Unit: EDU660 Research Project

Unit coordinator: Professor Dorit Maor

Assignment: Literature Review

Project Title

Criticality in the Service strand to fulfill the transformative potential of the CAS and
IB mission ideals: A literature review.

Pages: 30
Word count: 7002 (excluding cover page)

Student Details

Naazreen Angullia
Student number: 30468471
Course: Masters of Education (Coursework)
Contact: 30468471@student.murdoch.edu.au / (65) 94232748
Criticality in the Service strand to fulfill the transformative potential of the CAS and IB mission ideals:
A literature review.

Abstract

The International Baccalaureate has gained much prestige for fulfilling the academic excellence the
organization has committed to in its mission statement, which also contains an idealistic aim to create a
better and a more peaceful world. Fulfilling the mission statement in its entirety is hinged upon
actualizing the mission ideals, which remain neglected due to academic priorities. The Service
component of the Creativity, Activity, Service programme has been cited as the site with the biggest
potential to actualize the mission ideals. Twenty five recent empirical studies and a non-empirical
article, investigating the Service strand were reviewed, through a framework of Critical Pedagogy
informing Critical Service Learning, for the extent to which service programmes demonstrate the
criticality necessary to create a better and more peaceful world. Research into this area is still emerging
and limited, particularly research using critical methodologies. The review found numerous shared
goals and approaches between the Service strand and Critical Service Learning and recommends
pedagogical integration to improve the quality of Service towards supporting the IB mission ideals for a
peace.

Keywords: International Baccalaureate, CAS, Service, Critical Service Learning, mission statement.

1. INTRODUCTION

As today’s globalized world becomes increasingly problematized by social inequality and

injustices, it is imperative educational institutions deliver pedagogy which critically engage with
these complexities by providing students the tools to respond to these challenges proactively to
create social systems which are lastingly transformative. The IB was established in Geneva,
Switzerland, in 1968 when post Cold-War social and political movements were fueling an
ideological shift in education for international understanding and peace (Hill, 2002). From the
outset, its founders were motivated by an idealistic vision (Hahn, 2003) while aspiring to develop
a progressive curriculum for an elite clientele. All four International Baccalaureate (IB)

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programmes are underpinned by the organization’s mission statement which is declarative of both
a pragmatic aim for academic excellence and an idealistic aim “to help to create a better and
more peaceful world” (Appendix 1) with a goal to foster international-mindedness (IM) (Hill,
2012). Of central importance in supporting the transformation of students, the CAS (Creativity,
Action, Service) programme, a core component of the IB Diploma Programme (IBDP) (IBO,
2013; IBO, 2015b) has been credited for enhancing students’ personal, social and civic
development through experiential learning (Hill & Saxton, 2014) and was developed to actualize
the mission statement in practice (IBO, 2015b, p. 3). Research has demonstrated that the CAS has
the biggest potential to fulfill the IB’s mission ideals, specifically through its Service
requirements (Basel, 2016; IBO, 2015b; Lillo, 2016).

However, scholars have argued that international schools typically engage in service which lack
criticality as defined by “critical pedagogy” (Wasner, 2016, p. 244) and that not all service
experiences are necessarily or lastingly transformative (Basel, 2016). In contrast to traditional
community service, a critical service learning (CSL) approach informed by critical pedagogy
(CP), with its explicit social justice aim (Mitchell, 2008), involves critically conscious
participants who can recognize, critically reflect upon injustices and fight oppression
collaboratively as “‘change-agents’ in the world” (Michetti et al . , 2016, p. 157 as cited in
Wasner, 2016, p. 244) to create a better world through political and social transformation (Freire,
2000). An absence of criticality impairs the effectiveness of Service in fulfilling the
transformative goals of CAS and IB mission ideals, which exist presently as a “static entity”
(Wasner, 2016, p. 249).

The IB’s undisputed ‘gold star standard’ of education is based on extensive evidence of DP
graduates’ access to elite universities (IBO, 2015d; Belal, 2017; Hill, 2012; Lee & Wright, 2016).
The IB has faced criticisms for the instrumentization of the DP for the purpose of university
access (Lee & Wright, 2016) and “selling social advantage rather than social justice”
(Whitehead, 2005 as cited in Bates, 2012, p. 185) through the marketing of IM and its mission
ideals. The phenomenal growth of the IB and its penetration into the public educational sphere to
over 6000 schools in 136 countries across the world (IBO, 2018) signifies its curriculum and
mission statement having a wider reach and impact than ever. The IB must, therefore, use its
power and prestige responsibly in providing ‘Education for a better world’ (IBO, 2015c).

