMMs, and SMUs are usually given over the range of 18°C to
28°C. For temperatures outside of this range, a temperature coefficient such
as ±(0.005 % + 0.1 count)/°C or ±(5ppm of reading + 1ppm of range)/°C
is specified. As with the accuracy specification, this value is given as a per-
centage of reading plus a number of counts of the least significant digit (or
as a ppm of reading plus ppm of range) for digital instruments. If the instru-
ment is operated outside the 18°C to 28°C temperature range, this figure
must be taken into account, and errors can be calculated in the manner
described previously for every degree less than 18°C or greater than 28°C.
Time Drift
Most electronic instruments, including electrometers, picoammeters, nano-
voltmeters, DMMs, SMUs, and SourceMeter instruments, are subject to
changes in accuracy and other parameters over a long period of time,
whether or not the equipment is operating. Because of these changes,
instrument specifications usually include a time period beyond which the
Noise
Measuring
Instrument
HI
Signal
LO
Normal mode noise can seriously affect measurements unless steps are
taken to minimize the amount added to the desired signal. Careful shield-
ing will usually attenuate normal mode noise, and many instruments have
internal filtering to reduce the effects of such noise even further.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) specifies how well an instrument
rejects noise signals that appear between both input high and input low and
chassis ground, as shown in Figure 1-6. CMRR is usually measured with a
1kΩ resistor imbalance in one of the input leads.
1-14 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-6: Common Mode Noise
Measuring
Instrument
HI
Signal
LO Rimbalance
(usually 1kΩ)
Noise
Although the effects of common mode noise are usually less severe than
normal mode noise, this type of noise can still be a factor in sensitive mea-
surement situations. To minimize common mode noise, connect shields
only to a single point in the test system.
Noise Specifications
Both NMRR and CMRR are generally specified in dB at 50 and 60Hz, which
are the interference frequencies of greatest interest. (CMRR is often speci-
fied at DC as well.) Typical values for NMRR and CMRR are >80dB and
>120dB respectively.
Each 20dB increase in noise rejection ratio reduces noise voltage or cur-
rent by a factor of 10. For example, a rejection ratio of 80dB indicates noise
reduction by a factor of 104, while a ratio of 120dB shows that the common
mode noise would be reduced by a factor of 106. Thus, a 1V noise signal
would be reduced to 100µV with an 80dB rejection ratio and down to 1µV
with a 120dB rejection ratio.
1.4.5 Speed
Instrument measurement speed is often important in many test situations.
When specified, measurement speed is usually stated as a specific number
of readings per second for given instrument operating conditions. Certain
factors such as integration period and the amount of filtering may affect
overall instrument measurement speed. However, changing these operating
modes may also alter resolution and accuracy, so there is often a tradeoff
between measurement speed and accuracy.
Instrument speed is most often a consideration when making low
impedance measurements. At higher impedance levels, circuit settling times
become more important and are usually the overriding factor in determin-
ing overall measurement speed. Section 2.6.4 discusses circuit settling time
considerations in more detail.
VO = A (V1 – V2)
+
A
–
V1
VO
V2
COMMON
VO = A (V1 – V2)
The gain (A) of the amplifier is very large, a minimum of 104 to 105, and
often 106. The amplifier has a power supply (not shown) referenced to the
common lead.
Current into the op amp inputs is ideally zero. The effect of feedback
properly applied is to reduce the input voltage difference (V1 – V2) to zero.
VO = V2 (1 + RA/RB)
Thus, the output voltage (VO) is determined both by the input voltage
(V2), and amplifier gain set by resistors RA and RB. Given that V2 is applied
to the amplifier input lead, the high input resistance of the operational
amplifier is the only load on V2, and the only current drawn from the source
is the very low input offset current of the operational amplifier. In many
electrometer voltmeters, RA is shorted and RB is open, resulting in
unity gain.
1-16 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-8: Voltage Amplifier
+
A
–
RA
V2
VO
V1 RB
VO = V2 (1 + RA/RB)
Nanovoltmeter Preamplifier
The same basic circuit configuration shown in Figure 1-8 can be used as an
input preamplifier for a nanovoltmeter. Much higher voltage gain is
required, so the values of RA and RB are set accordingly; a typical voltage
gain for a nanovoltmeter preamplifier is 103.
Electrometer and nanovoltmeter characteristics differ, so the opera-
tional amplifier requirements for these two types of instruments are also
somewhat different. While the most important characteristics of the elec-
trometer voltmeter operational amplifier are low input offset current and
high input impedance, the most important requirement for the nanovolt-
meter input preamplifier is low input noise voltage.
