Bla

Physical, chemical and biological
Characteristics of Wastewater
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COURSE OUTLINE
1. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics 4. Attached growth biological

of wastewater treatment system
2. Fundamentals of biological wastewater treatment 5. Sludge treatment
3. Suspended growth treatment systems

Final Exam
Midterm Exam
Course Evaluation
Quiz & HM 25%

Mid term Exam 25%
Final Exam 50%
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Wastewater: is simply that part of the water supply to the community or
to the industry which has been used for different purposes and has been
mixed with solids either suspended or dissolved.
Wastewater is 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. The main task in treating
the wastewater is simply to remove most or all of this 0.1% of solids.
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Type of wastewater from household
Type of Wastewater Source of wastewater
Gray water Washing water from the kitchen, bathroom,

laundry (without faeces and urine)
Black water Water from flush toilet (faeces and urine with flush
water)
Yellow water Urine from separated toilets and urinals
Brown water Black water without urine or yellow water
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Why do we need to treat wastewater ?
• To prevent groundwater pollution
• To prevent sea shore
• To prevent soil
• To prevent marine life
• Protection of public health
• To reuse the treated effluent
For agriculture
For groundwater recharge
For industrial recycle
• Solving social problems caused by the accumulation of wastewater
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• Protecting the public health:
Wastewater contains pathogenic microorganisms lead to dangerous
diseases to humans and animals
Hazardous matter such as heavy metals that are toxic
Produces odorous gases and bad smell
• Protecting the environment:
Raw Wastewater leads to septic conditions in the environment and
consequently leads to the deterioration of surface and groundwater quality
and pollutes the soil.
Raw wastewater is rich with nitrogen and phosphorus (N, P) and leads to
the phenomena of EUTROPHICATION.
EUTROPHICATION is the growth of huge amounts of algae and other
aquatic plants leading to the deterioration of the water quality.
Raw wastewater is rich with organic matter which consumes oxygen in
aquatic environment.
Raw
6 wastewater may contains toxic gases and volatile organic matter
Physical, chemicals and biological properties
of wastewater
Characteristic Sources
Physical properties: Domestic and industrial wastes, natural decay of organic
Color materials
Odor Decomposing wastewater, industrial wastes.
Solids Domestic water supply, domestic and industrial wastes, soil
erosion, inflow infiltration
Temperature Domestic and industrial wastes
Chemical constituents:
Organic:
Carbohydrates Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Fats, oils, and grease Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Pesticides Agricultural wastes
Phenols Industrial wastes
Proteins Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Priority pollutants Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
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Surfactants Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Volatile organic compounds Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Other Natural decay of organic materials
Inorganic: Domestic wastes, domestic water supply, groundwater infiltration

Aikalinity
Chlorides Domestic wastes, domestic water supply, groundwater infiltration
Heavy metals Industrial wastes
Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes
PH Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Phosphorus Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes natural runoff
Priority polluter Sulfur Domestic water supply; doestic, commercial. And industrial wastes
Gases: Decomposition of domestic wastes

Hydrogen sulfide
Methane Decomposition of domestic wastes
Oxygen Domestic water supply , surface- water infiltration
Biological constituents: Open watercourses and treatment plants

Animals
Plants Open watercourses and treatment plants
Eubacteria Domestic wastes, surface water infiltration, treatment plants .
Archaebacteria Domestic wastes, surface-water infiltration, treatment plants
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Viruses Domestic wastes
Physical characteristics- Solids
• Solids are classified into three main types:
1. Total Solids (TS): All the matter that remains as residue upon
evaporation at 103oC to 105oC.
2. Settleable solids: Settleable solids are measured as ml/L, which is

an approximate measure of the sludge that can be removed by
primary sedimentation.
3. Suspended solids (SS) and Filterable solids (FS).
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Physical characteristics- Odor
Odor is produced by gas production due to the decomposition of organic
matter or by substances added to the wastewater.
Detection of odor: Odor is measured by special instruments such as the Portable
H2S meter which is used for measuring the concentration of hydrogen sulfide.
Chemical Formula Odor quality
Compound
Amines CH3NH2, (CH3) 3H Fishy
Ammonia NH3 Ammoniacal
Diamines NH2 (CH2)4 NH2, (CH2)5 Rotten eggs
NH2 H25
Mercaptans
(E. g, methy1 and ethy1) CH3SH, CH3 (CH2) SH Decayed cabbage

Organic sulfides Rotten cabbage
Skatole Fecal matter
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Physical characteristics- Temperature
Temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of water supply.
Depending on the geographic location the mean annual temperature
varies in the range of 10 to 21oC with an average of 16 oC.
Importance of temperature:-
Affects chemical reactions during the wastewater treatment process.
Affects aquatic life (Fish, …………).
Oxygen solubility is less in worm water than cold water.
Optimum temperature for bacterial activity is in the range of 25°C to 35
Aerobic digestion and nitrification stop when the temperature rises to 50o C.
When the temperature drops to about 15°c, methane producing bacteria
become in active.
Nitrifying bacteria stop activity at about 5°c.

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Density:-
Almost the same density of water when the wastewater doesn't include
significant amount of industrial waste.
Color:-
Fresh waste water light brownish gray.
With time dark gray
More time black (septic).
Some times pink due to algae or due to industrial colors.
Turbidity:-
It's a measure of the light – transmitting properties of water.
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Chemical characteristics of wastewater:-
Points of concern regarding the chemical characteristics of wastewater are:

-Organic matter
-Measurements of organic matter
-Inorganic matter
-Gases
-pH
Organic matter (Ca Hb Oc).
75% SS organic. (Suspended Solids)

40% FS organic. (Filtered Solids)
Organic mater is derived from animals & plants and man activities.
Proteins (40-60%).
Carbohydrates (25-50%).
Fats, Oils, and Grease (10%).
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Measurements of organic matter:-
Many parameters have been used to measure the concentration of organic

matter in wastewater. The following are the most common used methods:
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
BOD5 is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring

the dissolved oxygen used by microorganisms during the biochemical oxidation
of organic matter in 5 days at 20oC
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
It is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring

the dissolved oxygen used during the chemical oxidation of organic matter in
3 hours.
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Total organic carbon (TOC)
This method measures the organic carbon existing in the wastewater

by injecting a sample of the WW in special device in which the carbon
is oxidized to carbon dioxide then carbon dioxide is measured and
used to quantify the amount of organic matter in the WW. This method
is only used for small concentration of organic matter.
Theoretical oxygen (ThOD)
If the chemical formula of the organic matter existing in the WW is

known the ThOD may be computed as the amount of oxygen needed
to oxidize the organic carbon to carbon dioxide and a other end
products.
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Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
The following are the theoretical equations used to calculate the BOD.
The Figure shown is used to describe the change of BOD with time. From the
figure the following correlations are derived:
L0 or (BOD ultimate ) or UBOD.

Yt = BODt (BOD exerted).
Lt = L0 e-kt (BOD remain).
BODt = L0 - Lt = L0 – L0e-kt = L 0(1-e-kt)
BOD5 = L0 (1-e-k5)
K = 0.23d-1 usually, k T = k20 T-20 , = 1.047 or as given
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Example
Determine the 1-day BOD and ultimate BOD for a wastewater whose 5-
day 20 °C BOD is 200 mg/L. The reaction constant K= 0.23d-1 what would
have been the 5-day BOD if it had been conducted at 25°C?
Solution:-
• BODt = UBOD – BODr = UBOD (1-e-kt) =L 0(1-e-kt)
200 = L0 (1-e-0.23x5)
L0 = 293 mg/L (this is UBOD)
• Determine the 1-day BOD:-
BODt = L0 (l-e-kt)
BOD1 = 293 (l-e-0.23x1) = 60.1 mg/L
• Determine the 5-day BOD at 25 C:-
KT = K20 (1.047)T-20 K25 = 0.23 (1.047)25-20
BOD5 = L0 (l-e –kt ) = 293 (l-e-0.29x5) = 224 mg/L
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Theoretical Oxygen demand (ThOD): Example
Calculate the Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) for sugar C12 H22 O11
dissolved in water to a concentration of 100 mg/L. Calculate "TOC".
Solution:-
C12 H22 O11 + 12O2 12 CO2 + 11 H2O
ThOD = 12 32 gO2
1.123gO2 / g sugar
342 g sugar
ThOD = 100mg sugar 1.123gO2 10 3 mgO2 1g sugar
L g sugar 1gO2 10 3 mg sugar
ThOD = 112.3 mg O2 / L
TOC = 144 g carbon/ 342g sugar = 0.42 gc/ gs
TOC = 0.42 x 100 = 42 mg carbon/L
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Chemical Oxygen demand (COD) and Total Organic carbon (TOC)
Example:
Determine BOD5/COD, BOD5/TOC, TOC/BOD5 ratios for the following
organic compound (C5 H7 NO2). Assume "K" = 0.23d-1.
1. determine COD:-
C5 H7 NO2 + 5O2 5 CO2 + NH3 + 2H2O
Mw =113 mw =160
COD = 160/113 = 1.42 mg O2 / mg C5 H7 NO2
2. Determine the BOD5 of C5 H7 NO2:-
BOD5 = l-e -0.23x5 = 0.68
UBOD
BOD5 =0.68 UBOD but COD = UBOD
So BOD5 = 0.68XCOD = 1.42X0.68=0.97 mg BOD/mg C5 H7 NO2
3. Determine the TOC of the compound:-
TOC = 5X12/113 = 0.53 mg TOC/mg C5 H7 NO2
4. BOD5 = 0.97 = 0.68
COD 1.42
BOD5 = 0.97 = 1.82
TOC 0.53 Note: COD = THOD = UBOD This is true only when
the organic compound is assumed to be completely
TOC = 0.53 = 0.37 biodegradable
COD 1.42
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Inorganic Matter
The following are the main inorganic materials of concern in wastewater treatment:
1. Chlorides:-
• High concentrations indicate that the water body has been used for waste disposal.
• It affects the biological process in high concentrations.
2. Nitrogen:-
TKN = Total Kjeldahl nitrogen.
= Organic Nitrogen + ammonia Nitrogen (120 mg/l).
3. Phosphorus:-
• Municipal waste contains (4-15 mg/l).
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5. Toxic inorganic Compounds:-
Copper, lead, silver, chromium, arsenic, boron.
6. Heavy metals:-
Nickels, Mn, Lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc, copper, iron mercury.
Gases:-
The following are the main gases of concern in wastewater treatment:
N2, O2, CO2, H2S, NH3, CH4
pH:-
The hydrogen-ion concentration is an important parameter in both natural
waters and wastewaters. It is a very important factor in the biological and
chemical wastewater treatment. Water and wastewater can be classified as
neutral, alkaline or acidic according to the following ranges:
PH = 7 neutral.
PH > 7 Alkaline.
PH < 7 Acidic.
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Biological Characteristics:-
The environmental engineer must have considerable knowledge of the

biological of waste water because it is a very important characteristics
factor in wastewater treatment.
The Engineer should know:-
1. The principal groups of microorganisms found in wastewater.

2. The pathogenic organisms.
3. Indicator organisms (indicate the – presence of pathogens).
4. The methods used to amount the microorganisms.
5. The methods to evaluate the toxicity of treated wastewater
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Main groups of Microorganisms:-
The main microorganisms of concern in wastewater treatment are Bacteria,
Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, Viruses, and pathogenic microorganisms groups.
Bacteria:-
Types: Spheroid, rod curved rod, spiral, filamentous. Some
important bacteria:-
Pseudomonas:- reduce NO3 to N2, So it is very important in
biological nitrate removal in treatment works.
Zoogloea:- helps through its slime production in the formation of
flocs in the aeration tanks.
Sphaerotilus natuns:Causes sludge bulking in the aeration tanks.
Bdellovibrio: destroy pathogens in biological treatment.
Acinetobacter: Store large amounts of phosphate under aerobic
conditions and release it under an – anaerobic condition so, they
are useful in phosphate removal.
Nitrosomonas: transform NH4 into NO2-
Nitrobacter: transform NO2- to NO3-
Coliform bacteria:- The most common type is E-Coli or
Echerichia Coli, (indicator for the presence of pathogens).
E-Coli is measured in (No/100mL)
Fungi:
• Important in decomposing organic matter to simple forms.
Algae:
• Cause eutrophication phenomena. (negative effect)
• Useful in oxidation ponds. (positive effect)
• Cause taste and problems when decayed. (negative effect)
Protozoa:
•Feed on bacteria so they help in the purification of treated waste water.
•Some of them are pathogenic.
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Viruses:
Viruses are a major hazard to public health. Some viruses can live as long as
41days in water and wastewater at 20 oC. They cause lots of dangerous diseases.
Pathogenic organisms:
The main categories of pathogens are:-

Bacteria, Viruses, protozoa, helminthes
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Typical Wastewater Composition
Concentration
Contaminants Unit Weak Medium Strong

Solids, total (TS) mg/L 350 720 1200
Dissolved, total (TDS) mg/L 250 500 850
Fixed mg/L 145 300 525
Volatile mg/L 105 200 325
Settle able solids (SS) mg/L 100 220 350
Fixed mg/L 20 55 75
Settle able Solids mg/L 5 10 20
Biochemical oxygen demand, mg/l:
C) ْ C (BOD5,20ْ5-day, 20 mg/L 110 220 400

Total organic carbon (TOC) 80 160 290
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) mg/L 250 500 1000
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Nitrogen (total as N) mg/L 20 40 85
Organic mg/L 8 15 35
Free ammonia mg/L 12 25 50
Nitrites mg/L 0 0 0
Nitrites mg/L 0 0 0
Phosphorus (total as P) mg/L 4 8 15
Organic mg/L 1 3 5
Inorganic mg/L 3 5 10
Chloridesa mg/L 30 50 100
Sulfatea mg/L 20 30 50
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/L 50 100 200
Grease mg/L 50 100 150
Total coliformb no/100 ml 106 - 107 107 – 108 107 – 109
Volatile organic compounds Mg/L <100 100 - 400 > 400

(VOCs)
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Wastewater treatment standards
The most common WWT standards are set for the secondary treatment
effluent. The main effluent parameter are: BOD 5, TSS, pH and CBOD5.
*CBOD: (Carbonaceous BOD, from organic compounds and oxidation of inorganic compounds such as
ferrous iron)
"secondary treatment" standards in the USA.
unit Average 30-day Average 7-day
Characteristic of concentration concentration
discharge
BOD5 mg/L 30 45
TSS mg/L 30 45
pH pH units Within the range 6-9 always
CBOD5* mg/L 25 40
The standards for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus (N,P) are not included in this
table because (N) and (P) need tertiary treatment.
Removal of the coliform bacteria is also regulated according to reuse purpose:-
Fecal coliforms < 500/100 ml (disposed into recreational waters)
1000/100 <ml (for irrigations)
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Wastewater Characteristics
Wastewater Characteristics
Physical Chemical Biological
solids, temperature, color,

turbidity, salinity, odor
• Organic : carbohydrates, fats, proteins,

toxins…
• Inorganic: alkalinity, N, P, S, pH,
metals, salts…
• Gaseous : H2S, CH4, O2 …
• plants (algae, grass, etc.),

• microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses)
Solids Fractions
1 2
Settleable solids Sample Total solids
TS
2 3
4 Ash
2
Total suspended Total dissolved solids Total volatile solids
solids (TSS) (TDS) (TVS)
4
1 Settling (cylinder/cone)
2 Evaporation (105ºC)
Volatile SS Non-volatile SS
VSS 3 Filtration (glass fibre filter)
4 High temp. oxidation (550ºC)

Example: In solids analysis, the following measurements were obtained:
• Sample size: 50 mL
• After filtration/evaporation: 12 mg filter cake, 2.5mg solids in filtrate
• After high temperature oxidation: 2.0 mg filter cake
What is TSS, VSS and TS in the sample? mg/ml
Answer
TSS : 12 mg / 50 ml = 0.24 mg/ml
VSS : (12 – 2.0 mg) / 50 ml = 0.2 mg/l
TS : (12+2.5) mg /50 ml = 0.29 mg/l
Odor: very small amounts cause nuisance (eg. H2S approx. 10 ppb)
Anaerobic Respiration: Organics + SO4-2 * = H2S + odorous organics
Fermentation: Organics + Reduced Organics * = odorous organics
Temperature:
Affects treatment performance of many treatment systems.
Optimum temperature for bacterial activity is in the range of 25°C to 35
Aerobic digestion and nitrification stop when the temperature rises to 50o C.
When the temperature drops to about 15°c
Nitrifying bacteria stop activity at about 5°c
Gas eg. O2 solubility is lower at higher temperature
Salinity:
Affects ecosystems in receiving waters
Reduces O2 solubility
Restricts reuse applications (eg. irrigation)
• Colour of WW & biological treatment:
– light brown-gray => fresh, aerob
– dark brown-black => old, anaerob
• Soluble dyes (stains) also cause coloring, very difficult to remove (e.g textile)
• Turbidity measures light-transmission
– Caused by colloidal or suspended matter
– Can be correlated with suspended solids

Organic Matter
Mostly biodegradable, some very slowly
60- 75 % of TSS 25-40 % of TDS
carbohydrates proteins oil & grease organic toxins (priority Surfactants

pollutants, eg. pesticides) and dyes
Inorganic Matter
An essential nutrient for growth of bacteria
Nitrogen: from protein and urea.

