Description and Analysis of Cored

Hydraulic Fractures-Lost Hills Field,

Kern County, California
R.E. Fast. SPE, A.S. Murer. and R.S. Timmer. Mobil E&P U.S. Inc.

Summary. An inclined observation well was drilled in shallow (2,000 ft) Opal-A diatomite. Seven sand-propped hydraulic fractures were
cored and recovered. The hydraulic fractures were found within 5· of the azimuth measured with tiltmeters and were tilted 15· from verti-
cal, oriented perpendicular to the formation bedding dip. Hydraulic fracture widths ranged from less than one sand grain (40/60 mesh) to
0.4 in. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examination of fracture faces showed no damage to the matrix from proppant embedment
or compaction, and no evidence of guar residue was detected in the proppant pack or on the formation face. Fractures appear to be consider-
ably longer than modeled. Three closely spaced fractures are interpreted to be branches of a single hydraulic fracture treatment. This paper
presents a description of the fractures recovered during coring in Well 002. Findings related to fracture dimensions and orientations, frac-
ture sources, fracture permeability measurements, and fracture characteristics (proppant embedment, presence of gel residue) are pre-
sented. Implications related to field development are discussed.

Introduction
The Lost Hills field is 45 miles northwest of Bakersfield, CA, along
the western margin of the San Joaquin basin in Kern County,
California. Although oil and gas production from OpaJ-A diatomite
dates back to 1913, it was the implementation of hydraulic fractur-
ing in 1976 that spurred exploitation.! The successful application of
hydraulic fracturing in Opal-A diatomite at Lost Hills quickly
spread to other fields with similar reservoirs (e.g., South and North
Belridge), greatly improving economics and accelerating develop-
ment.
In the mid-1980's, it became evident that the tightly spaced (as
low as 5/12-acre well spacing) development of these highly com-
pressible, low-permeability reservoirs caused reservoir compaction
and subsidence. Since 1985, shear failure of well casings associated
with subsidence caused the loss of more than 100 wells in the adja-
cent South Belridge field. 2 It was recognized that reservoir pressure
support would be required to reduce subsidence and well failure and
to allow economical reserve development.
Mobil's first pressure-maintenance water injection program in di-
atomite began in 1991 at the Lost Hills One Fee. Current develop-
ment at this property includes infill drilling of producing wells to
1.25-acre spacing and implementation of pressure-maintenance
water injection on 2.5-acre, five-spot patterns, aligned along in-
duced fracture azimuth. All production and injection wells are com-
pleted in three or four separate hydraulic fracture stages. Hydraulic
fracturing, which makes up about 50% of total well cost, is impor-
tant from the standpoint of pressure-maintenance water injection
and associated incremental oil recovery.3 The dimensions, geome-
try, and conductivity of hydraulic fractures affect the displacement
efficiency, areal sweep efficiency, and vertical sweep efficiency of
water injection operations.
Table 1 provides a typical pumping schedule and associated frac-
ture design parameters used in the late 1980's. The fracture designs
and parameters given in Table 1 were generated with Mobil's 2D
fracture design model, based on Biot et al.'s4 Lagrangian methods.
Perforations (3/8-in. diameter) are spaced at 1 shot!4 to 7 ft of verti-
cal interval to achieve a limited-entry injection scheme. For model-
ing purposes, fracture height is assumed to equal perforated interval
height.
Changes in oil saturation (caused by water injection) are being
observed by logging strategically placed observation wells with
pulsed-neutron ("carbon/oxygen") tools. Fig. 1 shows a plan view
of two observation wells in a waterflood pattern surrounding injec-
tion Well 203. The wells are positioned so that one well is closer to
injection Well 203 in the fracture azimuth direction (roughly 500
east of north); thus, pattern areal sweep efficiencies can be deter-
mined. Observation Well 002 was planned to core the induced frac-
Copyright 1994 Society of Petroleum Engineers
ture of injection Well 203 to ascertain the exact position of the water
injection plane and to provide information on the nature of the hy-
draulic fracture. This observation well was drilled at a 20· deviation
from vertical, at an azimuth perpendicular to the fracture plane of
injection Well 203. Fig. 2 provides a side view.
Geologic Description
Mobil's Lost Hills One Fee is located on the southeast-plunging
nose of the Lost Hills anticline. The anticline trends northwest!
southeast, subparallel to the San Andreas fault zone to the west. Dips
along the flanks ofthe anticline are 20· on the east and 10· on the
west. Dip along the plunging crest is 5· .
The reservoir consists of 600 to 800 ft of interbedded Opal-A di-
atomite, diatomaceous shale, and diatomaceous silt of the lower
Etchegoin formation of Pliocene age. Depositional variations re-
sult in rock type differences that affect the mechanical properties
of the various lithofacies in the reservoir. A type log from Well 203
shows the variable lithology of the reservoir (Fig. 3) and the zona-
tion and nomenclature used. Rock Type 1 is a fairly clean diatomite
with >65% diatom frustules. Rock Type 2 is a shalier diatomite
with up to 35% clay content and 25% to 50% diatom content. Rock
Type 4 is a silty diatomite with up to 50% silt and fine-sand-sized
grains and less than 25% diatoms. Table 2 lists the reservoir prop-
erties of the rock types in the lower Etchegoin formation.
Careful examination of five cored wells at the Lost Hills One Fee
shows very little direct, unambiguous evidence of open natural frac-
tures in Opal-A diatomite. Healed or mineral-filled fractures are
common. These fractures appear to have formed early in the deposi-
tional history of the rock and are oriented parallel to the current
strike of the structural contours (northwest!southeast).
The stress history of the Lost Hills anticline is complex. Current
induced fracture orientations may be a combination of current stress
patterns overprinted on stress/strain geometry established during
the early formation of the anticline. The orientations of hydraulical-
ly induced fractures have been mapped with tiltmeters and the
asymmetric tube wave log (ATWL).5,6 At Lost Hills One Fee, tilt-
meter measurements have been acquired on 21 wells from 51 frac-
ture stages. The average induced fracture azimuth from these mea-
surements is roughly N50·E (Fig. 4). On the flanks of the anticline,
the induced fractures are not vertical. Rather, they are inclined at
15· from vertical, perpendicular to the dipping beds.
Experimental Program-Well 002 Design
Lost Hills One observation Well 002 was directionally drilled with
a 20· deviation along a 140· azimuth. The fracture plane from Well
203 was intersected at the midpoint of the lower Etchegoin forma-
tion. The primary reason for this midpoint target was to allow reser-
voir saturation observation on both sides of the fracture plane. A
secondary objective was to cross the fracture plane of Well 203 in

SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994 \07

 TABLE 1-TYPICAL HYDRAULIC FRACTURE DESIGN, LATE 1980'S
Lost Hills One Well 269 Hydraulic Fracturing Program
Interval: Second Stage, 2,620 to 2,400 ft,
36 perforations (3/8-in. diameter)
Cumulative
Gel Slurry Slurry Concentration Sand Rate
Stage Fluid Type (bbl) (bbl) (bbl) Ibm/gal) (Ibm) (bbllmin)
Prepad Pad Linear HPG* 100 100 100 60
Pad 30 Ibm 650 650 750 50
crosslink
30 Ibm 245 250 1,000 0.4 4,200 50
crosslink
2 30 Ibm 228 250 1,250 2.1 19,950 50
crosslink
3 30 Ibm 209 250 1,500 4.3 37,800 50
crosslink
4 30 Ibm 194 250 1,750 6.3 51,450 50
crossllink
5 30 Ibm 182 250 2,000 8.2 63,000 50
crosslink
6 30 Ibm 174 250 2,250 9.6 70,350 50
crosslink
7 30 Ibm 168 250 2,500 10.6 75,075 50
crosslink
8 30 Ibm 162 250 2,750 11.9 80,850 50
crosslink
9 30 Ibm 159 250 3,000 12.6 84,000 50
crosslink
10 30 Ibm 155 250 3,250 13.4 87,150 50
crosslink
11 30 Ibm 152 250 3,500 14.1 90,300 50
crosslink
Flush Linear HPG* 40 40 3,540 30
Total 2,818 3,540 664,125
'Hydroxypropyl guar.
Proppant = 20140-mesh Ottawa sand; average sand concentration = 7.8Ibmlgal; designed fracture half·length = 350 It; designed fracture width (at
wellbore) = 0.57 in.