+
IIN A
–
RA
RS V2
VO
V1 RB
VO = IIN RS (1 + RA/RB )
Feedback Ammeter
In this configuration, shown in Figure 1-10, the input current (IIN) flows
through the feedback resistor (RF). The low offset current of the amplifier
(A) changes the current (IIN) by a negligible amount. The amplifier output
voltage is calculated as:
VO = –IINRF
Thus, the output voltage is a measure of input current, and overall sen-
sitivity is determined by the feedback resistor (RF). The low voltage burden
(V1) and corresponding fast rise time are achieved by the high gain op amp,
which forces V1 to be nearly zero.
FIGURE 1-10: Feedback Ammeter
RF
IIN
–
A
Input V1 +
VO Output
VO = –IINRF
1-18 SECTION 1
Picoammeter amplifier gain can be changed as in the voltmeter circuit
by using the combination shown in Figure 1-11. Here, the addition of RA
and RB forms a “multiplier,” and the output voltage is defined as:
VO = –IINRF (1 + RA/RB)
RF
I IN
–
A
+
RA
V1
VO
RB
VO = –IIN RF (1 + RA/RB )
Logarithmic Picoammeter
A logarithmic picoammeter can be formed by replacing the feedback resis-
tor in a picoammeter with a diode or transistor exhibiting a logarithmic volt-
age-current relationship, as shown in Figure 1-13. The output voltage (and
the meter display) is then equal to the logarithm of the input current. As a
result, several decades of current can be read on the meter without chang-
ing the feedback element.
CF
RF R1
C1
–
A
IIN +
VO
–
A
IIN +
VO
1-20 SECTION 1
Using a small-signal transistor in place of a diode produces somewhat
better performance. Figure 1-14 shows an NPN transistor and a PNP tran-
sistor in the feedback path to provide dual polarity operation.
1000pF
–
A
+
Input
Output
CF
–
A
+
VO
1-22 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-17: High Resistance Measurement Using External Voltage Source
VS
RX RX =
I
HI
VS I
LO
Electrometer
Picoammeter
VS
I = VS/R
V1 = I RX
R I
–
A
+
VO
RX CS V1
Figure 1-19 shows a modification of the circuit in Figure 1-18 in which the
HI input node is surrounded with a guard voltage from the operational
amplifier output. The amplifier has unity gain, so this guard voltage is vir-
tually the same potential as V1 and the capacitance (CS) of the input cable is
largely neutralized, resulting in much faster measurements of resistances
greater than 10GΩ.
VS
I = VS/R
V1 = I RX
R I
–
A
+
VO
RX CS Guard V1
The guarded mode also significantly reduces the effect of input cable
leakage resistance, as discussed in Section 2.4.2.
1-24 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-20: High Resistance Measurement Using External Current Source with
Electrometer Voltmeter
HI
External
Current I RX V1 LO
Source
Electrometer
Voltmeter
V1 = I RX
– ×1 Output
A
+
HI
I RX V1 VO
DMM
LO
Constant-Current Source
with Buffered ×1 Output VO ≈ V1 = I RX
SENSE HI – SENSE LO
RX = RREF · __________________________
REF HI – REF LO
Ref HI
R REF VREF
R1 Input HI Ref LO
RS
R2 Sense HI Sense HI
Four-wire
RX connection
only VSENSE
R3 Sense LO Sense LO
RS
R4 Input LO
VSENSE
R X = RREF
VREF
R 1, R 2, R 3, R 4 = lead resistance
1-26 SECTION 1
Micro-ohmmeter
The micro-ohmmeter also uses the four-wire ratiometric technique, which
is shown in Figure 1-23. It doesn’t have the internal resistors (RS), as in the
DMM, so all four leads must be connected to make a measurement. Also,
the terminals that supply test current to the unknown resistance are labeled
Source HI and Source LO.
Ref HI
RREF VREF
R1 Source HI Ref LO
R2 Sense HI Sense HI
RX VSENSE
R3 Sense LO Sense LO
R4 Source LO
VSENSE
RX = RREF ·
VREF
The pulsed drive mode, shown in Figure 1-24, allows the micro-
ohmmeter to cancel stray offset voltages in the unknown resistance being
measured. During the measurement cycle, the voltage across the unknown
resistance is measured twice, once with the drive voltage on, and a second
time with the drive voltage turned off. Any voltage present when the drive
voltage is off represents an offset voltage and will be subtracted from the
voltage measured when the drive voltage is on, providing a more accurate
measurement of the resistance.
The dry circuit test mode, shown in Figure 1-25, adds a resistor across
the source terminals to limit the open-circuit voltage to less than 20mV. This
prevents breakdown of any insulating film in the device being tested and
gives a better indication of device performance with low level signals. The
meter must now measure the voltage across this resistor (RSH), as well as the
voltage across the reference resistor and the unknown resistor. See Section
3.3.5 for more information on dry circuit testing.