NH2, NH3, NH4+ forms ammonia and organics
An essential nutrient for growth of bacteria.
Oxygen Demand: NH4+ + 2O2 = NO3- + 2 H+ + H2O
Phosphorous: phosphate (PO4-3)
Trace nutrients: S, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, K, Zn,

Mo, ……….etc
Carbohydrates
C, H, O
rapidly biodegradable slowly biodegradable
Soluble
Insoluble
sugars, alcohols, acids (VFA) starches, cellulose, fibers

Proteins
C, H, O, N (16%), S, P
Solubility varies with protein type and ww conditions (eg pH, salt conc. )
Quite rapidly biodegradable to amino acids except when insoluble
Anaerobic degradation creates H2S and other sulphur components => odor
Oil and Grease

C, H, O
Hydrophobic substances: grease, fat, oil

Mostly insoluble, floating, easily adsorbed on surfaces
Slowly biodegradable, even when hydrolysed to glycerol and fatty acids
Toxics (Priority Pollutants)
Normally very low effluent limits
Organic toxic chemicals Inorganic substances
pesticides, herbicides, solvents, etc. Heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Ag etc.)
Measurement of Organic Content in Wastewater
Biochemical oxygen demand Total organic carbon Chemical oxygen demand

BOD TOC COD
Measures oxygen required for biological oxidation of

organics
BOD: oxygen uptake by microorganism during Also measures oxygen required, but for
aerobic growth in ww sample chemical oxidation of organics
Standard BOD: 5 day incubation @ 20°C COD: chemical oxidants used for oxidation of
organics to CO2, H2O & NH3
Only partial degradation of organics Standard COD: K2Cr2O7 2- /H2SO4 @ 145°C
Cannot be used for mass balancing spectrophotometrically to determine oxidant
Industrial wastewater can contain inhibitors, leading to low used
BOD results
Calculation of BOD,
DOi DOt
BODt
Where P
BODt = biochemical oxygen demand, mg/L
DOi = initial DO of the diluted wastewater

sample about 15 min. after preparation, mg/L
DOt = final DO of the diluted wastewater sample

after incubation for five days, mg/L
P = dilution factor
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
carbonaceous oxygen demand nitrification oxygen demand
microorganism
Organic matter + O2 CO2 + H2O + new cells
microorganism
NH3 + O2 Nitrate-Nitrogen (nitrification)
BOD Curve
BOD (mg/L)
Nitrogenous BOD
Ultimate Carbonaceous BOD,Lo
5-day BOD
COD = UBOD only when the
organic compound is
assumed to be completely
biodegradable Carbonaceous BOD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Day
The ultimate BOD (Lo) is defined as the maximum BOD exerted by the waste.
The carbonaceous oxygen demand curve can be expressed mathematically as:
BODt = L 0(1-e-kt)
BODt = biochemical oxygen demand at time t, mg/L

Lo = ultimate BOD, mg/L
t = time, days
K = reaction rate constant, day-1 (0.23d-1 at 20oC)
The relationship for the change in the reaction rate constant (K) with temperature is
expressed as
KT = K20 (1.047)T-20
KT = reaction rate constant at temperature T, per day

K20 = reaction rate constant at 20oC, per day
Ø = temperature coefficient = 1.047
T = temperature of biological reaction, oC
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
In practice, to avoid 5 days delay between sampling and obtaining result:
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand; oxidation by strong chemical oxidant, usually
K2Cr2O7 (potassium dichromate) in the presence of sulfuric acid at elevated
temperatures (~ 150 ºC), during 2 hours
Organic matter + Cr2O72- + H+ CO2 + H2O + 2Cr3+
The recovery of organic material is usually >95% (meaning that also most non-
biodegradable substances are taken into account)
For various types of (waste) waters, there is usually a more or less constant ratio
between BOD and COD:
• domestic wastewater: BOD/COD = 0.65
• surface water: BOD/COD = 0.40
Relation between BOD and COD
BOD biodegradable organic matter within 5 days and at 20oC
COD biodegradable and most non-biodegradable organic matter
BOD (mg/L) COD (mg/L)
Medium-strength domestic wastewater 190 430

Metcalf & Eddy (2003)
Textile wastewater (Rwanda) 197 2497

Sekomo (2006)
Paper mill wastewater (Kenya) 93 - 633 571 – 3085

(Abira, 2008)
Landfill leachate 20 – 57,000 140 – 152,000

Kjeldsen et al. (2002)
Theoretical Oxygen demand (ThOD). It is only when the Organic material is known
Example: Calculate the Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) for sugar C12 H22 O11
dissolved in water to a concentration of 100 mg/L. Calculate "TOC".
Solution:-
C12 H22 O11 + 12O2 12 CO2 + 11 H2O
ThOD = 12 32gO2
1.123gO2 / g sugar
342g sugar
ThOD = 100mg sugar 1.123gO2 103 mgO2 1g sugar
L g sugar 1gO2 103 mg sugar
ThOD = 112.3 mg O2 / L
TOC = 144 g carbon/ 342g sugar = 0.42 gc/ gs
TOC = 0.42 x 100 = 42 mg carbon/L
Biological Characteristics
Main groups of Microorganisms:-

The main microorganisms of concern in wastewater treatment are
Bacteria, Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, Viruses, and pathogenic
microorganisms groups.
Bacteria:-
Types: Spheroid, rod curved rod, spiral, filamentous. Some
important bacteria:-
Pseudomonas:- reduce NO3 to N2, So it is very important in
biological nitrate removal in treatment works.
Zoogloea:- helps through its slime production in the
formation of flocs in the aeration tanks.
Sphaerotilus natuns:Causes sludge bulking in the aeration
tanks.
Bdellovibrio: destroy pathogens in biological treatment.
Acinetobacter: Store large amounts of phosphate under
aerobic conditions and release it under an – anaerobic
condition so, they are useful in phosphate removal.
Nitrosomonas: transform NH4 into NO2-
Nitrobacter: transform NO2- to NO3-
Coliform bacteria:- The most common type is E-Coli or Echerichia Coli,
)indicator for the presence of pathogens).
E-Coli is measured in (No/100mL)
Fungi:
• Important in decomposing organic matter to simple forms.
Algae:
• Cause eutrophication phenomena. (negative effect)
• Useful in oxidation ponds. (positive effect)
• Cause taste and problems when decayed. (negative effect)
Protozoa:
•Feed on bacteria so they help in the purification of treated waste water.
•Some of them are pathogenic.
Viruses:
Viruses are a major hazard to public health. Some viruses can live as long as
41days in water and wastewater at 20 oC. They cause lots of dangerous diseases.
Pathogenic organisms:
The main categories of pathogens are:-

Bacteria, Viruses, protozoa, helminthes
Appendix
Infectious agents potentially present in raw domestic wastewater
Organism Disease Remarks
Bacteria
Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis Diarrhea
(enter pathogenic)
Legionella pneumophila Legionellosis
Leptospira (150 spp.) Legionellosis Jaundice, fever (weil's disease)
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever High fever, diarrhea, ulceration of

small intestine.
Salmonella (- 1700 spp Salmonellosis Food poisoning

Shigella (4 spp) Shigellosis Bacillary dysentery
Vibrio cholerae Cholera Extremely heavy diarrhea,
dehydration
Yersinia enterolitica Yersinosis Diarrhea
Viruses
Adenovirus (31 types) Respiratory disease
Enteroviruses (67 types, Gastroenteritlis, heart
e.g. polio, echo, and coxsackie viruses) Anomalies, meningitis
Hepatitls A Infectious hepatitis Jaundice, fever
Norwalk agent Gastroenteritlis Vomiting
Reovirus Gastroenteritlis
Rotavirus Gastroenteritlis
Protozoa
Balantidium coli Balantidiasis Diarrhea, dysentery
Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidiosis Diarrhea
Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis (amoebic dysentery) Prolonged diarrhea with bleeding,
abscesses of the liver and small
intestine
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis Mild to severe diarrhea, nausea,
indigestion
Helminthsb
Ascaris lumbricoldes Ascariasis Roundworm infestation
Enterobius vericularis Enterobiasis Pinworm
Fasciola hepatica Fasciollasis Sheep liver fluko
Hymenolepis nana Hymenolepiasis Dwart tapeworm
Teenia saginate Taeniasis Beef tapeworm
T. solium Taeniasis Pork tapeworm
Trichuris trichiura Trichuriasis Whipworm
Typical Wastewater Composition
Concentration
Contaminants Unit Weak Medium Strong

Solids, total (TS) mg/L 350 720 1200
Dissolved, total (TDS) mg/L 250 500 850
Fixed mg/L 145 300 525
Suspended solids (SS) mg/L 100 220 350
Fixed mg/L 20 55 75
Seatlable solids mg/L 5 10 20
Biochemical oxygen demand, 5- mg/L 110 220 400
day, 20ْ C (BOD5,20ْ C)
mg/l:
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) mg/L 250 500 1000

Nitrogen (total as N) mg/L 20 40 85
Organic mg/L 8 15 35
Free ammonia mg/L 12 25 50
Nitrites mg/L 0 0 0
Phosphorus (total as P) mg/L 4 8 15
Organic mg/L 1 3 5
Inorganic mg/L 3 5 10
Chlorides mg/L 30 50 100
Sulfatea mg/L 20 30 50
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/L 50 100 200
Grease mg/L 50 100 150
Total coliform no/100 ml 106 - 107 107 – 108 107 – 109
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Mg/L <100 100 - 400 > 400
Types and numbers of microorganisms typically found in untreated
domestic wastewater
Organism Concentration (per ml)
Total coliform 105 - 106
Fecal coliform 104 - 105
Fecal streptococci 103 - 104
Enterococci 102 - 103
Shigella present
Salmonella 100 - 102
Clostridium perfringens 101 - 103
Giardia cysts 10-1 - 102
Cryptosporidium cysts 10-1 - 101
Helminth ova 10-2 - 101
Enteric virus 101 - 102
Industrial wastewater
• The characteristics of industrial wastewater depend mainly on the type industry it self
• To discharge industrial wastewater to the public sewer it needs special control
requirements
pH 6-10
Temperature 40 C
Suspended solids 400 mg/l
Total toxic metals 10 mg/l
Cadmium 0.1 mg/l
Cyanide 2 mg/l
Sulphate 1000 mg/l
Oil, grease 100 mg/l
Medical wastewater characterization in the Gaza Strip: Al-shifa medical complex
Husam Al-Najar, Aya Ghourab, Reham Eid, Hanady Farhouda
Health scope Journal
Samples locations from each individual department from Al-Shifa medical complex
Slaughterhouse wastewater characteristics- Gaza central
slaughterhouse
Haya El-Haj, Rola Krazem, Haneen Qandeel and Mayada Obaid
graduation project, 2017
Indicator
pH 7.1
EC 3300 µsm
DO 1.95 mg
BOD 2350 mg/L
COD 4502 mg/L
Ammonia Nitrogen 231 mg/L
TKN 154 mg/L
The Islamic University of Gaza- Civil Engineering Department
Advanced Sanitary Engineering- ECIV 5325
Unit 2. Fundamentals of Wastewater Treatment
Based on Dr. Fahid Rabah lecture notes
1
Definition of biological treatment: It is the type of wastewater
treatment in which a variety of microorganisms, principally bacteria,
are used to remove dissolved and particulate matter.
Objectives of biological WW treatment:
1. Transform (i.e. convert) dissolved and particulate organic

biodegradable compounds into acceptable end products.
2. Capture and incorporate suspended and non settleable colloidal solids

into a biological floc or biofilm that can be removed by settling.
3. Transform or remove nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus
2
Role of microorganism in WW treatment:-
Classification of microorganisms:-
By kingdoms: "five kingdoms":-
-Animals ----- Rotifers
-Plants ----- some algae
-Fungi ----- mushrooms, yeasts
-Protista ----- Amoebas, some algae
By energy and carbon source:-
- Heterotrophic microorganisms: Microorganisms that use organic matter as a
source of carbon.
- Autotrophic microorganisms: Microorganisms that use CO2 as a carbon

source.
- Phototrophic microorganisms: Microorganisms that rely only on the light for

energy.
- Chemotropic microorganisms: Microorganisms that extract energy from

chemical reactions (oxidation / reduction reactions).
3
By their relation to oxygen:-
Obligate anerobes: Microorganisms that can not survive in the presence of

oxygen. They are also called anaerobic.
Facultative anaerobes: Microorganisms that can survive in the presence and

absence of oxygen. A group of facultative anaerobes called denitrifies under
anoxic conditions use the oxygen in nitrates (NO3)and nitrites (NO2) to survive.
By their proffered temperature: Each species of bacteria reproduces best

within a limited range of temperatures.
-Psychophiles: Bacteria that grows best below 20 oC.
-Mesophiles: Bacteria that grows best below 25 oC – 40 oC.
-Thermophiles:Bacteria that grows best below 45 oC – 60 oC.
-Stenothermophiles: Bacteria that grows best below 60 oC.
Note: when we classify a microorganism we mention its carbon source,

energy source, relation with oxygen and some time, temperature.
4
Example:-
Algae: aerobic photoautotrophs