Rock Type 1. Rock property data interpreted from an in-house ex-
perimental acoustic log, the stimulated mode acoustic log
(SMAL),7 suggested that Type I rock was most likely to fracture.
Observation Well 002 was cored (using 3.5-in.-ID plastic core
sleeve) from 2,157 to 2,392 ft (core depth). Drilling mud consisted
of bentonite (20 lbmlbbl), barite (35 lbmlbbl), partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide (0.75 lbmlbbl), and sodium polyacrylate (1 Ibm!
bbl). The logging program included a multipad, microresistivity log
. sued. After thorough inspection, a total of nine fractures was found
. 002
/i
to help identify any hydraulic fractures intersected by the borehole.
This log identified an additional fracture at 2,707 ft (measured
depth), outside the cored interval. Discussion of the results of this
log follows the description of the cored fractures.
Core/Fracture Examination
The entire 235 ft of core was laid out and carefully examined before
slabbing. The plastic sleeve was cut longitudinally and carefully re-
moved from the core. Drilling-mud residue was scraped from the
outer edge of the core, and visual inspection of each core section en-
(see Fig. 5). Of the nine fractures, seven contained proppant (two
were intact-Le., not separated at the fracture plane). Near the
propped fractures, the drilling-mud residue surrounding the core
contained proppant.

. Description of each fracture set follows (defined by core depth).

Table 3 gives additional data .

.. Nonpropped Fracture-2,252.7 ft. This nonpropped fracture was

. oriented perpendicular to the formation dip. This fracture may be
natural. Judging from Kulander et al. 's8 criteria, this fracture did not

/
Hydraulic Fracture Planes
, Producing Well
Injection Well
Observation Well:
.6 Surface Loca~on
X Bottomhole Location
- Wellbore Path
Fig. 1-Plan view of oriented observation Well 002.
appear to be coring-induced.
Propped Fractures-2,265.5, 2,266.5, and 2,267.0 ft. These frac-
tures were found within one 1.5-ft core section and are the closest
to each other in terms of vertical displacement. These are the only
fractures that contained 40/60-mesh sand. The fracture at 2,265.5 ft
contained only a trace of sand, which was embedded in the fracture
face. Fractures at 2,266.5 and 2,267.0 ft contained more 40/60-mesh
sand than the fracture at 2,265.5 ft but were still very narrow (esti-
mated width of less than one sand grain).

108 SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994

Nonpropped Fracture-2,289.7 ft. This fracture contained no 203
Producer ~, Producer
proppant, and no proppant was found in the surrounding driIling-
mud residue. No proppant embedment marks were observed. This 002' 001
fracture did not appear to be coring-induced.
Top Lower Etchegoin -""'-;--,4-.._
Propped Fracture-2,316.3 ft. The 20/40-mesh proppant in this
fracture was about one sand grain in width. Visual examination of
the fracture faces showed that many sand grains were fully em-
bedded in the fracture faces.

Propped Fracture-2,321.8 ft. This 1/8-in.-wide fracture con- Base Lower Etchegoin --Y---":'-;""':lJ~_~~
tained 20/40-mesh proppant. Fig. 6 shows sand grains still em-
bedded on the fracture face.
'Inclination of Well 002 exaggerated.
Propped Fracture-2,328.7 ft. One of the two fractures recov-
ered intact (both fracture faces and proppant make up one piece). Fig. 2-Schematic side view of oriented observation Well 002.
Visual measurement of the fracture width (containing 20/40-mesh
proppant) was between 118 and 3/16 in. at the edge of the core (see
Fig. 7). X-ray tomography measurements of fracture width showed
a maximum thickness of 0.35 to 0.42 in. near the core center. After
tomography, this sample was carefully wrapped in cellophane and
core protection wrap and placed in refrigerated storage, pending
preparation for flow testing.

Propped Fracture-2,368.4 ft. This was the second fracture re-

covered partially intact. Although much of the fracture was intact,
some rock matrix near the fracture disintegrated, providing samples
for SEM analysis. Fig. 8 is an SEM photograph of proppant on the
fracture face. Through visual measurement, the fracture width was
estimated to be 0.04 in. at the edge of the core. Fig. 9 shows an X-ray
tomogram of this fracture. Tomographic measurement of maximum
fracture width ranged from 0.09 to 0.15 in. After tomography, this
sample was preserved by wrapping it in core protection material and
placing it in refrigerated storage, pending preparation for flow test-
ing.

