Question 1:-What are steps in PCM Modulation and explain PCM Frame Structure.

Answer:- Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the
standard form of digital audio in computers, Compact Discs, digital telephony and other digital audio
applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the analog signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, and
each sample is quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps

The following processing steps are required to build a PCM Signal

 Filtering

• Sampling

• Quantization

• Encoding

• Line Coding

 FILTERING

Filters are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band 300-3400 Hz.

 SAMPLING

The process of generating pulses of zero width and of amplitude equal to the instantaneous amplitude of
the analog signal. The no. of pulses per second is called “sampling rate”.

 QUANTIZATION

It is the process of dividing the maximum value of the analog signal into a fixed no. of levels in order to
convert the PAM into a Binary Code. The levels obtained are called “quantization levels”. The sample is
quantified in 256 levels in 30 channel PCM.

A digital signal is described by its ‘bit rate’ whereas analog signal is described by its ‘frequency range’.

*Bit rate = sampling rate x no. of bits / sample.

 ENCODING

Conversion of quantized analogue levels to binary signal is called encoding. To represent 256 steps, 8 level code
is required. The eight bit code is also called an eight bit "word".

The 8 bit word appears in the form

P ABC WXYZ

Polarity bit ‘1’ Segment Code Linear encoding

for + ve 'O' for - ve. in the segment

The first bit gives the sign of the voltage to be coded. Next 3 bits gives the segment number. There are 8 segments
for the positive voltages and 8 for negative voltages. Last 4 bits give the position in the segment. Each segment
contains 16 positions. Referring to Fig.8, voltage Vc will be encoded as 1 111 0101.
  PCM Frame Structure

TS0: Synchronization.

TS1: Signalling.

Bits/Time slot = 8

Total number of bits in the PCM frame = 8 * 32

Data rate of the frame = 256/125µs

= 2.048Mbit/s

Time taken for one slot = 125/32

= 3.9µs

Data rate of a slot = 8/3.9 µs

= 64kBit/s

This gives a PCM frame of 32 time slots (each with 64Kbit/s rate) at a data rate of

2.048Mbit/s where time slot 0 is used for synchronizing while time slot 16 is used for

Signaling.

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Question 2: Write PDH bit rate hierarchy for European standard.

 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

 a technology used in telecommunications network to transport large quantity of data over digital transport equipment such
as fiber optic and microwave radio wave systems.

 the term “plesiochronous” is derived from greek plesio which means near, and chronous, time.

 it means that pdh networks run in a state where different parts of the network are almost, but not quite perfectly
synchronised

PDH BIT RATES (European standard):

 The basic data rate is 2.048 Mbps

 E1- 2048 Kbps (2Mb) [30 Voice Channel]

 E2- 8448 Kbps (8Mb) [120 Voice Channel]

 E3- 34368 Kbps (34Mb) [480 Voice Channel]

 E4- 139264 Kbps (140Mb) [1920 Voice Channel]

Question 4 : What is SDH? draw a multiplexing structure of SDH and explain Frame of SDH.
SDH-Synchronous Digital Hierarchy:

 SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network.

 SDH is a synchronous digital transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and flexible telecom infrastructure.

 This is the information structure used to support information payload and overhead information organized in a block frame
structure which repeats every 125 micro seconds

 The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte
interleaved.

Multiplexing Structure:

 The multiplexing principles of SDH follows these terms

 Mapping - A process used when tributaries are adapted into Virtual Containers (VCs) by adding justification bits
and Path Overhead (POH) information.

 Aligning - This process takes place when a pointer is included in a Tributary Unit (TU) or an Administrative Unit
(AU), to allow the first byte of the Virtual Container to be located.

 Multiplexing - This process is used when multiple lower-order path layer signals are adapted into a higher-order
path signal, or when the higher-order path signals are adapted into a Multiplex Section.

STM-1 frame structure :

 A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s is defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.707

 It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270 columns.