Fungi: obligate anaerobes nonphotosynthetic heterotrophic
Protozoa: aerobic chemoheterotrophic
Relation with O2 Energy source Carbon source
5
Role of microorganisms in WWT: Microorganisms are used mainly for
the removal of organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus
1. Biological organic matter removal:-
a. Aerobic biological oxidation (using aerobic bacteria)

first step: oxidation and synthesis
COHNS + O2 + nutrients → CO2 + NH3 +C5H7NO2 + other end products.
Second step:- Endogenous decay or respiration
C5H7NO2 + O2 → 5CO2 + 2H2O + NH3 + energy
b. Anaerobic Fermentation
Examples:-
(Methanol) 4CH3OH → 3CH4 + CO2 + 2H2O {removal of methanol}
(Methylamine) 4 (C H3)3N+H2O → 9CH4 + 3CO2 + 6H2O + 4NH3 (removal of
methylamine)
Note: Notice that anaerobic fermentation of organic matter always results

in the production of methane.
6
2. Biological nitrogen removal:-
Nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3) and organic nitrogen is removed
biologically by two step process, the first step in called nitrification, the second
step is called denitrification.
a. Nitrification:-
In this process ammonia is first converted to NO2- by a bacteria called
nitrosomonas, then NO2- is converted to NO3- by a bacteria called nitrobacter.
2NH4+ + 3O2 → 2NO2- + 4H+ + 2H2O
2 NO2- + O2 → 2NO3-
Note: These bacteria are autotrophic (i.e. do not need organic matter as a
carbon source)
b. Denitrification:-
In this process, NO3- is converted to nitrogen gas N2 by denitrifying bacteria. This
bacteria is heterotrophic, since it needs organic matter as a carbon source. Organic
matter needed for denitrifying bacteria can be taken from raw wastewater, or by
adding other organic materials such as methanol and ethanol.
(Methanol): 5 CH3 OH + 6 NO3- → 3 N2 + 5CO2 + 7H2O + 6OH-
7
3. Biological phosphorus removal:-
Phosphorus is removed from WW using special type of bacteria that is able to
store phosphates in their cells under aerobic conditions and able to release
phosphate under anaerobic conditions.
This fact is utilized, and this type of bacteria is allowed to grow in aerobic tanks to
store "P" then this bacteria is separated and taken to anaerobic tanks were they
release "P", then the same bacteria is recycled to aerobic tank and so on.
Types of biological process for WWT:-
The principal biological processes used for WWT can be divided into two main
categories:
• Suspended growth processes.
• Attached growth processes.
8
Suspended growth process: It is a biological treatment process in which
microorganisms are maintained in suspension while converting organic matter or
other constituents in the wastewater to gases and cell tissue.
Examples on this process:-
• Conventional activated sludge system.
• Oxidation ditches.
• Sequencing batch reactor (SBR).
• Aerated lagoons.
• Up flow sludge blanket reactors
9
Attached growth process: It is a biological treatment process in which
microorganisms responsible for the conversion of organic matter or other
constituents in wastewater to gases and cell tissue are attached to some inert
material such as rocks, sand, or specially designed ceramic or plastic materials.
Attached growth treatment processes are also called fixed film process.
Examples on this process:
• Trickling filters.
• Rotating biological contactors (RBC).
• Packed – bed reactors.
• Fluidized bed biofilm reactors
Note: Biological treatment systems are also classified as Natural or

technology systems.
10
bacterial growth kinetics (Monod equation):-
It is important to understand the way by which the bacterial growth can be
quantified. The most famous equation used to describe the rate of bacterial
growth is the Monod equation:
S . (1)
µ = µm
Ks + S
µm = maximum growth rate, T-1
S = concentration of the limiting substrate, mg/L
Ks = half saturation constant, mg/L
11
The above equation is a hyperbolic function as shown on the figure below:
µm
µm
2
S
Ks Limiting Substrate (mg/l)
it was also found that the rate of change of biomass (microorganisms)

concentration is governed by the following expression:-
dx
= µx . (2)
dt
dx = biomass growth rate, mg/L.t (it is also called r growth or r g)
dt
µ = growth rate constant, t-1
X = concentration of biomass, mg/L
12
Substitute from (1) into (2):
dx µ m Sx dx
= . (3) ( = rg )
dt K s + S dt
equation (3) accounts for growth only. To account for death or decay of biomass
another term is subtracted as follows:-
dx µ Sx
= m - Kd X . (4)
dt K s + S
Kd = endogenous decay rate constant, t-1
The rate of substrate utilization by the biomass is expressed using the following relation:-
- ds = 1 dx . (5)
dt Y dt
where, Y= biomass yield, g biomass produced

g S consumed
13
Substitute equ. 5 In to equ 4:-
ds 1  µ m SX 
=−  − Kd X  . (6)
dt Y  Ks + S 
Note:-
ds/dt is also given the term: rsu → rate of substrate utilization.
rsu=
1  µ m SX  . (7)
−  − Kd X 
Y  Ks + S 
if the decay term is neglected, then:-
µ m SX ds . (8)
rsu = − =
Y (K s + S ) dt
14
Types of reactors used for wastewater treatment:-
Biological reactions used for the treatment of wastewater are carried out in
containers or tanks commonly known as reactors.
Types of reactors:-
The following are the main types of reactors used for WWT:-
Batch reactor:-
The characteristics of this reactor are:-
- a batch of WW is added to the reactor and allowed to react.
- During reaction no flow is allowed in or out of the reactor.
- The contents of the reactor are mixed completely, so the concentration of

microorganism and pollutants (i.e BOD, TSS, etc) are the same every where
15
Completely – mixed reactor:-
Characteristics of this type of reactors are:-
- Wastewater flows continuously in and out of the reactor.
-The content of the reactor is completely mixed and the concentration of

microorganisms (biomass) and pollutants are the same every where inside
the reactor.
16
Plug – flow reactor: - (or tubular reactor)
Characteristics of this type of reactor are:-
- No mixing in the reactor, fluid particles pass through the tank and are
discharged in the same sequence they inter. The concentration of biomass
and pollutants is high at the inlet of the reactor and low at the outlet.
17
Packed – bed reactor:-
Characteristics of this type of reactors are:-
- a solid media is packed in the reactor to allow the microorganisms to grow on.
- This reactor is used for attached growth treatment systems
18
Modeling of biological treatment kinetics:-
In this part, we need to develop mathematical equations to model the

biological reactions in the different types of reactors mentioned above:-
Modeling batch reactors:-
To derive an equation to model the biological reaction in this reactor, we

apply mass balance analysis on the substrate (i.e the pollutant of concern,
such as BOD, N ..):-
19
Accumulation = inflow mass – outflow mass + generation of mass or substrate
ds
V = Q in So – Q out S + rsu V
dt
For batch reactor Q in = Q out = 0.0
ds − µ m XS
So ⇒ = rsu from eq. (8) → rsu =
dt y (K s + S )
ds µ m XS
= , by integration:-
dt y (K s + S )
S0 µ 
K s ln + S 0 − St = X  m t . (9)
St  Y 
So = initial substrate concentration at t = 0.0
St = substrate concentration at time t, mg/L
t = time, days.
Equation (9) is used for the design of batch reactors
20
Modeling completely mixed reactors:-
completely mixed reactor without solids recycle:-

apply mass balance analysis on biomass, and on substrate:-
21
* biomass – mass balance:-
dX µ m XS
V = QXO - Q X +V rg But rg = − Kd X (from eq. 4)
dt KS + S
dx  µ m XS 
Thus ⇒ • V = QX 0 − QX + V  − K d X 
dt  Ks + S 
we assume that Xo = 0.0, and this equation is simplified to:-
Q µ S 1 µ S
= m − Kd or → = m − Kd . (10)
V Ks + S θ Ks + S
Q = flow rate, volume / time.

V = volume of the reactor,
θ = hydraulic detention time = V/Q,
X = concentration of biomass in the reactor, mass/volume.
So = concentration of substrate in the influent mass/volume.
S = concentration of substrate in the tank and in the effluent.
22
Substrate mass balance:- ds
• V = Q So – QS + Vrus
dt
− µ m XS ds V  µ m XS 
rsu = → • V = QS 0 − QS −  
y (K s + S ) dt Y  KS + S 
At steady state
ds = 0.0, thus the above equation becomes:-
dt
V  µ m XS  V
(S 0 − S ) −   = 0.0, but = θ
QY  K S + S  Q
θ  µ m XS 
Thus ⇒ (S 0 − S ) −   = 0.0 . (11)
Y K
 S + S 
If equation (10) is rearranged in the following form:-
1 1  S
 + Kd  = , and this term is substituted in equation(11) ⇒
µm θ  KS + S
θ   1 1   Rearranging:-
then eq.(11) Becomes:- (S 0 − S ) −  µ m X  θ + K d  
Y µ
 m 
Y (S 0 − S )
X = . (12)
23 1 + K dθ
Y obs is the observed biomass yield, which is the actual increase rate of
biomass. If Kd is assumed to be 0.0, then Y obs = Y. But usually K d has a
Value > 0.0, and Y obs is <Y.
Note: There is an important parameter used in relation to bacterial growth

defined as:-
µm
K= ,Called the maximum substrate utilization rate per unit mass of microorganisms.
Y
Completely mixed reactor with solids recycle: This process is called the
activated sludge system.
24
Biomass – mass balance:-
dx
• V = QX 0 − (Qw X r + Qe X e ) + Vrg
dt
dx
= rate of change of microorganisms in the reactor,
dt
V = reactor volume,
Q = WW flow rate,
Xo = concentration of microorganisms in the influent,
Qw = Waste flow rate,
Xr = concentration of biomass in the return line,
Qe = effluent flow rate,
Xe = concentration of biomass in effluent,
rg = net rate of microorganisms growth (mass/unit volume time)
dx
Assuming steady state conditions then → = 0.0, and assume Xo= 0.0
dt
25
and substitute for rg from equation (4), the above equation simplifies to:-
 µ m SX 
Q w X r + Qe X e = V  − Kd X 
Ks + S 
Q w X r + Qe X e µmS
= − Kd . (14)
VX Ks + S
The left hand side of equation (14) is the inverse of the mean cell residence time:-
VX
θc = ⇒ so equation (14) becomes:-
Q w X r + Qe X e
1 µ S
= m − Kd . (15)
θc Ks + S
26
* Substrate-mass balance:-
ds µ m SX
• V = QS 0 − (Qw + Qe ) + S + Vrsu where? rsu = −
dt Y (K s + S )
dS
At steady state = 0.0
dt
 µ m SX 
QS 0 − V   = Qw S + Qe S where? Qe = Q − Qw
Y (K s + S ) 
 µ m SX 
QS 0 − V   = QS ⇒ rearrange
 Y (K s + S ) 
Q
(S 0 − S ) = µ m SX ⇒ Q = 1
V Y (K s + S ) V θ
Y (S 0 − S ) µ S
then ? = m ……………. (16)
Xθ Ks + S
27
28
29
Modeling of plug – flow reactor with solids recycle:-
30
31
32
Unit 3. Suspended growth treatment systems

(Aerobic & Anaerobic)
1
Many treatment systems based on suspended microorganisms have been
developed and still used till now.
Some of these systems are aerobic and other are anaerobic.
Some of the most commonly used systems are:
Activated sludge systems:
• Conventional activated sludge system
• Oxidation ditches
• Sequential batch reactor (SBR)
• Aerated lagoons
• Waste stabilization ponds
• Up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)
2
Conventional activated sludge system
The first version of activated sludge systems are called conventional
activated sludge system.
This system is composed of two parts:
a. Aeration tank:
b. Final sedimentation tank
Influent
Aeration tank Treated flow
TTTTTTTTTTTTTT
Waste
Sludge
The aeration tank in this system can be designed either as a complete mixed
flow reactor (CMFR) or as a plug flow reactor (PFR).
3
Plug-flow aeration tank equipped with dome aeration devices
4
1. Design of activated sludge system as a completely
mixed flow reactor (CMFR).
a. design of the aeration tank:-
To design the aeration tank we need to find:-

• Tank volume.
• Recycle ratio.
• Sludge wasting.
• Oxygen requirements.
• Check for some parameters such as θc ,θ, and S.
The aeration tank can be used to:-
Remove BOD only. (one sludge) or (separate stage)

Nitrify only (convert NH4+ to NO3-) (one sludge or separate stage)
Remove BOD + nitrify (two sludge or single stage).
5
Example 1:-
A completely mixed activated sludge system is to be used for organic matter

removal only (one sludge system). Design this system knowing the following:-
microorganisms growth constants are:-
µ m = 2.5d-1 , K = 0.05d-1 Y = 0.5 mg VSS/mg BOD removed

d
KS = 100 mg BOD / L Flow = 0.15 m3/s = 12960 m3/d
BOD = 84 mg/L (Soluble) required effluent → (total BOD) = 30 mg/L
6
Solution:-
1. Since we always deal with soluble substrate, first we need to find

the effluent soluble BOD :-
(BOD) soluble = S = (BOD) total - BOD in suspended solids or particulate
(BOD) in suspended solids = 63% * SS
(BOD) particulate = 0.63 * 30 = 18.9 mg BOD5 /L
(BOD) soluble in effluent = 30 – 18.9 = 11.1 mg BOD /L
Note: (BOD) soluble in effluent = S = (BOD) soluble in the aeration tank.
7
Follow Example 1:-
2. Calculate θC:- K s (1 + K d θ c )
S = (this is equ. (18) for CMFR)
θc (µm − K d ) − 1
100[1 + 0.05 ∗θ c ]
11.1 = ⇒ Solve for θC θC = 5 days (mean cell residence time)
θ c [2.5 − 0.05] − 1
1
µm - Kd = 2.5 – 0.05 = 2.45 µ
θ c m = m - Kd
θ cm = 0.408 d (minimum sludge retention time)
θc 5
So S.F = m = 0.408 = 12.25 d (2<12.25<20) OK
θc
8
Check for smin:-
Kd  0.05 
S min = Ks 100 = 2.04 mg BOD/L
µm − K d 
 2.5 − 0.05 
S > Smin → o.k (11.1 > 2.04) So use θc = 5 days, S = 11.1 mg BOD/L
3. Calculate the aeration tank volume:-
Assume the concentration of biomass (X) is equal to 3000 mg MLVSS (Mixed liquor
volatile suspended solids)/L:-
θ c Y (S 0 − S )
X = . (equ. 17)
θ (1 + K d θ c )
5 ∗ 0.5[84 − 11.1]
3000 = (solve for Ө) θ = 0.0486 day θ = 1.17 hours
θ [1 + 0.05 ∗ 5]
Calculate the volume:- V = θ Q = 0.0486*12960 ≈ 630 m3