Logging
Well 002 was logged to determine reservoir properties with the
dual induction/spontaneous potential, lithodensity, compensated
neutron, gamma ray, electromagnetic propagation and natural gam-
ma ray spectrometry logs. To image fractures, a multipad microre-
sistivity log and an in-house tube wave reflection log were run. The
multipad microresistivity logging tool uses an array of electrodes on
four oriented pads to produce an electrical image of the borehole
wall. 9 Fig. 10 shows an azimuthal plot of the processed data from
2.324.5 to 2,327.5 ft in Well 002. In this plot, low-resistivity zones
appear dark and high-resisti vity zones appear white. Planar features
that cross the borehole obliquely will form a sinusoid on the plot
when similar features are connected between pads. In Fig. 10, bed-
ding shows up as an alternating pattern of high- and low-resistivity
events. These can be connected. as at 2,327 ft, to form a low-ampli-
tude sinusoid. The high-resistivity feature between 2,325 and 2,326
ft can be connected to form a high-amplitude sinusoid, with ampli-
tude peaks on opposite pads from those of bedding. This feature
corresponds to the propped fracture recovered in core at 2,328.7 ft
(core depth). Four of the cored propped hydraulic fractures were ob-
served with this log. The nonpropped fractures were not observed.
An additional fracture was found below the cored interval at 2,707 Fig. 3-Type log from Well 203 showing subdivision of lower
ft. Fracture azimuth and dip determined from these data match those Etchegoin into Rock Types 1, 2, and 4.
determined from tiltmeter and ATWL's of nearby wells.
The tube wave reflective log uses low-frequency tube waves to
TABLE 2-RESERVOIR PROPERTIES OF THE LOWER
provide information about fracture location, height, and conductiv- ETCHEGOIN FORMATION ROCKS
ity.l0 Although normally run through casing, the log was run open-
hole in Well 002 from 2,000 to 2.550 ft. A significant reflection on Matrix Water
the log at 2,333 ft is interpreted to correspond to propped fractures. Rock Porosity Permeability Saturation
Type ~ (md) (%)
SEM Analysis of Fractures 59 0.3 43
Samples of the separated fractures were examined to evaluate the ef- 2 54 0.2 48
fects of hydraulic fracturing on the formation and to determine
whether guar-gel residue was present. 4 48 0.4 51

SPE Production & Facilities. May 1994 109

 TcpCore

2:Y
23~

2~ 222/
23y
213/
/
y7 2r
229
22y
/ Lost Hills One Fee
2~

BBedding
o Fractures
[!] Fracture wtth
Proppant

I /
k7 22/
28/ /"
21:/

2y/~8
219/
,
h!L
" Fig. 5-Sketch of fractures in Well 002. The appearance of
Fig. 4-Tiltmeter measurements of induced fracture azimuths. fracture overlap is caused by exaggeration of the horizontal
Rose diagram widths ·show variation of azimuths between scale. Fracture overlap occurs only between the fractures at
stages. 2,266.5 and 2,267.0 ft.

SEM analysis indicated that pore sizes, clay microfabric, and diffraction and SEM with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrophotom-
shapes and appearances of diatom frustules did not vary with dis- etry. The solids in the oil were determined to be iron-rich chlorite
tance from the fracture surface. X-ray tomography performed on the (60%), quartz (30%), and pyrite (10%). These materials are present
fracture face from 2,266.5 ft substantiated the absence of porosity in the lower Etchegoin formation.
reduction adjacent to the fracture surface. Proppant embedment on
the fracture face was typically observed to be less than one-fourth
the proppant diameter. However, a few proppant grains were almost Conductivity/Permeability Testing of Intact Fractures
completely embedded in the diatomite matrix. Previous flow studies have shown that permeability damage to frac-
Residue that covered the fracture surfaces and fixed the proppant ture faces from hydraulic fracturing would be not be significant. 1
to the surfaces was determined by X-ray microanalysis to be dried However, concerns of reduced fracture permeability as a result of
drilling mud. In the fracture at 2,321.8 ft, drilling mud invaded the fracture-fluid residue and migration of formation fines do exist. To
matrix no deeper than 100 lim. White powdery materials on the sur- investigate these concerns, the permeability of the intact fractures
face of several proppant grains were identified as NaCI salt and at 2,328.7 and 2,368.4 was measured.
amorphous (or microcrystalline) silica/alumino-silicate. The maximum stabilized permeability was 14 darcies, measured
Infrared spectroscopic analysis of proppant grains and material while flowing formation crude oil at a confining stress of 100 psi.
from the surface of the fractures at 2,289.7 ft, 2,316.3 ft, 2,321.8 ft, Permeabilities as low as a few hundred millidarcies were measured
and 2,368.4 ft did not detect guar-gel residue. It is possible, howev- while flowing crude oil at confining stresses of 600 to 800 psi.
er, that any guar residue present before coring may have been Flow tests conducted on these samples showed that the relatively
washed out by drilling mud or was present below the few-percent large reservoir of rock matrix surrounding the fracture significantly
threshold of detection. affected test results. Initial permeabilities to any phase were gener-
Crude oil samples from the lower Etchegoin formation were col- ally very low. Permeability to a given phase began to increase once
lected. Suspended solids from the samples were analyzed by X-ray the saturation of that phase was established in the fracture.
TABLE 3-PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURES AND ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES ENCOUNTERED IN WELL 002
Propped Proppant Dip Young's"
Core Log TVD Width Size Angle' Rock Poisson's Modulus
Depth (ft) Depth (ft) ~ (visual) (mesh) Azimuth' (degrees) Type Ratio" (psi)
2,252.7 NI 2,210.4 0 - 1 0.3 180,000
2,265.6 NI 2,222.4 Trace 40/60 1 0.32 205,000
2,266.5 2,261.8 2,223.2 <1 grain 40/60 N60'E 75 1 0.34 215,000
2,267.0 NI 2,223.7 <1 grain 40/60 1 0.33 210,000
2,289.7 NI 2,244.2 0 - 1 0.38 270,000
2,316.3 NI 2,269.2 1 grain 20/40 2 0.33 220,000
2,321.8 2,318.0 2,274.8 1/8 in. 20/40 N53'E 71 2 0.32 200,000
2,328.7 2,325.0 2,281.0 3/16 in. 20/40 N51'E 77 2 0.34 220,000
2,368.4 2,365.0 2,317.5 0.04 in. 20/40 N55'E 75 2 0.34 260,000
Not cored 2,707.0 2,643.0 NA NA N50'E 80 2 NA NA
·Measurements derived from multipad microresistivity log.
··Values may be influenced by presence of free gas saturation.
NI;not imaged on mu~ipad microresistivitytool.