• The order of transmission of information is first from left to right and then from top to bottom

• The first 9 bytes in each row are for information and used by the SDH system itself. This area is divided into 3 parts

Regenerator Section Overhead(RSOH)

Multiplex Section Overhead(MSOH)
Pointers
SDH Frame Structure:

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Question 5: What are the different network elements of SDH network and explain NMS

Answer :

>> Elements of SDH

 Container (C)

Input is PDH, Provides justification for PDH signals, Output is synchronous

 Virtual Container (VC)

35 BYTES - ONE 2MB

 Tributary Unit (TU)

When pointer is added to the virtual container ,it is called tributary unit ( ONE 2 MB)

 Tributary Unit Group (TUG)

Tributary Unit CONTAINS -ONE 2 MB, TUG CONTAINS THREE TU each unit 2MB

 Administrative Unit (AU)

AU POINTER IS ADDED TO THE VC

 Administrative Unit Group (AUG)

SOH BYTES ARE ADDED, 270C X 9R

 Synchronous Transport Module - N (STM – N)

Network Management System (NMS):

Network Management Systems (NMS) is concerned with the network as a whole (or, at least, one large area of the
network). An NMS will typically provide access to all the functionality of an NEM, either directly connecting to devices
itself or by interfacing to the NEM. Where the NMS improves on the NEM is in providing a more complete view of how
devices work together to carry traffic and services across the network.

The NMS can display configured service routes and simplifies the process of configuring new routes across multiple
devices. An NMS simplifies the task of introducing new devices which will often require ‘neighboring’ devices to be
reconfigured.

Many NMS incorporate Configuration Management and Security Management capabilities in a single application.

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Question 6 : What are the different types of Optical Fiber and explain steps in fiber splicing by fusion splicing
method.

Answer :

 Single Mode Fibre:

Single mode fibre is optical fibre that is designed to carry a single signal at a time. It is used mainly for long distance signal
transmission
 Multimode Fibre :
In optical fibre technology, multimode fibre is optical fibre that is designed to carry more than one signal at a time. Each
carries multiple rays or modes concurrently, each at a slightly different reflection angle with the optical fibre core.
Multimode fibre transmission is used for relatively short distances because the modes tend to disperse over longer lengths.
Commonly used for hauling traffic over short distances, such as within a building.

Fusion Splicing :

Fusion splicing is the process of fusing or welding two fibers together usually by an electric arc. Fusion splicing is the most widely
used method of splicing as it provides for the lowest loss and least reflectance, as well as providing the strongest and most reliable
joint between two fibers.

>>Preparing the Fiber:

This includes stripping away the protecting coatings, including sheath, jacket and cladding.When the fiber contains only the bare
glass, they are precisely cleaned. Here, cleaning is extremely important even minute dust or dirt particle can ruin the whole process.

Cleaving :

The next step involves cleaving the fiber. As the word refers, cleaving is not cutting. Instead, it implies scoring the fiber with the use
of a cleaver and then flexing or pulling it till it breaks. The process of cleaving is also crucial as a faulty cleave can ruin a good splice,
whereas a proper cleave will lead to a good splice.
>>Fusing the Fibers :

Now, when the process of cleaving is complete, the next step is fusion of the fibers. This process involves two steps, namely aligning
and heating. The process of alignment can be automatic or manual, three-dimensional or fixed. This is usually done with the help of
a viewer which enhances of magnifies the images of the fiber ends. Thus, they can be effectively positioned. The normal devices
used for magnifying are optical power meters, viewing scopes and video cameras. In the process of alignment, the two ends of the
fibers are perfectly matched to ensure that the light can easily pass from one fiber to the other with minimal loss, distortion or
reflection. Once the process of alignment is complete, they are then burned or fused together via generation of a high voltage
electric arc. It melts the fiber tips and thereby the fibers are fused together.