9
Check F/M ratio:-
3 3 3
F = 12960m 1 L 84 mg 10 L 1m
. . . . 3 . 3
M d 3
630m 3000mg L 1m 10 L
= 0.576 mg BOD/mg MLVSS .d (O.K)
Typical range for conventional activated sludge system is 0.1 – 0.6 mg BOD/mg
MLVSS .d. (Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids)
This F/M is accepted. In case that we need to change F/M we can change the
assumed X.
10
4. Calculate the amount of sludge to be wasted:
P x = Y obs Q (So – S)
Y 0.5
Yobs = = = 0.4mgVss / mgBoD
1 + K dθc 1 + 0.05 ∗ 5
mg biomass m3 mg.BOD5 103 L 1Kg
Px = 0.4 ∗12960 [84 − 11.1] . 3 . 6
mgBoD5 d L m 10 mg biomass
Px ≅ 378Kg / d
11
Another way to find PX:-
XV mg 630m3 103 L kg
Px = Qw X r + Qe X e = = 3000 ∗ 3
. . 6
θc L 1m 5d 10 mg
Px = 378kg / d
Calculate Qw (waste sludge flow):-
Assume Xr = 10000 mg VSS/L (Typical range: 8000 – 12000 mg VSS/L)
Px = QW Xr + Qe Xe, (neglect Xe compared to Xr)
Px 378 ∗ 10 6 mg / d L
Px = Qw X r ⇒ Qw = = = 37800
Xr 10.000mg / l d
QW = 37.8 m3/d
12
5. Calculate the recycle flow Q r:-
Qr X
= = R (Sometimes called ∝ or recycle ratio)
Q Xr − X
3000
R= = 0.43 Qr = 0.43Q ≅ 5573m 3 / d
10000 − 3000
6. Calculate the Oxygen required:-
R 0 = Q (S 0 − S ) − 1 . 42 Px
m3 mgBoD 5 10 3 L 1kg kg
= 12960 [84 − 11 .1] . . − 1 . 42 ∗ 378
d L 1m 3 10 6 mg d
R 0 = 408 KgO 2 / d
13
Example 2:-
For example 1, we need to design the CMFR system for both organic matter
removal and nitrification. The microorganisms growth constants for hetrotrophs
are the same as in example 1, and for nitrifies (i.e. autotrophs) are:-
µmax = 0.25d-1 Yn = 0.2 mg Vss/mg NH4-N K d = 0.04d-1 Kn = 0.4 mg/L
It is also given that:-
TKN = 40 mg/L (in the influent of the reactor)
TKN = 1 mg/L (effluent nitrogen goal).
14
Solution:-
1. It was calculated in example 1 that θc required for BOD removal was = 5
days.
• We need to check if this θc is enough for to achieve complete nitrification.
• Find Smin for nitrogen:-
(k d ) n 0.04
Smin = Kn = 0.4 = 0.035 mg N/L <1 mg N/L (OK)
(µ m )n − (k d ) n 0.5 − 0.04
15
• Calculate θc for complete nitrification:-
K n [1 + (K d )n θ c ] 0.4(1 + 0.04 *θ c )
N= 1=
[ ( )]
θ c (µ m )n − K d
n
−1 θ c (0.25 − 0.04) − 1
Solve for θc ⇒ θc = 7.2 days
So (θc )n > (θc )BOD ⇒ so take θc = 7.2 days for design purposes.
2. Cheek for (θcmin)n:-
1
θcm
= µ( )
m n
− ( K d )n
= 0 .25 − 0 . 04 ⇒ θ min
c = 4.76days
7 .2
S .F = = 1 .5 < 2 not OK
4 .76
So take S.F = 2.1 ⇒ θc = 2.1 X 4.76 ≅ 10 days So take θc = 10 days

16
3. Calculate the actual S and N in the effluent:-
0.4(1 + 0.04 *10) 0.56
N= = = 0.51 mg N / L > 0.035mgN / L OK
10(0.25 − 0.04) − 1 1.1
100 (1 + 0.05 *10) 150
S= = = 6.38 mg BOD / L > 2.04 mg BOD5 / L OK
10 ( 2.5 − 0.05) − 1 23.5
4. Calculate θ:-
X nitrifiers
Assume that = 0.10 (this ratio is called nitrifies fraction ƒn )
X Total
So Xnitrifiers = 0.1 x 3000 = 300 mg Vss/L Xheterotrophs = 0.9 X 3000 = 2700 mg Vss/L
θ c Y ( S o − S ) 10 * 0.5(84 − 6.38) 388.1

θ for heterotrophs: θ = = = = 0.103 d
X (1 + K d θ c ) 2700(1 + 0.04 *10) 3780
10 * 0.2 (40 − 0.51) 78.98

θ for nitrifies: θ = = = 0.188 d
300 (1 + 0.04 *10) 420
θ for nitrifiers > θ for heterotrophs, so take θ = 0.188 d = 4.5 hours

17
5. Calculate the volume of the reactor:-
V = Q θ = 12960 * 0.188 = 2436 m3

Compare this volume with the 630 m3 needed for BOD removal only.
Note:-
X nitrifiers
To find = ƒn, use the following equation:
X total
0.16(N 0 − N )
fn = , where N0 = TKN in the influent, and
0.6(S 0 − S ) + 0.16(N 0 − N )
N = TKN in the effluent.
6. Calculate the sludge to be wasted:-
* for hetaotrophs:-
10 6 L 1kg
Px = Yobs Q( S o − S ) = 0.4 *12960 (84 − 6.38) • 3 • 6
m 10 mg
Px = 402 kg Vss/d
18
for nitrifiers:-
Y 0.2
Yobs = = ≅ 0.143 mg Vss / mgN
1 + k d θ c 1 + 0.04 *10
10 3 l 1kg
Px = 0.143 *12960 (40 − 0.51) . 6
m3 10 mg
p x = 37.8 kg Vss / d
PX 37.8*10 6 mg / d
(QW ) N = = = 37800 L / d
( X r ) N (10.000) * 0.1 mg / l
402 *10 6 mg / d
(Qw ) BOD = = 44667 L / d
10.000 * 0.9 mg / l
Total Qw = 37800 + 44667 = 82467 L/d ≅ 83 m3/d
19
Calculate oxygen requirement:-
Ro = Q( SO − S ) −1.42 PX + 4.57 Q ( N O − N )
1kg 103 l 103 l 1kg

=12960 (84 − 6.38) * 6 . 3 −1.42 (402 + 37.8) + 4.57 *12960( 40 − 0.51) 3 . 6
10 mg 1m m 10 mg
RO =1005.96 − 624.5 + 2338.9

≅ 2720 Kg O2 / d
20
Example 3:-
For example 2, we need to design a separate stage CMFR for nitrification only.
The Data for the nitrifies and TKN are the same as in Example 2.
Q = 12922 m3/d
Q = 12960 m3/d BOD5 removal NH3
removal
Qr Qr
Qw
Qw = 37.8 m3/d
21
Solution:-
1.Calculations for θ cmin , S min for nitrifies:-
From example 2 it was found that:-
θ cmin = 4.76 days, Nmin = 0.035 mg N/L
N = 1.0 mg-N/L.
2. The flow interring the nitrification CMER is:
Q\ = Q – Qw = Qe from the BOD removal CMFR
Q\ = 12960 – 37.8 ≅ 12922 m3/d
3.Calculate for the nitrification CMFR:-
Since no BOD removal occurs in this CMFR, only nitrifies are active in
this reactor, this can be understood from this equation:-
0.16 ( N O − N ) X nitrifiers
fn = =
0.6 ( S O − S ) + 0.16 ( N O − N ) X total
⇒ but ( SO − S ) = 0.0 (no BOD removal )

f n = 1. 0
F mg TKN
⇒ take = 0. 3 (Typical range 0.04 − 0.3)
M mg Vss.d 22
F QN 0 QNo
= ⇒ VX =
M VX F /M
m 3 10 3 L N
12922 * * 3
* 40 mg
VX = d m L = 1 . 723 * 10 9 mgvss
0 . 3 mgN / mgvss . d
take X = 1500 mgvss /d
9
1 . 723 * 10 3 3
V = ≅ 1149 * 10 L = 1149 m
1500
V 1149
θ = = = 0 . 089 d = 2 . 13 hrs
Q 12922
23
4. find q C:-
θ cY ( N 0 − N )
θ=
X (1 + K d θ c )
θ c * 0.2[40 − 1]
0.089 = ⇒ θ c = 54 days (typical range is 10 − 100 days )
1500(1 + 0.04 *θ c )
5. Calculate the sludge to be wasted:- Px = Y obs Q ( N O − N )

Y 0.2
Yobs = = = 0.06mgvss / mg − N
1 + K d θ c 1 + 0.04 * 54
103 L 1kg
Px = 0.06 *12922[40 − 1] 3 . 6 = 30 kgvss / d
m 10 mg
Px
Qw = ⇒ assume X r = 10000 mg / L
( X r )Nitrifiers
30 *10 6 mgvss / d
Qw = = 3000L / d = 3m 3 / d
10.000mgvss / L 24
6. Calculate oxygen requirements:-
Ro = 4.57 Q (NO - N)
(Note:- this is the oxygen needed for nitrification only)
L 1kg
= 4.57 *12922 *10 3 (40 − 1) * 6
d 10 mg
Ro = 2303 kg O2/d
25
7. Calculate the volume of air to be supplied:-
• At standard conditions i.e → T = 20 oC, pressure = l atm, air density =

1.185 kg/m3
• % oxygen by mass in air = 23.2%.
• Assuming 100% oxygen transfer efficiency:
R0 2303 kgO2 / d 3
Qair = = = 8377 m air /d
ρ air * [O2 %] 1.185 kg / m * 0.232
3
• Assume 8% oxygen transfer efficiency:-

8377 3
Qair = ≅ 104713 mair /d
0.08
• If pure oxygen to be used:-
R 2303
Qoxysen = 0 = = 1943 mO3 2 / d
ρ air 1.185
Assume 8% oxygen transfer efficiency:-
1943
Qoxysen = = 24288 mO3 2 / d
0.08
26
So the separate stage nitrification system will look as the following
V = 630 m3 V = 1149 m3
3m3/d
37.8m3/d
27
Example 4:- Denitrification
For the system designed in Examples 1, 2, and 3, design a separate stage

denitrification completely mixed flow reactor (CMFR). The denitrifying bacteria
have the following growth constants:-
−1
D −1 mgvss
µ = 0.4d , YDn
m = 0.9 , K d = 0.04d
mgNo3
K Dn = 0.16mgNO3− − N / L
Required → NO3- - N in the effluent = l mg NO3- - N/L

(So = (NO3- - N)o = Do = 39 mg NO3- - N/L)
28
Solution:-
• The procedure is the same as that followed in example 1,
except that we do not need oxygen for denitrification.
• We need to add organic matter, because denitrifies are
heterotrophic bacteria.
1. Calculate θcmin Smin (or Dmin)
1 Dn Do 39
min
=µ m − K d = 0.4 * − 0.04 ≅ 0.36
θ c K Dn + Do 0.16 + 39
θ cmin = 2.78 d
Kd 0.04 −
S min = Dmin = K Dn Dn
= 0 . 4 * ≅ 0 . 04 mgNo3 −N
µm − K d 0.4 − 0.04
29
2. Calculate θc:-
K Dn (1 + K d θ c )
D=
θ c ( µ mDn − K d ) − 1
0.16[1 + 0.04θ c ]
1= ⇒ θ c = 3.28d
θ c [0.4 − 0.04] − 1
θc > θcmin O.K Cheek factor of safety:-
θc 3.28
S .F = min = = 1.18 < 2 not o.k Take S.F = 2.1
θc 2.78
θc = 2.1 θcmin = 2.1*2.78 ≅ 5.84 days o.k
3. Calculate θ:-
Assume X = 3000 mg MLVSS/L

θ Y [D − D ] 5.84 0.9[39 − 1]
θ = c . Dn o . = 0.054d θ ≅ 1.3 hrs o.k
X 1 + K dθ c 3000 (1 + 0.04 * 5.84 )
30
4. Calculate V:-
Q = 12922 – 3 = 12919 m3/d
V = Qθ = 12919 * 0.054 = 697.6 ≅ 698 m3
Find Px , QW, Qr by the same way as in example 1
12922Q = 12919Q =
12960Q = BOD5 NHn+ NO3-
Qr
Qr Qr Qw
Qw Qw
31
b. Design of the final (Secondary) clarifier
The final sedimentation tank or clarifier, is an essential part in the
activated sludge system. It is needed for gathering (by settling) the sludge
and returning part of it to the system. The following parameters are used
to design this tank:-
1. The overflow rate:- (or hydraulic loading)

it is the amount of flow in m3/d applied to the unit area (m2) of the
sedimentation tank and it's units are:-
Qo − Qw
O/F = (As = Surface area)
As
Q
O / F = e (note: Qe interring the settler is pumped from the bottom)
As
• Some times we ignore Qw
m3
• The typical range of O/F is (20-34) 2
m •d
m3 m
the unit is 2 or
m •d d
• In this range we expect good separation of solids from liquid in the
final sedimentation tank. 32
Schematic diagram of sludge collector for circular sedimentation basins.
33
weir
d
Effluent
channel sludge
pipe
ww inlet
treated water
pipe
pipe
34
Effluent channel of circular sedimentation basins.
35
Q0 + Qr
Qe = Q0 - Qw
Qr Qw
2. The weir loading rate:-
It is the amount of flow in m2/d applied to the unit length (m) of the effluent
weir. The weir is the circumference of the sedimentation tank from which the
wastewater leaves the tank.
• The typical range of weir loading (WL) is:-
m3 m2 Qe
WL →125 − 250 or ( ) , (WL = )
m•d d weir length
36
3. The solids loading rate (SL):-
It is the amount of solids in (Kg) applied to the unit area of the settling tank per
day.
(Qo + Qr ) Kg
( SL = •X)
As d .m 2
Typical range of SL is 130 – 300 Kg/ d.m2. If SL is higher than 300
the suspended solids will increase in the effluent of the settling tank.
Final settling basin side water depth (SWD)
Side water depth, m
Tank diameter, m Minimum Recommended
<12 3.0 3.4
12 to 20 3.4 3.7
20 to 30 3.7 4.0
30 to 42 4.0 4.3
>42 4.3 4.6
Source: Joint Task Force of the Water Environment Federation and the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants Vol. I, Manual of Practice No. 8, Chapters 1-
12, Alexandria, VA, 1992 37
Example 5:-
Design the secondary clarifier (final settling tank) for the CMFR in Example 1.
Solution:-
(Qo = 12960 m3/d) , ( Qw = 37.8 m3/d)
Take O / F = 33
m Qe m3
find As:- O/F = The typical range of O/F is (20-34) 2
d As m •d
Qe m3 1
As = =12922 . ≅ 392 m 2
O/ F d 33 m / d
(note: Qe = Qo – Qw = 12960 – 37.8 = 12922 m3/d)
π d2
find the diameter:- As =
4
4 * 392
d = = 22.3 m
II
38
ww surface weir Channel
outlet pipe
SWD
Qe
Inlet pipe Qr+Qw

Qo+Qr
Sludge outlet pipe
39
* Select a side wall depth (SWD):
From the final setting basin side water depth:-

For (d) in the range 20-30 m → SWD = 4.0 m
* find (H), the depth of the inclined bottom depth:-
The typical slope of the bottom is 1:12, So:-