110 SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994


Fig. 6-Photograph of fracture face at 2,321.8 ft showing prop-
pant grains, proppant dimples, and drilling-mud residue.
Increases in confining stress caused significant decreases in
permeability. This phenomenon is believed to be a result of prop-
pant grain rearrangement and/or stress-induced water production
from the core matrix.
Simultaneous flow of oil and nitrogen gas through the fracture
produced dramatic permeability decreases. At a GOR of 100 ft 3lbbl,
permeability was reduced by 50%. Permeability was reduced an
additional50% when the GOR was increased to 500 ft 3lbbl. Further
increases in GOR (to 1,000 ft3lbbl) resulted in very unstable multi-
phase flow.
After flow testing was completed, the intact fractures were sepa-
rated and analyzed with X-ray diffraction and SEM. These analyses
showed the presence of chlorite and barite in the proppant pack.
Tracer Program
A tracer test was conducted to determine the sources ofthe cored hy-
draulic fractures. A radioactive tracer (1131) was injected into a spe-
cific hydraulic fracture stage of an on-azimuth well. Well 002 was
then logged with a conventional (scintillation) cased-hole gamma
ray tool to associate the cored fracture with the corresponding injec-
tion interval.
The tracer test was conducted in on-azimuth Well 203, the closest
well to Well 002 (see Fig. H). Fracture Stage 2 of203 overlaps the
interval of cored hydraulic fractures. Well 203 was converted to wa-
ter injection with Fracture Stage 2 isolated by a bridge plug immedi-
ately below and an injection packer immediately above the frac-
tured interval. Once surface injection pressure and rate were
stabilized at about 370 psig and 100 BWPD, a water injection survey
using radioactive tracer and temperature tools was run to confirm
the integrity of the injection tubing, bridge plug, and injection pack-
er. All fluid was determined to be exiting the perforations associated
SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994
Fig. 7-Propped fracture (dashed outline) and bedding at
2,328.7 ft.
Fig. B-SEM photograph of proppant on fracture face at 2,368.4
ft.
with the second fracture stage. To minimize the amount of ad-
sorption of the 1131 tracer to be injected, a sodium polyphosphate
chemical was injected ahead ofthe 1131 tracer. Four 100-mCi vials
ofI 131 were then injected into Well 203 's second fracture stage over
a I-hour period.
Continuous gamma ray logging (at 10 ft/min) of the interval from
2,450 to 2,100 ft began. Baseline cased-hole gamma ray logs run in
Well 002 showed no appreciable variation from the openhole logs.
Upon injection of about 200 bbl water (47 hours of logging), an in-
crease in gamma count rate was recognized at 2,318 ft. The count
rate at 2,318 ft continued to increase with time; after 85.9 hours, 92
API units were being detected (about 350 bbl water injected) and
logging was stopped. After 2 days of continued injection (estimated
550 total bbl of injection), Well 002 was again gamma ray logged.
The tracer spike was still present at 2,318 ft, reading 70 API units.
All gamma logs were carefully scrutinized for gamma activity
anomalies other than at 2,318 ft. No anomalies were found.
Correlation of microresistivity log depths with cored fractures re-
vealed that the gamma spike at 2,318 ft was associated with the
cored fracture depth of 2,321.8 ft.
Discussion
When observation Well 002 was planned, it was expected that a
maximum of two hydraulic fractures would be encountered. One
hydraulic fracture was expected from Well 203; there was a possibil-
ity of another hydraulic fracture from Well 250 (see Fig. 11).
Instead, eight propped (seven cored, one identified by log) and two
nonpropped hydraulic fractures were found.
III
 n •