Ref HI
RREF VREF
R1 Source HI Ref LO S1
R2 Sense HI Sense HI
RX VX VSENSE
VOS
R3 Sense LO Sense LO
R4 Source LO
VSENSE 1 – VSENSE 2
RX = RREF ·
VREF
Ref HI
RREF VREF
R1 Source HI Ref LO
Sense HI
R2 Sense HI Shunt HI
Sense LO
R4 Source LO
VSENSE
RX =
VREF VSH
RREF RSH
1-28 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-26: Typical Digital Electrometer
Volts
Ohms A/D
Converter
HI
–
A Ranging 2V Analog
Input Amplifier Output
+
Zero
LO Check
Preamp
Output
Guard
Output
Volts, Ohms
Amps, Coulombs
AC AC Digital
Attenuator Converter Display
AC AC Digital
Output
DC DC DC A/D Ports
HI
Attenuator Converter (IEEE-488,
RS-232,
Ohms Ohms Ethernet)
Amps
Ohms Precision
Converter Reference
INPUT
Precision
Shunts
LO
Range
Switching
Low-Noise
Preamplifier
Display
HI A/D
Converter
DCV Input
IEEE-488,
RS-232
LO
Offset
Compensation
Microprocessor
1-30 SECTION 1
In order to cancel internal offsets, an offset or drift compensation cir-
cuit allows the preamplifier offset voltage to be measured during specific
phases of the measurement cycle. The resulting offset voltage is subse-
quently subtracted from the measured signal to maximize measurement
accuracy.
Once the preamplifier amplifies the signal, it’s converted to digital
information by the A/D converter. Digital data is then sent to the display and
the IEEE-488 interface.
SMUs
The SMU provides four functions in one instrument: measure voltage, meas-
ure current, source voltage and source current. Generally, such instruments
can simultaneously source voltage and measure current or simultaneously
source current and measure voltage.
When configured to Source I and Measure V (as shown in Figure 1-29),
the SMU will function as a high impedance current source with voltage
measure (and voltage limit) capability.
Selecting either local or remote sense determines where the voltage
measurement will be made. In local sense, the voltage is measured at the
output of the SMU. In remote sense, the voltage is measured at the device
under test, eliminating any voltage drops due to lead resistance.
The driven guard (×1 Buffer) ensures that the Guard and Output HI ter-
minals are always at the same potential. Proper use of Guard virtually elim-
inates leakage paths in the cable, test fixture, and connectors. When config-
ured to Source V and Measure I (as shown in Figure 1-30), the SMU will
function as a low impedance voltage source with current measure (and cur-
rent limit) capability.
SourceMeter Instrument
Like an SMU, a SourceMeter instrument can source current, source voltage,
measure current and measure voltage. However, the SourceMeter instru-
ment also has a sixth terminal, guard sense, which allows making more
accurate measurements of networks. When configured to source current as
shown in Figure 1-31, the SourceMeter unit functions as a high impedance
current source with voltage limit capability and it can measure current, volt-
age, or resistance.
For voltage measurements, the sense selection (two-wire local or four-
wire remote) determines where the measurement is made. In local sense,
voltage is measured at the IN/OUT terminals of the instrument. In four-wire
remote sense, voltage is measured directly at the device under test using the
Sense terminals. This eliminates any voltage drops due to lead resistance.
When configured to source voltage as shown in Figure 1-32, the
SourceMeter instrument functions as a low impedance voltage source with
current limit capability and it can measure current, voltage, or resistance.
×1 Guard
Buffer
Output HI
Guard
Local
Sense HI
Remote
Guard
I Source V Meter
Remote
Sense LO
Local Output LO
Output LO
I Meter Output HI
Guard
Local
Sense HI
Remote
Measur e Guard
Output
V Sour ce V Meter
Adjust
V Sour ce
(Feedback) Remote
Sense LO
Local Output LO
Output LO
1-32 SECTION 1
Sense circuitry is used to monitor the output voltage continuously and
adjust the V Source as needed.
+
×1 Guard
–
Guard Sense
I Meter In/Out HI
Local
Sense HI
Remote
I Source V Meter
Remote
Sense LO
Local
In/Out LO
+
Guard
–
Guard Sense
I Meter In/Out HI
Local
Sense HI
Remote
Sense
Output
V Source V Meter
Adjust
V Source
(Feedback)
Remote
Sense LO
Local
In/Out LO
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6th Edition
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a g r e at e r m e a s u r e o f c o n f i d e n c e