>>Protecting the Splice:

Finally, for the completion of splice, numerous splice protection techniques can be utilized, namely self-hardening silica, mechanical
protectors and heat shrink coverings.

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Question 7:-Explain VLSM scheme with example.

Answer:-

>>Variable Length Subnet Mask:-

Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) extends classic Subnetting. VLSM is a process of breaking down subnets into the smaller subnets, according
to the need of individual networks. In below example company has requirement of 4 subnets and 250 host addresses. With VSLM you can fulfill
this requirement.

>>VLSM Subnetting:-

In VLSM Subnetting, we do Subnetting of subnets according the network requirement.

*Steps for VLSM Subnetting:-

1)Find the largest segment. Segment which need largest number of hosts address.

2)Do Subnetting to fulfill the requirement of largest segment.

3)Assign the appropriate subnet mask for the largest segment.

4)For second largest segments, take one of these newly created subnets and apply a different, more appropriate, subnet mask to it.

5)Assign the appropriate subnet mask for the second largest segment.

6)Repeat this process until the last network.

Example : we have a Network-192.168.0.0/22 and we want to devide this in to 4 networks.can be done as per below

Address in binary : 192.168.000000|00|.|00000000|

. ↓ ↓
. VLSM sbnet Host bits

1st address - 192.168.00000000.0 - 192.168.0.0/24

2nd address - 192.168.00000001.0 - 192.168.1.0/24

3rd address - 192.168.00000010.0 - 192.168.2.0/24

4th address - 192.168.00000011.0 - 192.168.3.0/24

Question 8:- What are the different types of routing? Explain each type in detail.
Answer:-

>>Routing:-Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic and route is the path to send the network
traffic.

>>There are two types of routing:-

1)STATIC ROUTING

2)DYNAMIC ROUTING

*Static Routing:-A static route is a route that is manually configured on the router. Simply we can say a static route is a route that is created
manually by a network administrator.

The information about the networks that are directly connected to the active router interfaces are added to the routing table initially and they are
known as connected routes.The second way that the router can learn static routes are by configuring the routes manually.AD value for static is 1.

*Dynamic Routing:-Dynamic routes are routes that a router learns by using a routing protocol. Routing protocols will learn about routes from other
neighboring routers running the same routing protocol.Dynamic routing protocols share network numbers a router knows about and how to reach
these networks.Through this sharing process, a router can learn about all of the reachable network numbers in the network.

IP route command is used to configure the static route. Static routes are the most secure way of routing. They will also increase overall network
performance. These features are extremely helpful in small network.

IP route command and parameters explained:- We have two commands to configure the static route.

Router(config)# ip route destination_network_# [subnet_mask] IP_address_of_next_hop_neighbor [administrative_distance] [permanent]

Or

Router(config)# ip route destination_network_# [subnet_mask] interface_to_exit [administrative_distance] [permanent]

>>Example Of static routing:-

Router(config)#ip route 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.2.1

ip route ->identifies the static route command

172.16.1.0 -> specifies a static route to the destination subnet

255.255.255.0 -> indicates th subnet mask

172.16.2.1 -> specifies the IP address of the next-hop router in the path to the destination

>>Dynamic Routing:-

two major type of routing protocols are as follows

1)interior gateway protocols (IGP) : used to exchange routing information within an autonomous system. RIP, IGRP, EIGRP and OSPF are
examples of IGP

2)Exterior gateway protocols(EGP) : used to exchange routing information between autonomous systems. BGP is example of an EGP.

>>OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): -- is the most popular dynamic routing protocol in use today. It is an open protocol, so that any router or server
operating system can run OSPF. OSPF selects the best route using "cost" as its metric. OSPF is a full-featured routing protocol and can be complex,
but it can also scale to any size of network.AD value for OSPF is 110.