H 1
= ⇒ H = 0.93 m
11.15 12 11.15m 11.15m
H
Take H = 1.0 m
* Check for the solids loading rate SL:-

SL =
[Qo + Qr ]* X (12960 + 5573)m 3 3000mgvss 103 L 1kg
= . . 3 . 6
2
As 392m L m 10 mg
SL ≅ 142kg / d .m 2 (in the range 130 − 300) o.k .
40
*Check for the weir loading rate (WL):-
Qe 12422 m 3 / d m3
WL = = ≅ 184 OK
weir length π (22.3)m m•d
Typical range of WL is 125-250 m3/m.d
41
Sludge volume index SVI: This parameter is used to check the quality of
settling and the efficiency of the secondary settling tank in activated
sludge systems.
SVI is also used to control the concentration of the biomass in the

biological reactor (X) and the concentration of the biomass in the return
sludge (Xr).
SVI is the volume in milliliters (ml) occupied by 1g of activated sludge

after the aerated liquor has settled 30 minutes and calculated as follows:-
SV ml SVI = sludge volume index

SVI = * 1000 SV = volume of settled solids in one
X g liter graduated cylinder after 30
minutes settling,
42
1000 ml 1000 ml
30 Minute
SV
Sludge
Volume: ml
43
X = biomass concentration in the biological reactor such as
(CMFR),
mgSS/L→ (MLSS). SVI is related to Xr by the following

relation:-
106
Xr = mgss / L
SVI
SVI is related to Qr (recycle flow) as follow:-
X Qr
R= =
Xr − X Q
 
 X   X 
Qr = Q  Q
→ r = Q 6
 Xr − X  10 −X
 SVI 
44
* Typical values of SVI:-
Typical range of SVI for activated sludge operating at concentrations of

MLSS (X) of 2000 to 3500 mg ss/L is 50 to 150 mL/g.
Notice relation between SVI and X:-
SV ml
SVI = * 1000
X g
When X is increased, SVI decrease, so if X is increased above 3500

mgSS/L to 5000 mgSS/L for example, SVI decrease below 50, ml
which means bad settling. If X is decreased below 2000, then SVI
mL
increase above 150 leading to bad settling.
g
45
Example 6: For example 1 find the SVI, SV.
MLVSS
Given that MLVSS = 0.8 MLSS ⇒ MLSS =
0.8
* MLVSS = Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids
46
Solution:-
X r = 10.000 mg vss / L (or 10.000 mg MLVSS / L ) from example 1
mg Vss 1 mg ss
X r =10.000 * =12500 mg ss / L
L 0.8 mg vss
=12500 mg MLss
10 6
Xr = mg MLSS / L
SVI
106 mL mL
SVI = = 80 > 50 o.k , good settling
12500 g g
* find sludge volume SV:-

SV ml
SVI = *1000
X g
X .SVI
SV =
1000
3000
X = 3000 mg MLVSS / L = = 3750 mg MLSS / L
0 .8
3750 * 80 mL
SV = = 300
1000 L
(this is the volume of sludge in one liter of ww after 30 min settling ) 47
B. Design of activated sludge system as a plug flow (PFR):-
The conventional activated sludge system can be designed as a PFR. The

following is an example to illustrate the procedure used.
Qi
Si , Xi V
Q0 – Qw
Q0
S0 S
X0 Xe
Q 0 + Qr
Qr,S
Qw
Xr
S
48
Example 7 Solve example 1 using a PFR.
a. find θc:-
θ cmin was calculated as 0.408 d , for PFR we find θc from equation 20:-
1 µm (So − S )
= − kd
θc S 
( S o − S ) + (1 + α ) K s ln  i 
s 
Qo S o + Qr S
Si =
Qi
X 3000
α=R= = ≅ 0.43
X r − X 10000 − 3000
Qr
R= ⇒ Qr = 0.43Qo = 0.43 *12960 = 5573m 3 / d
Qo
Qi = Qo + Qr = 18533m 3 / d
12960 * 84 * 5573 *11.1 49

Si = = 62mgBOD / L
18533
1 2.5[84 − 11.1]
= 0.05 = 0.522d −1
θc
[84 − 11.1] + [1 + 0.43]*100 ln  62 
11.1
θc = 1.92 days
θc 1.92
* Check for S.F:- S .F = m
= = 4.71 > 2 O.K
θc 0.408
b. Calculate θ from equation 19:-
θ Y (S o − S )
X= c , let X = 3000 mg / l
θ 1 + K dθ c
1.92 * 0.5 (84 −11.1)
θ= = 0.0213 d = 0.5 hrs.
3000 (1 + 0.05 *1.92)
* it is typically preferred to have a minimum θ of 1.0 hr. To increase θ we
can either decrease X or increase θc , or do both things. So, assume
θ = 1 hr = 0.042 d , X = 3000 mg / l , and solve for θc .
θc 0.5)84 − 11.1)
3000 = . ⇒θc = 4.18 days
0.042 (1 + 0.05 *θc)
50
θC
* for PFR Should be > 5
θ
4 . 18
= 99 . 5 >> 5 o.k
0 . 042
C. Calculate the reactor volume:-
V = Qθ =12960 * 0.042 = 544 m 3
d. Calculate Px, Qw, Ro the same as in example 1.
51
Oxidation ditches:- (OD)
Oxidation ditches are type of suspended growth systems. It is a

modification of the conventional activated sludge system.
Characteristics of oxidation ditches:
A. Configurations:-
The oxidation ditch consists of a ring or oval – shaped channel. It is some

times called closed loop Reactor (CLR), and some times called Racetrack
channel. The oxidation ditch may have a trapezoidal or rectangular cross
section.
The wastewater is re-circulated in the "CLR" using brush rotors

(Kessners brush), which is also used for aeration.
There are many configurations of oxidation ditches as shown in the

figures.
52
The velocity of flow in the OD is maintained at 0.25 – 0.3 m/s to keep the biomass
in suspension. At this velocity, the mixed liquor completes a tank circulation in 5 –
15 min, leading to the dilution of the influent by 20-30 times.
The influent of raw sewage is introduced just upstream of the aerator (Rotor).
The effluent weir is located just upstream of the influent
53
Oxidation Ditch
54
Oxidation Ditch: carrousel configurations
55
Typical Oxidation Ditch layout 56
B. Hydraulic model:-
Oxidation ditehs combine features of both PFR and CMFR models:
C. CMFR similarity:-
The rapid flow in the OD results in 20-30 dilutions which gives a
considerable amount of mixing. The influent ww is mixed with the
rotating ww at the inlet.
D. PFR similarity:-
The OD are long reactors, and thus they have some similarity with PFR a
long the reactor.
E. Which model is used for OD design? CMFR or PFR?:-

Since PFR assumes no mixing, this case is not found in OD. So OD is
designed as a CMFR. The error in this assumption leads to higher
hydraulic detention time, which gives a safty factor in the design.
Moreover, OD are designed at high (θ) anyway to achieve sludge
stabilization so assuming that OD is CMFR is accepted
57
Difference between OD and conventional Activated sludge:-
• Oxidation ditches were developed to minimize the net sludge
production compared to the conventional activated sludge system.
• Net sludge production minimization is achieved by using law F/M

mgBOD5
ratio (0.02 – 0.15 ). In this case the active biomass is
mgvss • d
forced to feed on the decaying biomass due to the shortage of
food. This leads to lower sludge production, and the sludge to be
wasted will be less and has lower organic content (i.e. more
stabilized)
• OD are operated at high θc (15-30 days) and at high θ (15-36 hrs).
• It is theoretically possible in OD to minimize the net sludge

production to zero. This can be achieved by making the produced
biomass equal to the degraded biomass by endogenous decay (i.e.
biomass feeding on dead biomass).
58
This is presented mathematically as follows:-
Sludge produced = YQ (So – S)
Sludge decaying = Kd XV
Net production ⇒ Px = YQ (So – S) – KdXV
Let net production (Px ) = 0.0
So ⇒ YQ (So – S) = Kd XV
Y Y
And ⇒ X= ( So − S ) or XV = Q( S 0 − S )
K dθ Kd
This equation can be used to find X and V that can be used to a chive
zero net sludge production.
59
Processes that can be achived in oxidation ditches:-
Three processes can be achieved in oxidation ditches:-

− Organic matter removal (BOD removal) in the aerobic zone.
− Nitrification (in the aerobic zone).
− Denitrification (in the anoxic zone).
• At the influent to the OD, we have organic matter in addition to

nitrate ( NO3− ) coming from the aerobic zone and the dissolved O2
is almost zero. This is called anoxic condition where
denitrification occurs.
• At the end of the anoxic zone and the beginning of the aerobic
zone, we have the remaining organic matter that was not used for
denitrification in addition to ammonium ) NH 4+ ( coming in the
influent in addition to O2 introduced by the aerator.
• In this condition both BOD removal and nitrification occurs. At

the end of the aerobic zone the dissolved oxygen becomes almost
zero. 60
influent
effluent
Aerobic
Anoxic
Rotor (aerator)
61
Example 8:-
Design an oxidation ditch for BOD removal only. The following Data are
given:
• influent BOD = 300 mg BOD/L ( soluble)
• effluent BOD =15 mg BOD/L (soluble)
• Q0 = 20.000 m3/d
• Y= 0.5 mgvss/mgBOD , Kd = 0.03d-1, Ks = 30 mgBOD,
µ m = 2.5d −1
Assume that we want to operate the OD at Zero net sludge production

solution:
1- Calculate X to achieve zero net production:

Y
Xθ = ( S0 − S )
Kd
mgvss d mgBOD5 mgvss
Xθ = 0.5 . .[300 − 15] = 4750 .d
mgBODs 0.03 L L
62
F
2- check for
M
F S 300 mgBODs
= 0 = = 0.063
M Xθ 4750 mgvss.d
3- Assume q in the typical range ( 15-36 hrs),
take θ = 1 day (24 hrs)

mgvss
Xθ = 4750 .d
L
X = 4750 mgvss/L , typical range for OD is (2500 – 6000), O.K.
4- In this example we do not need to check for θ c because we

assumed that no sludge wasting will take place, and theoriticaly θ c → ∞
5- find the volume of the oxidation ditch

m3
Qθ = 20000 *1d = 20000m 3 = V
d 63
Notice that the volume is very high due to the high θ
6- Calculate Qr:
X
R= , assume Xr = 10000 mgvss/L
Xr − X
4750
R = = 0.9
10.000 − 4750
Qr = QR = 20.000*0.9 = 18000 m3/d
7- find the oxygen requirements:
R0 = Q0 ( S 0 − S ) − 1.42 Px , (note that Px = 0.0)

m 3 10 3 L mgBOD kg
R0 = Q0 ( S 0 − S ) = 20000 • 3 [300 − 15] • 6
d m L 10 mg
R0 = 5700kgO2 / d
64
Example 9:
Repeat the Design in example 8, assuming that we want to allow for some
sludge waste, by using a sludge age ( θ c ) in the range 15 – 30 days.
Solution:
In this case design the oxidation ditch as a CMFR and use the equation of
CMFR. The difference between the conventional CMFR and OD is the
design parameters typical ranges (θ ,θ c , X , F )
M
a- Assume θ c , = 30 days, assume θ = 15 hrs ( 0.625 days).

(note: in oxidation ditches we allow S.F above 20)
b- Calculate S:
30(1 + 0.03 * 30) Ks (1 + Kd *θ c)
S= = 0.78mgBODs / L S =
30(2.5 − 0.03) − 1 θ c( µ m − Kd ) − 1
Kd 0.03
S min = K s = 30 * = 0.36mgBOD5 / L < 0.78
µm − K d 2.5 − 0.03
65
c- calculate X:
θ Y ( S0 − S )
X = c
θ (1 + K dθ c )
X =
30
.0.5
[300 − 0.78]
= 3780mgvss / L
0.625 1 + 0.03 * 30
The typical range of X is 2500 to 6000 mgVSS/L, O.k
F
d- check for
M
F S0 300mgBOD5 / L mgBOD5
= = = 0.121 within the range
M θx 0.625 * 3780mgvss / L mgvss.d
(0.02 – 0.15) O.K
66
e- calculate V:
V=Q θ = 20000 * 0.625 = 12500 m3
F- calculate sludge production:
Y 0.5 mgvss
Px = Yobs Q (S 0 − S ), Yobs = = = 0.26
1 + K d θ c 1 + 0.03 * 30 mgBOD5
m3 10 3 L Kg
Px = 0.26 * 20000 (300 − 0.78) 3 . 6 = 1556kg / d
d m 10 mg
Px 1556 *10 6 L
Qw = = = 155600 = 155.6m 3 / d
Xr 10.000 d
67
Advantages of oxidation ditches:
* low sludge production can be achieved due to using low F ratio

M
* The produced sludge, if any is stable and needs no further treatment. This
means that no sludge treatment installations are needed.
* no need for primary sedimentation, because the high θ c in the oxidation

ditches is enough to digest the solids that is usually separated in the primary
sedimentation tank.
* easy to operate and the operation and maintenance cost is much less than
conventional activated sludge.
* Ability to nitrify and denitrify in one tank
68
Oxidation Ditch process flow sheet:
O.D Secondary clarifier
Screening Grit removal Effluent
Waste
return sludge sludge
69
Aerated lagoons (AL):
Aerated lagoons are suspended growth waste water treatment system.