nK.

Fig. 9-X-ray tomogram looking down the axis of the core at

2,368.4 ft. The fracture appears as the dark, nearly vertical line.
Fracture width at Traverse 1 is 0.15 In.; at Traverse 2, 0.11 In.

Tracer testing indicates that the hydraulic fracture at 2,321.8 ft is

from Well 203. Six of the seven remaining fractures are believed to
be associated with four wells (Wells 250, 269,7-1, and 200) located
on a line approximately 50· east of north. The seventh fracture iden-
tified by logging at 2,707 ft is interpreted to be associated with Well
471.
Only Well 200-4 had 40/60-mesh proppant pumped in the hy-
draulic fracture treatment (located 715 ft from Well 002). While it
is possible that, during one of the other on-azimuth well's fracture
treatment, residual 40/60-mesh sand in the sand supply was
pumped, the projected fracture azimuth from Well 200 intersects the
core at the point where the fractures containing 40/60-mesh prop-
pant were recovered. Previous work ll has shown that hydraulic
fractures can branch. Given the proximity of the three fractures
(2,266, 2,265, and 2,267 ft), that these fractures were the only ones
containing 40/60-mesh proppant, and that projection of a 53.5 ° azi-
muth line from Well 200 meets the trajectory of Well 002 at the
point where these fractures were cored, we believe that these frac-
tures are branches from the Well 200 fracture treatment.
The cored fracture at 2,328.7 ft is believed to have originated
from Well 269 (490 ft from Well 002). Extrapolation of a 52.5·
azimuth line from Well 269 intersects Well 002 at 2,329 ft. The
production history of Well 203 indicates that completion of Well
269 significantly influenced the productivity of Well 203. In April
1989, production from Well 203 suddenly increased by 25 BOPD.
According to well records, there was no remedial work or choke ad-
justments performed on Well 203 during this time period. The date
Fig. 10-Electrical image of borehole showing propped frac-
ture (2,325 ft) and bedding planes at 2,327 ft.
of this production increase corresponds to the completion date of
Well 269, indicating that fracture-io-fracture communication be-
tween Wells 203 and 269 occurred.
The cored fracture at 2,316.3 ft is thought to be from Well 250
0
(310 ft from Well 002). Projection of a N50 E line from Well 250
intersects Well 002 at approximately 2,316 ft. Production from
Well 250 increased after Well 269 was fractured, indicating that
fracture-Io-fracture communication between Wells 250 and 269 oc-
curred.
The only remaining cored fracture, at 2,368.4 ft, is believed to
originate from Well 7-1. This is the 'only remaining well that (1) is
located within 1,200 ft of Well 002, (2) is positioned within the pos-
tulated fracture azimuth window, and (3) was fractured within the
cored interval. The fracture at 2,368.4 ft is on a N58.5· E azimuth

002
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end

• Surface Location
X BoIIomhole L.ocation
•••• PaIh
I-I - - ff1Ictur. deeign IengtII
100' - - Poa8I>Ie frae1ure length

Fig. 11-ProJectlon of induced fractures from wells on trend with Well 002.