>>EIGRP – (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a Cisco proprietary protocol. Only Cisco devices run EIGRP. combines best of distance
and link-state features.EIGRP has some great features like backup routes, flexibility in summarization, supports unequal cost load-balancing. and
it's simple to configuration. With EIGRP, the metric used to select the best route is calculated using a formula that takes into account the
bandwidth, reliability, load and delay of the link. AD value for EIGRP is 90.

>>RIP (Routing Information Protocol) Version 2 -- is also an open source protocol. Version 2 of RIP is what you should use today as it provides
support for VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask). RIP is the simplest and easiest routing protocol to configure, but it also has fewer features than
OSPF and is limited to routing for a network with fewer than 15 hops. RIP works very well for a small network that doesn't plan on growing large,
however. Another great thing about RIP is that it is commonly supported by even small routers and firewalls.AD value for RIP is 120.

>>BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is the routing protocol of the Internet. BGP is an Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP). What that means is that BGP is
used by routers that make routing decisions on the Internet.BGP runs on top of TCP, TCP is used for reliable connection.BGP is Technically a
'distance vector' protocol, but most call it's a 'path-vector' protocol, and it selects the best route, unlike other routing protocols. BGP uses the
Attributes (AS-PATH,Next-hop,origin,local preferance and Weight...so on) as its routing metric and would select the route that has the shortest
path through the Internet. AD value for BGP internal 200 & external 20.

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Question 9 : Explain features of IPv6 and compare it with IPv4

Answer :

IP version 6 (IPv6) is a new version of the Internet Protocol, designed as the successor to IP version 4, implemented under RFC - 2460

>>Rule no 1 : Eliminate group of consecutive zeros

>>Rule no 2 : drop all leading zeros

An example of these rules:

Initial address: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:8329

After removing all leading zeroes in each group: 2001:db8:0:0:0:ff00:42:8329

After omitting consecutive sections of zeroes: 2001:db8::ff00:42:8329

Type of communications and Addresses :

>Unicast : it's just one-to-one host communication same as IPv4

>Multicast : communication from one-to-many(Group of nodes), same as IPv4

>Anycast : This is the new feature in IPv6, used to send packets to any one of the group of nodes (one-to-near group of hosts)

**No Broad cast in IPv6

>link-local scope address : A link-local address is derived from the MAC address of the interface and the prefix fe80::/10. This is layer-2 domain
auto generated by clients/hosts. similar to the IPv4 address 169.254.x.x.

>Unique/site : local scope address which is assigned to organization

>Global scope address : A global unicast address is simply what we call a public IP address in IPv4, The first three bits are set to 001. Thus, the
address prefix of a global IPv6 address is 2000::/3

IPv6 Features ::

1. Larger Address Space

IPv6 increases the IP address size from 32 bits to 128 bits, to support more levels of addressing hierarchy, a much greater number of
addressable nodes, and simpler auto-configuration of addresses. The scalability of multicast routing is improved by adding a "scope" field to
multicast addresses.

2. Simplified Header :

Some IPv4 header fields have been dropped or made optional, to reduce the common-case processing cost of packet handling and to limit
the bandwidth cost of the IPv6 header.

3. End-to-end Connectivity:
 Every system now has unique IP address and can traverse through the Internet without using NAT or other translating components. After IPv6
is fully implemented, every host can directly reach other hosts on the Internet.

4. Faster Forwarding/Routing :

Simplified header puts all unnecessary information at the end of the header. The information contained in the first part of the header is
adequate for a Router to take routing decisions, thus making routing decision as quickly as looking at the mandatory header.

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Question 10 : Explain MPLS header with structure and details

Answer:

MPLS : MPLS is a packet-forwarding technology which uses labels in order to make data forwarding decisions.

Label : A label is a short 4-byte, fixed-length, locally-significant identifier which is used in order to identify a Forwarding Equivalence Class (FEC). The
label which is put on a particular packet represents the FEC to which that packet is assigned.

MPLS Header format (4 Bytes):

0-20(20 bits) Label

20-22(3 bits) Experimental Bits (QoS) or Traffic Class (TC) field.