They are not considered as an activated sludge system because no solids
recycle is applied. This system ( i.e AL) is a low cost low efficiency
treatment system compaired to Activated sludge systems.
Configuration of "AL"
Aerated lagoons consist mainly of an earthen basin that has a large surface
area and a shallow depth ( 1-3m). The sides slopes are generally 1:3
(some times (1:2)). The face area is usually square to achieve the best
power transfer applied by the mechanical aerators. Surface mechanical
aerators are used for both oxygen transfer and complete mixing of the
lagoons.
70
Mechanical
aerator
influent
Final Effluent
clarifier
Sludge
Aerated to disposal
lagoon
Floating
mechanical aerator
Influent
Effluent
sludge
71
hydraulic model of Aerated lagoons:
Aerated lagoons are designed as completely mixed reactor without solids

recycle. The derivations of the equations of such a system are presented in
unit 2.
Qe
Qo S
S,X
So
Qw
S
For "AL" the following design equations apply:
Ks (1+ θKd ) Y (S0 − S )

S= ,X =
θ (µm − Kd ) −1 1+ Kdθ
these equtions were derived previously ( unit-2)

72
Differences between Aerated lagoons and Activated sludge:
* Since no solids are recycled in AL, the biomass concentration X is in the

range of 100 – 400 mgvss/L , which is too low compared to 1500-6000
mgvss/L in activated sludge, As a result, we need much more reactor
volume (V) to achieve similar treatment efficiency to that of Activated
sludge systems.
* Only BOD removal is achieved in Aerated lagoons because the oxygen

in θ c is not enough to achieve nitrification ( θ c , supply and sludge age
and have a typical range of 3-10 days). Note that θ AL is equal to
in this θ is equal to θ c dose not appear in the equations above , but θ c
system.
73
mixing power requirements:
The power needed for mixing is usually more than power needed
for aeration in aerated lagoons. So we always need to check for
mixing requirements using the following equation:
P= 0.004 X + 5
Where,
Kw
P = power input , 3 3
10 m
X= MLSS in the "AL" , mgss/L
74
Example 10:
Design an aerated lagoon to treat a domestic waste water with a

total BOD of 400 mgBOD/L , a TSS of 130 mg/L and a daily
flow of 8000 m3/d. Heterotrophic bacteria growth constants are
-1 mgvss
µ m = 2.8d −1 , Ks = 60 mgBODs/L, Kd= 0.03d , Y = 0.5 ,
mgBODs
assume θ = 5 days.
Assume that (BOD)/ Tss=0.63, and MLVSS = 0.8 MLSS ,
75
T
h =2.5m
Slope = 1:3 h
= 3h
B
76
Solution:
1- determine (S0) soluble:
(S0)soluble=(BOD5)total–(BOD)particulate= 400 – 0.63*130 ≅ 318 mgBOD/L
2- calculate S:
K s (1 + θK d )
S=
θ (µm − K d ) − 1
60(1 + 5 • 0.03) mgBOD

S= = 5.37
5( 2.8 − 0.03) − 1 L
3. calculate X: typical range 100-400mgvss/L
0.5(318 − 5.37) mgvss

.X = ≅ 136
1 + 0.03 • 5 L 77
4. Calculate the volume and surface area required:
* V = Qθ = 5*8000 m3/d = 40000 m3/d

* Assume the depth of the lagoon as 2.5m, and that the lagoon is square,
find the surface area:
T 2 + B 2 
From the geometry of the AL→ V =   • h , and T = B + 6h
 2 
 (B + 6 • 2.56)2 + B 2 
40000 =   • 2.5 , solve for B→ B ≈ 118.8 m
 2 
Then, T= 118.8+6*2.5 = 133.8 m
A surface or As = (133.8)2 ≈ 17902 m2 Note that this is a very large area.
5. Assume that only 9000 m2 available, what changes should we do?

9000
, so the proposed lagoon ≅ 0.50 We can reduce (V) by the ratio
17902
volume (V) = 0.5*40000 = 20000 m3
78
V 20000
* calculate θ in this case: θ = = = 2.5 days
Q 8000
60(1 + 2.5 • 0.03) mgBOD5
* calculate S in this case: S = ≅ 10.9
2.5(2.8 − 0.03) − 1 L
* calculate X in this case:
0.5(318 − 10.9 ) mgvss
X = = 143 , typical range 100-400, OK
(1 + 0.03 • 2.5) L
6. Calculate the sludge production for the first case, when θ = 5 days :
PX = Yobs Q( S 0 − S ) ,
Y 0.5 mgvss
Yobs = = = 0.43 ,
1 + k d θ 1 + 0.03 • 5 mgBOD5
m 3 10 3 L 1Kg Kg
PX = 0.43 • 8000 • 3 [318 − 5.37 ] 6 = 1075
d m 10 mg d
7. Calculate the oxygen requirements:
RO = Q( S 0 − S ) − 1.42 PX
m 3 10 3 L 1Kg Kg KgO2
RO = 8000 • 3 (318 − 5.3) 6 − 1.42 • 1075 = 975
d m 10 mg d d
79
7. Calculate the power needed for oxygen transfer
assuming that 1.8 Kg O2 requires 1KWh:
KgO2 1 1d
Power = 975 • • ≅ 23 Kw
d 1.8( KgO 2 / KWh ) 24h
8. Check power requirements for mixing:
Xvss 136 mgss

P = 0.004 X ss + 5 , Xss = = = 170
0.80 0.80 L
Kw 3
P = 0.004 • 170 + 5 = 5.68 , but V= 40000 m
10 3 m3
5.68
So the total power needed Ptotal = 40000 • 3 = 227 Kw
10
So mixing power controls the design.
80
Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR):
Sequencing Batch reactors are suspended growth activated sludge system.

The main difference between SBR and conventional sludge system is that
in the later process in continuous (CMFR) while in the SBR it is
interment.
Hydraulic model of SBR:
SBR are designed as batch reactors. The reactor is filled, then time is
allowed for reaction to occur. During the reaction the reactor is
completely mixed. The design equation of this system is presented in
Unit 2.
For SBR the following equation is applied:
So  µm 
K s ln − (S o − S t ) = X  t
St  Y 
81
SBR process:
The SBR process is a fill and draw process. This process has five steps
as shown in the figure:
• Fill
• React (Aeration)
• Settle (sedimentation)
• Draw (decant)‫ﺗﻔﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺎء اﻟﺮاﺋﻖ‬
• Idle (‫)ﻓﺘﺮة اﻧﺘﻈﺎر ﺑﻌﺪ اﻧﺘﮭﺎء دورة اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ‬
The following is a description of the five steps:

1. Fill:
• It is the process of adding raw sewage to the SBR tank.
• The fill volume is determined so that the added “Q” rises
the volume from 25% VT to 100%VT.
• Typical time needed for the fill step is 25% of the cycle
time.
• The volume addition is controlled by automatic valves or
timers.
Interment aeration is needed in this step is needed to prevent an aerobic
conditions
82
2. React:
• The purpose of this step is to start the aerobic reactions by

applying oxygen and complete mixing. In this step both
organic matter removed and nitrifications achieved.
• The volume of the tank during this step is100% full with
wastewater .
• The time needed for this step is typically 35% of the cycle
time. This time should be checked using the batched reactor
design equation .
3. Settle:-
• The purpose of settle step is to allow solids separation to

occur providing a clarified supernatant to be discharged
as treated effluent . It is a sedimentation step .
• The settle step is controlled by [using automatic timers] ,
1
it takes hr to 1 hr [≅ 20% T Cycle] .
2
During this step no mixing or aeration is applied.
83
3. Draw:
• The purpose of this step is to remove the clarified treated

wastewater from the reactor.
• Draw ( ‫ ) ﺗﻔﺮﯾﻎ اﻟﻤﺎء‬is achieved by floating decants or
automatic adjustable weirs.
• Draw time is 15 % T cycle ( typically 45 minutes ).
• The volume is reduced to 35% VT
• No aeration or mixing is applied during this step.
To prevent solids from leaving with the effluent, it is usually preferred to
add an extra volume above the sludge blanket.
84
4. Idle:
• The purpose of idle step in a multi-tank system( i.e. more than

2 tanks)is to provide time for one reactor to complete its fill
cycle before switching to another tank. Idle is not a necessary
step, and can be eliminated.
• Aeration and mixing can be applied to prevent anaerobic
conditions, depending on the idle time.
of cycle time or longer in some cases. For example if the ≅ 5 % Idle time is
flow “Qin” is minimum and the other tank is in the fill phase is not
receiving it’s design “Qin”, then the tank in the idle step has to wait until
the first tank completes the fill step.
85
Sludge Wasting:
Sludge wasting is not a separate step, it can be done in the idle step, or
during the react step if the idle step is eliminated.
Sludge Recycle:
No sludge recycle is needed since sedimentation occurs in the biological
reactor, so sludge is already there.
Cycle time in SBR:
The cycle time is the total time needed to complete the five steps
mentioned above:
T cycle = tƒ + tr + ts + td + ti
tƒ = fill step time Note: there is a relation between
tr = react step time tƒ and tr, ts and td:
tr + ts + td
ts = settle step time tf =
n −1
td = draw step time
n= number of SBR tanks used.
ti = idle step time
Typical cycle time is 4-8hrs.
86
• At least two SBR tanks are needed
• No final sedimentation is needed
• No sludge recycle is needed
• If θ c is >20 days, no primary sedimentation tank is needed
• SBR tanks are square tanks in which 5 ≤ L ≤ 30m
• Typical depth = 5m.
87
Advantages of SBR:
• Biological reactions and final sedimentation is achieved in one

tank, so we do not need final sedimentation tank.
• No need for sludge recycle pumping station.
• If θ c is >20 we do not need primary sedimentation tank, and
the wasted sludge is stable.
F
( Note: ratio is similar to that of oxidation ditches, i.e. 0.02-
M
0.15 mgBOD5 / mgvss.d )
88
Example 11:
Design an SBR system to achieve both BOD5 removal and

nitrification. The following Data is available:
mg m3 mgss
• (BOD) soluble = 150 , Q = 7500 , X = 3500 ,
L d L
mgss mgN
X s (i.e X r ) = 10,000 , K n = 0.5
L L
mgvss
Yn = 0.12 , µ mn = 0.44d −1 , K dn = 0.05d −1
mgBOD5
mgvss
Y = 0.5
mgBOD
K d = 0.05d −1
mgBOD
K s = 50
L
µ m = 2.5d −1 89
• Assume:
ts= 0.5hrs (typical)
tD= 0.5hs (typical)
tr = 1.0hrs (typically 1-2hrs)→Should be checked by the
batch reactor design equation.
1. Determine SBR operating cycle:
Tcycle = tƒ + tr + ts + tD (ti = 0.0, not needed)

tr + ts + t D
tf = assume n =2 SBR tanks, if the dimension of SBR
n −1
are within 5 ≤ L ≤ 30 o.k., other wise more than 2 tanks are needed.
1.0 + 0.5 + 0.5

tf = = 2hrs
2 −1
Tc = 2 + 1.0 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 4hrs
90
2. Determine number of cycles per tank per day:
24hrs cycles
No cycles = =6
4hrs tan k • d
3. Determine fill volume per cycle per tank:
Q0 7500 3
n 2 = 625 m
VF = =
No cycles 6 fill
V
4. Determine F fraction:
VT
VFill = fill volume
Vs = settle volume
VT = VF+Vs
VT X
VT • X = Vs • X s → Vs = Note: VFill = Vdecant
Xs
3500
Vs = • VT = 0.35 VT Vdecant = volume of treated
10,000
91
V F = VT − 0.35VT = 0.65VT wastewater disposed in each cycle.
Since : VF = 625m3
VF 625
VT = = ≅ 962m 3
0.65 0.65
5. Determine the surface area of each SBR:
Assume the depth of each tank is 5m (typical depth)

VT 962m 3
Asurface = = = 192m 2
depth 5m
L = 192 ≅ 13.90m
so two tanks are o.k 5 ≤ 13.90 ≤ 30m
92
6. Determine the portion of heterotrophic and nitrifiers
microorganisms and θ c :
X= Xnitrifiers + Xhetrotrophs = Xn+Xh
mgVss
X= 3500 • 0.8 = 2800
L
QY ( N − Ne)θ c QY ( S − Se)θ c
Xn= n , Xh =
[1 + K dnθ c ]VT [1 + K dθ c ]VT
3750 • 103 • 0.12(40 − 0.5)θ c 3750 • 10 3 • 0.5(150 − 10)θ c
2800 = +
[1 + 0.05θ c ] 962 • 10 3
[1 + 0.05θ c ]962 • 10 3
18.5θ c 272.9θ c mgVss
2800 = + ≅ 178θ c
[1 + 0.05θ c ] (1 + 0.05θ c ) L
θ c ≅ 18.5 days
18.5θ c 18.5 • 18.5 mgVss
Xn = = ≅ 178
1 + 0.05θ c 1 + 0.05 • 18.5 L
272.9θ c 272.9 • 18.5 mgVss
Xh = = = 2623
1 + 0.05 • θ c 1 + 0.05 • 18.5 L
mgVss
Or X h = 2800 − 178 ≅ 2622 93
L
7. Check for the reaction time(tr):
Use the batch reactor design equation:
For nitrification:
No µ mn
K n ln + ( N o − N t ) = X n ( )t
Nt Yn
No = concentration of nitrogen in the SBR after dilution resulting from
mixing VFill in VTotal:
N • VFill 40 • 625 mgN
N • VFill = No • VT → No = = ≅ 26
VT 962 L
Nt = 0.5 mgN/L (the required nitrogen influent).
26 0.44
0.5 ln + (26 − 0.5) = 178( )t
0.5 0.12
t = 0.042 day ≅ 1hr (so tr = 1.0 is o.k. as assumed)
94
• Check for BOD removal:
So µm
K s ln + ( S o − S t ) = X h ( )t
St Y
S • V Fill 150 • 625 mgBOD5
So = = ≅ 97.5
VT 962 L
mgBOD5
S t = 10 (the required BOD in the effluent)
L
97.5  2.5 
50 ln + (97.5 − 10) = 2623 t
10  0.5 
t = 0.0154d ≅ 0.37hrs < 1.0hr (t r = 1.0hr )
* Note:
tr for nitrification always control the design of SBR.
95
8. Calculate sludge procedure:
XV 2800 • 962 • 10 3 KgVss
Px = = 6
≅ 146
θc 18.5 • 10 day
Px 146 • 10 6 m3
Qw = = 3
≅ 18
X s 8000 • 10 d
If Qw is taken during the react step:
Px 146 • 10 6 m3
Qw = = 3
≅ 52
X 2800 • 10 d
9. Calculate oxygen requirements:
Ro = Q( S in − S e ) − 1.42 Px + 4.57Q ( N in − N e )
3
10 3 Kg o 2
6
(150 − 10) − 1.42 • 146 + 4.57 • 3750 • 6 ( 40 − 0.5) = 995 per tan k
10 d
96
10. Check
F QS o 3750 • 103 • 150 mgBOD5
= = 3
= 0.21
M Vx 2800 • 962 • 10 mgVss • d
Typical range is(0.02-0.15), this is not in the range.
97
Unit 4. Attached Growth Biological Treatment System
1
Introduction:
As mentioned previously, Attached Growth is a biological treatment

process in which microorganisms responsible for conversion of organic
matter or other constituents in wastewater are attached to some inert
material such as: rocks, sand or specially ceramic or plastic materials.
This process is also called fixed film process.
"Examples of Attached growth system:
Many types of this system has been developed:

• Trickling filters( biological tower ).
• Rotating biological contactors( RBC ).
• Packed bed reactors
• Fluidized bed biofilm reactors.
2
Theory of attached growth treatment:
Liquid flow (Qin, S)
Organic matter + NH4+

Solid media
(rocks)
(plastic)
O2
End products
(CO2+H2O)
+ NO3-
(biomass layer)
( or fixed biofilm) (Qe , Se)
3
According to the figure shown, a biomass layer(bacteria) stick
to the solid media and grow there. The liquid wastewater pass
adjacent to the biomass layer forming a liquid layer. During the
passage of the wastewater in the liquid layer and its contacts
with the biofilm layer the organic matter, ammonia and
dissolved oxygen in addition to other dissolved materials
penetrate into the biomass layer by diffusion. The biochemical
reactions such as organic matter oxidation, nitrification occur
inside the biofilm layer. The end products such as CO2 , H 2 O
,and NO3 − Leave the biofilm layer back to the Liquid Layer and
move out with the liquid flow to the effluent stream.
4
Denitrification can be achieved in attached growth system in
the lower parts of these systems where anoxic conditions
exist.
The bacteria in the biomass layer grow and some of it die .