112 SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994

line from Well 7-1. Tiltmeter observations indicate that the induced
fracture azimuth rotates clockwise toward the eastern side of the
field.
Evidence that the cored fractures are sourced from wells up to 700
ft away indicates that previous assumptions in hydraulic fracture
modeling are in error. Tomographic measurements show that frac-
ture widths are reasonably close to modeled fracture widths. Frac-
tures appear to be considerably longer than modeled lengths, imply-
ing that fracture height may be less than the perforated interval
height.
To determine which lithofacies are allowing propagation of hy-
draulic fractures, micro fracture tests were conducted on 19 separate
intervals. The stress profiles generated from these tests matched the
stress profiles obtained from stimulated-mode acoustic logs.
Three-dimensional hydraulic fracture modeling studies were
conducted with the stress profiles obtained from the micro fracture
tests. These studies showed that stress variations within a given per-
forated interval are large enough to prevent fracturing of the entire
perforated interval height. Analyses of postfracture tracer logs and
tube wave reflection logs agree with these results.
Given these results, at least three possibilities exist for improving
field development: (I) modify treatment designs to treat the entire
pay zone more effectively, (2) decrease the size of the fracture treat-
ments to reduce fracture length and prevent fracture overlap, and (3)
increase the spacing between future development wells, thus reduc-
ing development costs.
Reservoir simulation studies show the highest stress intervals
(Rock Type 4) are the poorest-quality reservoir. 12 The above-men-
tioned fracture modeling studies reveal that Rock Type 4 intervals
are also the least likely to accept a hydraulic fracture. In compari-
sons of the options for improving field development, economics in-
dicate that the value of spacing wells farther apart is greater than the
value of either reducing fracture treatment size or modifying
completion designs.
Nonpropped fractures identified at 2,252.7 and 2,289.7 ft are pos-
tulated to be induced fractures generated during the fracture treat-
ment of Well 203 or by water injection in Well 203 before Well 002
was drilled. Fracturing caused by water injection may have occurred
during initiation of injection when the water hammer phenomenon
may have promoted fracture growth. 13 Another possible source for
these fractures is shear fracturing of the formation by in-situ stress
changes caused by formation compaction.1 4 Also, laboratory ob-
servations suggested that closed natural fractures tend to refracture
when exposed to water.
The effect of coring and production on the recovered fractures are
manifold and not completely understood. Drilling-mud residue con-
taining proppant grains coated the outside of the core near each
cored fracture. This proppant may have been sourced from the edges
of the cored fracture and thus may explain the differences between
visually measured fracture widths (taken at the edge of the core) vs.
fracture widths measured with tomography (taken toward the center
of the core).
Drilling-mud invasion into the intact cored fractures may have
caused substantial reduction of fracture permeability. The invasion
of minor amounts of chlorite into these fractures may have further
reduced fracture permeability. It is unclear whether the chlorite en-
tered the fractures during production and/or coring. Early-time
permeability measurements were also affected by fluid saturation
interactions between the induced fractures and the relatively large
volume of surrounding rock matrix. These fluid saturation interac-
tions suggest that standard API fracture conductivity test cells may
provide results that do not simulate actual early-time reservoir/frac-
ture interaction.
Production from this relatively soft reservoir rock would be ex-
pected to result in some embedment of proppant into the fracture
faces. As previously discussed, complete embedment of proppant
in the fracture faces was observed only to a limited extent. Because
this reservoir is also highly compactive, we can expect that, as the
formation compacts, formation material may embed in the hydrau-
lic fracture.
SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994
Conclusions
1. Seven sand-propped hydraulic fractures were cored and recov-
ered in Opal-A diatomite. Two nonpropped fractures were also re-
covered. An eighth propped hydraulic fracture was identified with
a multi pad microresistivity logging tool.
2. Hydraulic fractures were tilted 15° from vertical, oriented
nearly perpendicular to bedding. Fracture azimuths determined
from core, log, and tracer are all in agreement and are within 5° of
tiltmeter-predicted azimuths.
3. Measured widths of cored hydraulic fractures ranged from less
than one 40/60-mesh size sand grain to 0.4 in.
4. No evidence of formation damage near the fracture faces was
detected with SEM and X-ray tomography.
5. Proppant embedment in the fracture face was observed to be
typically less than one-fourth of one proppant diameter.
6. No evidence of guar-gel residue was detected on the fracture
faces.
7. Laboratory-measured permeability of the intact fractures was