23(1 bit) BoS (Bottom of Stack bit)

24-31(8 bits) Time to Live (TTL)

Label Numbering:

MPLS label field has an addres space of 1,048,576 labels.

Labels 0 - 15 are reserved by IETF and can not be used for dynamic label binding (see below).

Labels 16 - 100,000 are is the default range used by Cisco.

Reserved labels 0 - 15 have a special meaning on LSR routers.

Label 3 - Implicit NULL (Penultimate Hop Popping) - the egress LSR tells the neighboring LSR to pop the topmost label before forwarding to the
egress LSR. This also removes the EXP (QoS) value which may not be ideal when using MPLS DiffServ Tunneling. The benefit of doing implicit NULL is
that egress LSR does not have to lookup label, strip it and then lookup IP forwarding. It is a performance improvement.

Label 0 - Explicit Null (IPv4) - the egress LSR tells the neighboring LSRs to forward the packet keeping the explicit null label (0). The egress router
strips the label, paying attention to the QoS value, looks up the IP forwarding, without doing a lookup on the label. The biggest advantage of
explicit null is transferring the QoS information.

Label 2 - Explicit Null (IPv6) - same as with label 0 but for IPv6.

Label 1 - Router Alert - label that informs the LSR to look at the packet using software instead of forwarding in hardware. This is mainly used for
traceroute or other management features.

Experimental Bits:

The Experimental bit is not really experimental, but used for QoS similarly like the Class of Service field. the EXP bit has been renamed to Traffic
Class field. TC name is not uses widely.

Bottom of the Stack:

BoS is a field that is set to 1 for the last MPLS header.For example with MPLS VPN the VPN label will have BoS set to 1, which tells the MPLS
router to process the embedded transport protocol. This bit is also referred to as S-bit in some literature.
TTL:

Just like in IP header, the TTL field is used to prevent infinite forwarding loops of MPLS frames.Max value is 255.The TTL field can be used for
path tracking like MPLS Traceroute.

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Question 11 : What alternatives are there to implement VPN over MPLS?

MPLS is capable of providing secure and reliable connection for costumers through Multi-Protocol Label Switching Virtual Private Network (MPLS
VPN).MPLS technology is being used widespread in the Service Provider (SP) networks for the deployment of residential, business, and mobile
services.

A VPN is a private network over a public or shared network in such a way as they are directly connected. In VPN, different features like
management, security etc of a private network can be attained over a public network. In VPN different sites of costumers are connected but they
are inaccessible from others costumer’s sites. The VPN normally is used for one company and then several sites of that company to be connected
through the common/ public service provider network. The advantage of VPNs is to allow remote locations of different costumers to be securely
connected over a public networks, and hence the costumer do not need to buy dedicated network lines.

>>BGP/MPLS VPN (RFC 2547bis)

>>Setting up LSP for VPN - Design Alternative Studies

Interworking of LDP / RSVP / VPN protocols

Interoperability in heterogeneous IP network

>>MPLS VPN Deployment Issues

Scalability

VPN security

Load sharing between PE-CE links

>>MPLS VPN network management

Provisioning

Performance

Fault Management

>>MPLS VPN: Deliver network based VPN services over shared IP network.

>>Security: Controlled access. VRF - “VPN Routing and Forwarding” tables, contains customer VPN routes. VPNs are isolated.

>>Scalability: Provider backbone (P) routers are not VPN aware, Provider Edge (PE) router only holds the routing information of VPN directly
connected.

>>Customer addresses can overlap. Support non-unique, private (RFC1918) addressing in customer networks.

>>Easy configuration for customers, no special changes required on customer side (for Enterprise VPN).

Configuration::

• IGP (e.g. OSPF, or ISIS) routing in the core

• MPLS (e.g. LDP) enabled for all P and PE

• MP-iBGP fully meshed between PEs

• PE-CE can be e-BGP, OSPF, RIP, EIGRP or Static