The dead bacteria lose its sticky characteristics and its
removed from the biomass layer by the action of the moving
liquid.
The removed bacteria is then removed by sedimentation in a

final sedimentation tank.
The biochemical reaction for BOD removed nitrification and

denitrification are the same of those in the suspended growth
system.
5
applications of attached growth systems
A rotating biological contactors{RBC}
Introduction
• Rotating biological contactors consist of a series of closely
spaced circular disks of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) that are
submerged in wastewater and rotated through it.
The cylindrical disk are attached to a horizontal shaft and are
provided at standard unit sizes of approximately 3.5m in
diameter and 7.5m in length . The surface area of disks for a
standard unit is about 9300m2 ,and 13900m2 for high density
units
• The RBC unit is partially submerged (typically 40%) in a
tank containing wastewater , and the disks rotate slowly at
about 1.0 to 1.6 revolutions per minute .
• As the RBC disks rotate out of the wastewater , aeration is
accomplished by exposure to the atmosphere .
6
7
RBC process design considerations:-
The following are the main design parameters needed to design the RBC
System :-
1. Staging of the RBC units
2. Organic loading rate
3. Hydraulic loading rate
RBC staging:-
• The RBC process application typically consists of a

number of units operated in series .
• For this purpose , RPC is divided into stages . Number of
stages depends on the treatment goals . For BOD
removal “ 2 ” to “ 4” stages are needed ,and “ 6” or more
stages for nitrification .
8
NOTE : the number of shafts in each stage depends on the treatment
efficiency required .
• The separation between stages is accomplished by using
baffles in a single tank or by a series of separate tanks .
• As the wastewater flow through the system , each
subsequent stage receives an influent with a lower
organic matter concentration than the previous stage.
• The RBC units may be arranged parallel or normal to the
direction of wastewater flow.
RBC unit
To
secondary
Influent clarifier
1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage 4th Stage 9

Organic loading rate:
The organic loading rate for RBC in typically in the range 4-10 g(BOD)
so lub le
2
for BOD removal only. If both BOD removal and nitrification,
m •d
g ( BOD5 )
the range is 2.5-4
m2 • d
Nitrifying bacteria can not develop in RBC until(BOD5) drops to less than
15mglL. The maximum nitrogen surface removal rate that has been
gN
observed to be about 1.5 2
m •d
st ( BOD5 ) s
The maximum 1 stage organic loading is 12-15 2
.
m •d
10
Hydraulic loading rate:
The typical hydraulic loading rate of 0.08-0.16 m 3 / m 2 for BOD5

removal and 0.03-0.08 m 3 / m 2 for both BOD5 removal and nitrification.
The hydraulic detention time ( θ )is 0.7-1.5hrs for BOD5 removal and
1.5-4hrs for both BOD5 removal and nitrification. The volume of RBC
tank has been optimized at 0.0049 m 3 / m 2 for one shaft of 9300 m 2 .
A tank volume of 45 m 3 is needed. Based on this volume and a hydraulic
loading rate of 0.08 m 3 / m 2 .d the detention time is 1.44hrs. Atypical side
wall depth is 1.5m to achieve 40% submergence.
11
12
RBC with four shaft, flow parallel to shaft
Simplified model of biofilm 13
Typical treatment plan configuration:
14
RBC
units
Primary Final
Bar Grit Sedimentation clarifier
screen removal
effluent
1st stage 2nd

stage
15
Design equation of RBC:
The following empirical equation developed by Optaken( US EPA,1985 ):
As
− 1 + 1 + 0.039( ) S n−1
Q
Sn =
As
0.0195( )
Q
Where S n = soluble BOD5 concentration in stage(n), (mg/L)

As = disk surface area on stage(n), m 2
Q= flow rate, m 3 / d
16
Example 1:
Design a rotating biological contractor to treat an influent soluble BOD5 of
90 mg BOD5 /L.
The flow(Q)= 4000 m 3 /d
Solution:
• Assume 1st stage ( BOD5 ) organic loading= 15g/ m 2 .d
BOD5 (loading)= ( BOD5 ) concentration • Qin
mg m 3 10 3 L g g
= 90 • 4000 • 3 • 3 = 360,000
L d m 10 mg d
360,000 g
Disk area= d = 24000m 2 (first area stage)
15 g 2
m .d
m2
Use 9300 so number of shafts needed for the first stage:
shaft
24000m2
N= 2
≅ 2.6 say 3 shafts
9300 m
shaft
17
• Calculate S1, the BOD concentration after the first stage:
As
− 1 + 1 + 0.039( ) S n−1
Q
Sn=
0.0195( As )
Q
For the first stage n=1, Sn=S1, Sn-1 = S0
3
2 m
S0 = 90 mg/L, AS = 3 × 9300 = 27900 m , Q = 4000
d
AS 27900 m 2 d
= = 6. 98
Q 4000 m 3 / d m
− 1 + 1 + 0.039 • 6.98 • 90 mg mg
S1= = 29.75 > 14
0.0195 • 6.98 L L
So we need one more stage.
18
• Add another stage and calculate S2:
Assume two shafts in the second stage:
AS= 2 × 9300m 2 = 18600 m 2
AS 18600 m
= = 4.65
Q 4000 d
Sn=S2, Sn-1=S2-1=S1=29.75mg/L
− 1 + 1 + 0.039 • 4.65 • 29.75 mg mg
S2= = 16.86 > 14
0.0195 • 4.65 L L
So we need one more stage.
• Add another stage and calculate S3:

Assume one shaft in the third stage:
AS= 1× 9300 m 2 = 9300 m 2
AS 9300 m 2 d
= = 2.33
Q m3 m
4000
d
19
Follow Example 1:
Sn=S3,Sn-1=S3-1=S2=16.86mg/L
− 1 + 1 + 0.039 • 2.33 • 16.86 mg mg
S3= ≅ 13 < 14 OK
0.0195 • 2.33 L L
So three stages are enough.
• Check for the hydraulic loading:
Q
HLR=
total number of shafts • Area of each shaft
Nshafts=3+2+1= 6 shafts
m3
4000
d m3
HLR= = 0.072 2 , typical range(0.08-0.16), which is a
6 × 9300 m •d
little bit lower than the range.
20
• Is nitrification possible in any of the three stages?:
*Nitrification is only possible when soluble BOD5 loading is less than

BOD
10g 2
m •d
3
st m g 1 gBOD5
• 1 stage = 4000 • 90 3 • = 12.9 2 >10(no
d m 3 • 9300 m •d
nitrification)
nd m3 g 1 gBOD5
• 2 stage = 4000 • 29.75 3 • = 6.4 2
d m 2 • 9300 m •d
(nitrification occurs)
3
m g 1 gBOD5
• 3rd stage = 4000 • 16.86 3 • = 7.25 2
d m 1 • 9300 m •d
(nitrification occurs)
21
*Rate of nitrification is related to the soluble BOD5 loading by the
following equation:
gN
rn = 1.5[1 − 0.1( BOD5 )]
m2 • d
nd gN
* So for 2 stage→ rn = 1.5[1 − 0.1 • 6.4] = 0.54
m2 • d
rd g N
* And for 3 stage→ rn = 1.5[1 − 0.1 • 7.25] = 0.413
m2 • d
*If the ammonia concentration in the influent to the 2nd stage is 30

mgN/L, find the effluent ammonia concentration.
22
gN nd
rn = 0.54 2
for 2 stage
m •d
gN 2 g
Nitrogen removal = 0.54 2
• (2 • 9300m ) = 10044
m •d d
10044 g d mg
Concentration = • = 2 . 51
d 4000m 3 L
mg
So→ N2 = 30 − 2.51 ≅ 27.5
L
gN
→ rn = 0.413 2 for 3rd stage,
m •d
gN 2 g
Nitrogen removal = 0.413 2 × (1 • 9300 m ) = 3841
m •d d
g d mg
Concentration = 3841 • 3
= 0.96
d 4000m L
mgN mgN
So→ N3 = 27.5 − 0.96 ≅ 26.5
L L 23
If complete nitrification is needed a separate nitrification stage should be added
after these stages.
A = 9300m2
A = 9300m2
Qin = 4000 m3/d Shaft 1
Se = 13 mg BOD5 /L
So = 90 mg/L Shaft 1
Ne = 26 .50 mg N/L
N = 30 mgN/L
Shaft 2 Shaft 1
Shaft 2
Shaft 3
Proposed design
Note: each shaft has a tank volume of 45m3.

24
Unit 5. Sludge treatment
1
Sludge definition:
Sludge is made of solid materials separated from the water line during
wastewater treatment. In addition to solids, sludge contains a high percent
of water.
Sludge sources:
In wastewater treatment sludge is classified into the following types:

A. Grit sludge:
It is all the solids collected in the grit removal chamber, because grit
can be easily drained and is relatively stable in terms of biological
activity, it dose not need treatment and is generally disposed directly
to landfills.
2
B. Primary or raw sludge:
Primary sludge is the sludge taken from the bottom of the primary
mg
settling tanks. It contains from 3-8% solids (1% ≅ 10,000 ) .This
L
sludge is composed of settleable raw solids. Almost 7% of the primary
sludge is organic.
C. Secondary Sludge:
This sludge consists of microorganisms and inert materials that has
been wasted from the secondary treatment processes. Thus 9% of this
sludge is organic this sludge contains from 0.8 to 2%
mg
solids (i.e. 8,000 − 20000 ).
L
3
Sludge quantities:
A. Primary sludge:
The quantity of primary sludge is calculated using the following
equation:
M p = E • ss • Qin ………… (1)
Where,
kg
M p = mass of primary sludge,
d
kg
ss= suspended solids in the influent, 3
m
E = efficiency of primary sedimentation tank→ taken from (Figure (1))
m3
Qin = influent flow to primary sedimentation tank, .
d
4
5
Suspended solids
Percent removal
Figure 1
BOD
Overflow rate m/d
kg m3
To convert the sludge quantity from to :
d d
Mp
Qp = ………… (2)
Xp
m3
Qp= flow rate of primary sludge, .
d
kg
Xp=concentration of solids in primary sludge, 3
.
m
X p = ρ sludge • S ………… (3)
where,
k kg
ρ sludge = sludge density, 3 (usually taken as ρ water =1000 3 unless given
m m
S = solids fraction in sludge expressed as decimal fraction (i.e. 0.05 =
5%).
6
Example 1:-
kg
Determine the quantity of primary sludge both in and m3/d, given the
d
following:-
SS = 700 mg/l
Qin = 2000 m3 /hr
S = 5% dry solids in the sludge.
D = 36 m (diameter of primary sedimentation tank)
7
Qinf P.S A.T S.S Qeff
sludge sludge
1 St Thickener
Qthick
Sludge
digester
Sludge
Qthick 2nd Thickener
Sludge
Qdew Dewatering
8
Solution:-
a) find the overflow rate to the primary sedimentation tank:-

Qin
O/F =
A
πD 2 π * 36 2
A= = ≅1018 m 2
4 4
m3 1 24 hr m3 m
O / F = 2000 • • = 47 = 47
hr 1018 m 2 d m2 • d d
b) Find the sedimentation efficiency (E):-
from figure (1), E = 54%
9
c) Calculate sludge quantity:-
MP = E * SS * Qin
mg 10 3 L kg Kg
SS = 700 • 3 • 6 = 0.7 3
L m 10 mg m
m 3 24hr m3
Qin = 2000 • = 48000
hr d d
Kg m3 Kg
M P = 0.54 • 0.7 3 • 48000 =18144
m d d
M
QP = P
XP
Kg Kg
X P = ρ SL • S = 1000 3 • 0.05 = 50 3
m m
18144 Kg m3 m3
QP = • ≅ 363
d 50 Kg d
10
b) Secondary sludge quantities:-
Secondary sludge quantities were discussed previously in the suspended

growth treatment:-
kg XV
Px = sludge production =
d θc
Px m3
Qw = , sludge production in
Xr d
For more details on these quantities return to chapters 3 and 4.
11
sludge treatment:-
The main goal of sludge treatment is to convert it to an inert solid

product that can be safely disposed in the environment or reused for
useful purposes.
The main sludge treatment steps are-

a. Sludge thickening.
b. Sludge stabilization.
c. Sludge dewatering.
In the following section, a detailed discussion of these treatment steps is

given.
12
Sludge thickening:-
The main goal of sludge thickening is to reduce the sludge volume by

removing as much as possible of the water content of sludge, leading to the
increase of the solids content of sludge. Thickening is achieved by the
following three methods:-
a) Gravity thickening:-
Gravity thickening is achieved in circular tanks similar to sedimentation

tanks. Sludge is allowed to settle and compact. The thickened sludge is
withdrawn from the bottom of the thickener. To improve thickening some
chemicals are added, this process is called sludge conditioning. Sludge
conditioning is discussed below.
13
14
15
b) Flotation thickeners:-
For sludges with low weights, gravity thickeners are not efficient. In
this case, the sludge floats on the surface and than removed by scum
removal arms.
c) Mechanical thickening:-
Mechanical thickeners include centrifuges, rotary drams and filter belts.

The centrifuges and rotary drums use the centrifugal force to separate
solids from liquids.
Filter belts are squeezing machines in which the sludge is inserted

between two moving belts resulting in the separation of solids from
liquids.
16
Sludge conditioning:-
Sludge conditioning is a pretreatment step to increase the efficiency of

sludge thickening and dewatering of sludge. The two most common
methods of sludge conditioning are:-
a) Chemical conditioning:-
• Addition of lime Ca (OH)2.