significantly reduced by drilling-mud invasion and applied stress.
Early-time permeability measurements were reduced by fluid satu-
ration interactions with the surrounding rock matrix.
8. A tracer test confirmed that one cored fracture is sourced from
a well located on the expected fracture azimuth.
9. Stress profiles obtained from microfracture tests on 19 inter-
vals agree with stress profiles obtained from stimulated-mode
acoustic logs.
10. Three-dimensional hydraulic fracture modeling studies with
stress profiles generated from microfracture tests show that stress
variations between reservoir layers are great enough to prevent frac-
ture placement across an entire perforated interval. Analyses of
postfracture tracer logs and tube wave reflection logs also show that
fractures are not being placed across the entire perforated interval
height.
11. Significant improvements in field development economics
can be realized by spacing development wells farther apart, prevent-
ing wasteful hydraulic fracture overlaps.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the technical assistance of LS. Abou-Sayed, J.R.
Dixon, N.R. Hunter, A.R. Jennings, W.L. Medlin, P.S. Northrup,
J.E. Olson, J.R. Sellers, K.F. Spikes, M.K. Strubhar, L.B. Thomp-
son, L.G. Zambrano, and the Bakersfield Drilling Dept. of Mobil Oil
Corp. We thank Mobil E&P U.S. Inc. for permission to publish this
paper.
References
1. Strubhar, M.K. et at.: "Fracturing Results in Diatomaceous Earth
Formations, South Belridge Field, California," JPT (March 1984) 495.
2. Bowersox, J.R. and Shore, R.A.: "Reservoir Compaction of the Bel-
ridge Diatomite and Surface Subsidence, South Belridge Field, Kern
County, California," Structure. Stratigraphy and Hydrocarbon Occur-
rences of the San Joaquin Basin. California, J.G. Kuespert and S.A.
Reid (eds.), Pacific Section SEPM, 64, 225-230.
3. Craig, EE Jr.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Wateiflooding,
Monograph Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1971) 3, 58.
4. Biot, N.A .. Masse. L., and Medlin, W.L: "A Two-Dimensional Theory
of Fracture Propagation," SPEPE (Jan. 1986) 17; Trans., AIME, 283.
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Formations Surrounding a Cased Well," U.S. Patent No. 4,899,319
(1990).
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Surrounding a Cased Well," U.S. Patent No. 4,953,137 (1990).
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Resonance," paper SPE 24686 presented at the 1992 SPE Annual Tech-
nical Conference and Exhibition, Washington, DC, Oct. 4-7.
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sis: Interpretation, Logging, and Use of Natural and Induced Fractures
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113
11. Warpinski, N.R. et al.: "Examination of a Cored Hydraulic Fracture in
a Deep Gas Well," SPEPF (Aug. 1993) 150; Trans., AIME, 295.
12. Fast, R.E., Murer, A.S ., and Zambrano, L.G.: "Lost Hills Diatomite
Robert E. Fast is a senior reservoir engineer for Mobil E&P U.S.
Simulation Study: Predicting Waterflood Performance in a Low Perme-
Inc. in Bakersfield. He currently is assigned to the South Ellwood
field offshore California, where his responsibilities include the
ability Compacting Reservoir," paper 26627 presented at the 1993 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 3...{i.
tech~ical and economic evaluation of the Clearview extended-
reach development project. Since joining Mobil in 1987, Fast has
13. Patzek, T.W.: "Surveillance of the South Belridge Diatomite," paper
held assignments in reservoir and production engineering. He
SPE 24040 presented at the 1992 SPE Western Regional Meeting, Ba-
holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering from the U. of Tulsa.
kersfield, March 30-April 1. Anthony S. Murer is a staff geologist with Mobil's Kern Asset
14. Teufel, L.W. and Rhett, D.W.: "Geomechanical Evidence for Shear Fail- Team in Bakersfield. He joined Mobil in 1981 after earning an MS
ure of Chalk During Production of the Ekofisk Field," paper SPE 22755 degree from the U. of Arizona. He has been involved in a variety
presented at the 1991 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi- of E&P assignments and currently is working on optimizing pro-
tion, Dallas, Oct. 6-9. duction in unconventional and fractured reservoirs. Robert S.
Timmer is a geological adviser for Mobil, providing reservoir
characterization support for several fields in California. Previous
51 Metric Conversion Factors assignments include field development and characterization
throughout the central and western U.S. and Alaska. He holds a
acre x 4.046873 E-Ol = ha BS degree from the U. of Alaska and an MS degree from the U. of
bbl x l.589 873 E-Ol = m3 New Mexico, both in geology.
Ci x3.7* E+lO =Bq
ft x 3.048* E-Ol = m
ft3 x 2.831 685 E-02 = m3
in. x2.54* E+OO=cm
Ibm x 4.535 924 E-Ol = kg
mile x l.609 344* E+OO=km
psi x 6.894 757 E+OO=kPa

'Conversion factor is exact. SPEPF

Original SPE manuscript received for review Oct. 4. 1992. Revised manuscript received Jan.
19. 1994. Paper accepted for publication March 4.1994. Paper (SPE 24853) ftrst presented
at the 1992 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Washington. DC. Oct. 4-7.
Fast Murer Timmer

114 SPE Production & Facilities, May 1994