• Addition of ferric chloride Fe cl3
• Addition of alum AL2 (SO4)3.
• Addition of organic polymers.
These chemicals are coagulants as they neutralize and destabilize the

electrically charged particles in the water and allow them to settle
efficiently.
17
• Organic polymers replace Fe cl3 and AL2 (SO4)3 salts in order to
overcome the major problems involved with these inorganic
chemicals.
Advantages of organic polymers over inorganic chemicals are:-
• Dosage is around 10 times lower than that of inorganic

chemicals (typical dosage is 5-10 kg/ tonsludge)
• Cost saving obtained in capital cost and running cost.
• Treated sludge dose not contain inorganic chemical such as

Fe3+ and AL3+.
18
b) Heat treatment:-
Heat treatment is a conditioning process that involves heating of sludge

for short periods of time under pressure. By heat treatment, the structure
of sludge flocks is altered to liberate more water from particles. The high
capital cost of equipment limit the use of this method to small treatment
plants only.
19
Design of gravity thickeners:-
Primary and secondary sludge are either treated in separate thickeners or in one
common thickener. The following table gives the design criteria for gravity
thickeners according to the sludge source:-
Sludge source Influent S (%) Expected Mass loading

under flow kg/d.m2
S (%)
- Separate sludges
PS …..…….... 2-7 5-10 100-150
TF …..…….... 1-4 3-6 40-50
RBC …..…….... 1-3.5 2-5 35-50
WAS…..…….... 0.5-1.5 2-3 20-40
- Combined Sludges
PS + WAS …… 0.5-4 4-7 25-70
PS + TF ……… 2-6 5-9 60-100
PS + RBC ……… 2-6 5-8 50-90
Note: PS = primary sludge., TF = Trickling filter sludge, RBC =

Rotating biological contactor sludge, WAS = Waste activated sludge.
20
- The area of the thickener is determined using the mass loading criteria
according to the sludge source as shown in the above table.
- The depth of the thickener is determined as follows.
As shown in Figure (4), the thickener depth is divided to the following
regions:-
5/10 ‫ﺻﻮرة ص‬
h1 = free board depth above sludge surface, typically taken as 0.6m.
h2 = clear liquid zone, typically taken as 1.0m.
h3 = settling zone, typically taken as 1.5m.
h4 = Thickening zone, it is a sludge storage region and have to be
calculated as shown later.
21
So, the thickener side wall depth (H) is calculated as :-
H = h1 + h2 + h3 + h4
The depth at the center of the thickener is calculated by adding (H) to h5:-
d
h 5 = , d = thickener diameter.
16
To calculate (h4), the thickening zone height, we assume that this zone has
a volume enough to store one day thickened sludge. So the total solids
interring the thickener will accumulate in this zone but the concentration
of solids in the thickened zone will be much more than that in the sludge
interring the thickener so, to calculate (h4):-
VTZ = AT .h4
VTZ = Volume of sludge in the thickening zone, m3
AT = Surface area of the thickener, m 2
(mT )in
VTZ = ............ 6
( X T ) out
(mT ) in = ( M T ) in • t ..........7 ( X T ) out = ( ρ SL )T • ( ST ) out ..........8 22

(mT)in = mass of sludge dry solids accumulated in the thickening zone, (kg)
Kg
(MT)in = mass of sludge dry solids interring the thickener per day,
d
t = time, days.
(XT)out = concentration of solids in sludge in the thickening zone and in the

thickening zone and in the thickened sludge coming out of the thickener, (kg/m3)
( ρ SL )T = density of thickened sludge, (kg/m3)
(ST)out = concentration of solids in the thickened sludge expressed as decimal

fraction.
Combine equations (4) and (6) and solve for h4:
( mT ) in
h4 = ............... (9)
AT ( X T ) out
23
Example (2):-
Design a gravity thickener to treat a combined primary and activated

sludge. The following data is given:-
Primary sludge:-
kg
QP = 500 m3 / d , ρ SL = 1100 3 , S = 5%
m
Secondary sludge (activated sludge):-

kg
Qs =150 m 3 / d , ρ SL =1040 3 , S =1%
m
Thickener design criteria:-

- LS = solids loading rate = 50 kg/m2.d (assumed)
- Thickened sludge concentration (ST)out = 7%
( ρ SL )T = density of thickened sludge = 1120 kg/m3
24
Solution:-
1) calculate (MT)in , (mT)in:-
(MT)in = MP + MS
m3 kg kg
M P = QP • X P = Q p • ρ SL • S = 500 • 1100 3 • 0.05 = 27500
d m d
m3 kg kg
M S = Qs • X s = QS . ρ sl . S =150 •1040 3 • 0.01 =1560
d m d
kg kg kg
( M T ) in = 27500 + 1560 = 29060
d d d
2) calculate the area of the thickener "AT":-
( M T )in 29060 kg / d 2 Note: t is always one
AT = = = 581 m
LS 50 kg / m 2 .d day for the design of
thickener
kg
( mT ) in = ( M T ) in * t = 29060 •1d = 29060 kg
d 25
- Find the diameter:-
4 4
d= AT = • 581 = 27.2 m > 20 m (not o.k )
π π
(note:- the maximum diameter for thickeners is 20m)
Use two thickeners:-
581
Area of each thickener = = 291 m2
2
4
d= • 291 =19 m < 20 m o.k
π
3) calculate the depth of each thickener:-
26
(mt ) in
h4 =
AT ( X T ) out
( X T ) out = ( ρ sl )T ( ST ) out
kg kg
=1120 • 0. 07 = 78. 4
m3 m3
29060
(mT ) in = =14530 kg
2
14530 kg m3
h4 = 2
• ≅ 0.64 m , say 0.65 m
291m • 78.4 kg
d 19
h5 = = =1.19 m, say1.2 m
16 16
side wall depth:-
H = h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 = 0.6 + 1.0 + 1.5 + 0.65 = 3.75m
Depth at the center = 3.75 + 1.2 = 4.95m = HC
27
4) Calculate the reduction of sludge volume:-
( M T ) out 29060 / 2
Thickend disch arg e → QT = = =185 m 3 / d
( X T ) out 78.4
(Qw ) Re moved = Q p + QS − QT = {(500 + 150 ) / 2 −185}m 3 / d =140 m3 / d
(QW ) Re moved 140

% reduction = •100 = •100 = 43%
(QP + QS ) (500 + 150 / 2)
28
sludge stabilization:-
Sludge stabilization is the process in which the biodegradable organic

matter is converted to non-biodegradable (or inert) matter.
The main purpose of this process is to produce a sludge that will not
undergo any further decomposition when disposed to the environment (i.e
stable sludge).
If sludge is disposed without stabilization it will create bad odor and health
hazards.
The most common method used for sludge stabilization is the anaerobic
digestion.
This process is achieved in a closed anaerobic tank called digester.
The digester shown is a cylindrical tank with a conical shaped bottom. It is

an anaerobic completely mixed reactor.
29
The cover of the digester is a floating cover to give flexibility for gas
accumulation and to prevent explosion.
The sludge in the digester is heated to 35oC to give the best digestion
efficiency.
The digested organic matter is converted into gases such as methane (CH4),
carbondioxide (CO2) and (H2O).
The produced methane is collected and used for energy production
30
Sludge transformed to H2
and CH3COOH by
fermentation
*CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O

*CH3COOH → CH4 + CO2
31
Cross section through a typical standard rate digester
Solids reduction in digesters:-

The solids in the sludge interring to the digester is classified as follows:-
5/17 ‫ﺻﻮرة ص‬
From this classification, we understand that the solids reduction will be
performed only on the biodegradable portion of the organic matter, while
the inorganic and the non-biodegradable portions will leave the digester
without reduction.
32
Anaerobic digester design:-
The volume of the digester is determined based on the sludge detention time
(θ ) using the following relation:-
c
V = Qin θ c .. (10)
and (θ c ) is selected in the range of 15-20 days based on the percent of organic
matter destruction. The following equation is used to calculate the percent
reduction as a function of (θ ):-
c
Rs = 13.7 Ln (θ ) + 18.9 . (11)

c
Where:-
Rs = percent Reduction of organic matter,%
θc = sludge detention time, days.
33
The diameter of the digester is typically is the range 5-20m.
The sidewall depth should not be less than 8m because of mixing difficulties in
shallow tank, and maximum sidewall depth is 15m.
The floor of the digester is usually conical with a bottom slope of 1:6.
The rate of gas production in digesters is typically taken as 0.5 m3 gas for each
"kg" organic matter destroyed.
The percent of methane is approximately 65% of the total gas production.
The produced gas is collected from the top of the digester and passed through a
water tank in which CO2 and H2S and other gases are dissolved while CH4
(methane) is collected again and stored in a cylindrical tank called gas holder.
Then, methane is used for power generation that can be used in the wastewater
treatment to operate the electrical equipments.
34
Example (3):-
Anaerobic digester is to be designed to treat a thickened sludge having the

following data:-
QT = 370 m3/d, S = 7%, MT = 29060 kg/d, S.G = 1.12
θ c = 20 days, 70% of MT is organic, S.G = 1.05 after digestion.
1) Calculate the required digester volume:-
* V = QT . θ c = (370 m3/d) * 20 day = 7400 m3
This volume dose not include the volume of the conical volume at the
bottom. Assume the sidewall height
35
V
H = 8m , So the surface area AS =
H
7400
As = = 925 m 2
8
925 * 4
d= = 34 m > 20m not.ok
π
36
So we can either increase the depth "H" to a value in the range of 8-15m, or
we can use two digesters.
Let us first try to increase H to 15m:-
7400
So ⇒ As = = 493 m 2
15
493 * 4
d= = 25 m > 20 m not.ok ,
π
so let us use 2 digesters.
37
370
So ⇒ QT = =185 m 3 / d ( for eaeh digester )
2
V = QT .θ c = (185 m 3 / d ) * 20 = 3700 m 3
assum H =15m
3700
As = ≅ 247 m 2
15
247 * 4
d= =17.7 m, say 18m
T
38
0.5 m free beard
H
d
Slope = 1:6
39
if the digesters needed to be lower than 15m we can use 3 or 4 digesters to
get smaller digesters.
Correct "H" for d = 18m :-
Td 2
As = = 254.47 m 2
4
V 3700
H= = ≅14.5 m
A 254.47
add a (0.5m) as freeboard between the maximum sludge level and the
floating cover
• Calculate the conical part depth:-
d 18
h = = =1.5m
12 12
40
2. Calculate the efficiency of solids reduction:-
Rs =13.7 ln θ c +18.9
=13.7 ln 20 +18.9 ≅ 60%
Calculate the organic matter weight:-
29060
MT = =14530 kg / d ( for each digester )
2
M o = organic matter = 70% x14530 =10171kg / d
( M iaert ) Raw = inert matter = 30% x14530 = 4359 kg / d
41
4) Calculate the gas production:-
10171 kg/d * 0.6 = 6103 kg/d
Gas = 0.5 m3/kg x Mdest
m3 kg m3
= 0.5 • 6103 ≅ 3052
kg d d
m3 m3
Methane = 60% • 3052 ≅1831 from each digester
d d
42
Note: this volume is at standard conditions i.e. T = 0 0C, P = 1 atmospheric. It is
usually stored in gas holders (or gas storage tanks) at a pressure larger than the
atmospheric pressure to reduce the volume of gas holders for example, if the gas
is stored at P = 2 atm the volume
V1 P1 1831*1
V2 = = ≅ 916 m3 so we can size the gas holder.
P2 2
Calculat the weight of the destroyed organic matters.
Mdest = 60% * organic matter

= 0.60 * 10171 kg/d (for one digester)
= 6103 kg/d
(Mdest) = 10171 – 6103 = 4068 kg/d (inert matter)
Calculate the total inert materials leaving the digester:-

kg
M d = ( M inert ) Raw + ( M inert ) d = 4359 + 4068 = 8427 43
d
* Calculate the percent reduction of total solids by the digester:-
M T − M dest •100 14530 − 8427

%R = = •100 ≅ 42%
MT 14530
5) Calculate the concentrations of solids after digestion:-
( Md ) 8427 kg / d kg
( X out ) d = = 3
= 45.6 3
Qd 185 m / d m
( X oud ) d kg 1
Sd = = 45.6 3 . ≅ 0.043 = 4.3%
ρ se m kg
1000 3 •1.05
m
44
* Mass and flow balance:-
Md 8427 kg/d
Mr 14530 kg/d
Qd 185 m3/d Qr 185 m3/d
(Xout) d 45.6 kg/m3 XT 78 kg/m3

digester ST 7%
Sd 4.3% 1120 kg/m3
ρ se
ρ se 1050 kg/m3
45
Sludge de-watering:-
Dewatering is a physical process used to reduce to water content of sludge
after stabilization. Several methods are used for dewatering as follows:-
A) Natural dewatering:-
Natural dewatering depends on evaporation and percolation. Sludge
drying beds are the most common example of natural dewatering.
Evaporation
Sludge
Fine sand
Gravel
Perforated pipe
Sludge drying beds

46
• Sludge Drying Beds
– Most popular method
– Simple
– Low maintenance
– Effected by climate
Sludge Drying Beds
47
B) Mechanical dewatering:-
Mechanical dewatering methods are divided to three main categories:-
a) Vacuum filtration:-
Water is removed under applied vacuum through a porous media that
retains solids and allow water to pass.
• Cylindrical drum covered by mesh or

fabric - rotates into partially
submerged vat containing
conditioned sludge
• Apply vacuum to pull out water
• Achieves 15-30 % solid content
Vacuum Filtration 48
b) Pressure filtration:-
Water is removed by applying presume (squeezing). Belt filter
process is the most common example on this method.
Sludge
Dewatered sludge
Squeezed water
Sludge disposal
• Belt Filter Press

– Forces out water by essentially squeezing water between two
moving filter belts
– Apply pressure to pull out water
– Achieves ~19 % solid content
– Lower energy consumption than vacuum filters
– Does not have problems with sludge pickup like vacuum filters
49
3) Centrifugation:-
Solids are separated from liquid by centritugal forces.
Mass and flow balance is performed on dewatering units as follows:-
M M
S Dewatering S
unit
X X
Q Q
Note:- "S" after dewatering in the range of 25 – 50%.
50
Volume Reduction
• Incineration
– Complete evaporation of water from sludge
– Requires fuel
– Solid material is inert
– Exhaust air must be treated prior to discharge
51

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Physical, chemical and biological

1. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics 4. Attached growth biological

2. Fundamentals of biological wastewater treatment 5. Sludge treatment

3. Suspended growth treatment systems

Quiz & HM 25%

Type of Wastewater Source of wastewater

Gray water Washing water from the kitchen, bathroom,

Yellow water Urine from separated toilets and urinals

Brown water Black water without urine or yellow water

• Solving social problems caused by the accumulation of wastewater

Volatile organic compounds Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes

Other Natural decay of organic materials

Inorganic: Domestic wastes, domestic water supply, groundwater infiltration

Heavy metals Industrial wastes

Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes

PH Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes

Phosphorus Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes natural runoff

Gases: Decomposition of domestic wastes

Oxygen Domestic water supply , surface- water infiltration

Biological constituents: Open watercourses and treatment plants

Eubacteria Domestic wastes, surface water infiltration, treatment plants .

Archaebacteria Domestic wastes, surface-water infiltration, treatment plants

• Solids are classified into three main types:

2. Settleable solids: Settleable solids are measured as ml/L, which is

3. Suspended solids (SS) and Filterable solids (FS).

(E. g, methy1 and ethy1) CH3SH, CH3 (CH2) SH Decayed cabbage

Skatole Fecal matter

Oxygen solubility is less in worm water than cold water.

Optimum temperature for bacterial activity is in the range of 25°C to 35

Nitrifying bacteria stop activity at about 5°c.

Some times pink due to algae or due to industrial colors.

Points of concern regarding the chemical characteristics of wastewater are:

Organic matter (Ca Hb Oc).

75% SS organic. (Suspended Solids)

Many parameters have been used to measure the concentration of organic

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

BOD5 is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

It is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring

This method measures the organic carbon existing in the wastewater

Theoretical oxygen (ThOD)

If the chemical formula of the organic matter existing in the WW is

L0 or (BOD ultimate ) or UBOD.

The environmental engineer must have considerable knowledge of the

The Engineer should know:-

1. The principal groups of microorganisms found in wastewater.

The main categories of pathogens are:-

Contaminants Unit Weak Medium Strong

C) ْ C (BOD5,20ْ5-day, 20 mg/L 110 220 400

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) mg/L 250 500 1000

Free ammonia mg/L 12 25 50

Phosphorus (total as P) mg/L 4 8 15

Chloridesa mg/L 30 50 100

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/L 50 100 200

Grease mg/L 50 100 150

Total coliformb no/100 ml 106 - 107 107 – 108 107 – 109

Volatile organic compounds Mg/L <100 100 - 400 > 400

Physical Chemical Biological

solids, temperature, color,

• Organic : carbohydrates, fats, proteins,

• plants (algae, grass, etc.),

4 High temp. oxidation (550ºC)

What is TSS, VSS and TS in the sample? mg/ml