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1.1 Purpose of the review

The literature review aimed to provide an overview of the current state of research on the CAS
Service strand and to evaluate the service programes for the extent to which they are sufficiently
critical in order to fulfill the transformative potential of the CAS and to actualize the IB mission
ideals . The review was purposefully carried out through a transformative worldview and an
emancipatory paradigm within a theoretical framework of Critical Service Learning informed by
principles of Critical Pedagogy. This work aimed to illuminate key challenges and highlight
promising practice and research approaches and suggest future directions in research and
pedagogy for the IB. The findings in this review can potentially contribute to critical dialogue in
the emergent field of IB research into service in the spirit of critical reflexivity and educational
innovation.

1.2 Positionality

Having grown up as a minority in multicultural Singapore and sparked by a deep interest in

culture and an aspiration to understand and help marginalized people, I pursued an Anthropology
degree which transformed the way I viewed people through a notion of an individual world lens.
Later, I worked at several international schools where my regard for the IB pedagogy grew.
However, in this professional context, I was unsettled when the school’s administration was
replaced by a team intensely driven by profit margins. This negatively impacted on the school
morale and delivery of curriculum which no longer reflected the progressive ideals the IB
advocates. A turning point for me, philosophically and professionally, took place at the start of
this M. Ed course when I was introduced to CP. This rekindled my passion as an educator to
reimagine possibilities of change for a better world through CP. Hence, conducting my review
through a theoretical framework based on CP was influenced by the emancipatory purposes of
my research. In making explicit my positionality as a researcher, I acknowledge that being an IB
“insider” has its drawbacks, due to my inherent biases and assumptions. Significantly, the
research was inspired by a genuine interest for knowledge in the area of CAS and community
services, where I am hoping the next part of my professional journey will take me.

1. 3 Theoretical Framework

My personal interest in issues related to marginalized and disempowered groups, with a focus on

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action and change to improve society (Creswell, 2014) led me to pursue this review through a
transformative worldview/lens (Creswell, 2014) and its complementary theoretical framework of
CSL informed by the principles of CP, to scaffold, structure and frame my study (Merriam,
2001). Both the transformative paradigm and CP emerged out of critical theories of education,
with roots in the Frankfurt School (Creswell, 2014), drawn largely upon the work of critical
scholars such as Marx and Gramsci, concerned with examining asymmetrical power relations in
society at various levels. Among the most influential of the critical pedagogues was Brazilian
scholar Paolo Freire, who popularized the notions of praxis in his seminal work, Pedagogy of the
Oppressed. CP can raise critical consciousness around the perpetuation of neocolonialism and
social injustices in service so participation in them can create spaces for social and political
transformation (Freire, 2000).

1.4 Research Gap

To date, research on CAS has been limited (Brodie, 2014; Lee & Wright, 2016; Martin et al,
2016; Perry, 2015; Wright & Lee, 2014), with a lag between 2002 (Kulundu & Hayden) and 2016
and hardly any ethnographic studies (Wright & Lee, 2014). A dearth of research on Service was
apparent, especially on the reflection process (Perry, 2015) and effects of service on the recipient
community (Hatziconstantis & Kolympari, 2016) and in developing countries (Basel, 2016).
Research on service through Global Engagement, an IM-related construct, was also lacking
(Muller, 2012; Poonoosamy, 2016; Belal, 20176) as was research into more critical forms of IM
(Barratt Hacking, Blackmore, Bullock, Bunnell, Donnelly & Martin, 2016; Castro et al. , 2013;
Singh & Qi, 2013; Sriprakash et al. , 2014). Additionally, a research gap was evident on the civic
value of service (Billig, 2013; Billig & Good, 2013; Saavedra, 2016).

1.6 Research Journey

The initial stage of this research journey was problematized when I discovered the scope of my
search was too broad due to: ‘IB Programmes’ encompassing a continuum of four programmes,
from early childhood to tertiary level, and CP covering a vast spectrum of curricular areas.
Fortunately, the preliminary search yielded a seminal article (Wasner, 2016) which investigated
pedagogical integration of IB with CP, specifically through CSL, which critically “interrupted”
my research to re-direct focus on CSL within the IBDP boundaries.

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1.6.1 Research Questions

To what extent are CAS Service programmes sufficiently critical in order to fulfill the IB
mission ideals?

Sub-Q. 1: What are the challenges within the Service strand in fulfilling the IB mission ideals?

Sub-Q. 2: To what extent can critical pedagogy address the challenges identified in the Service
strand?

2. METHODOLOGY

During the initial data-gathering stage, the keywords “International Baccalaureate” “critical
pedagogy” and “global citizenship” were used through Murdoch Proquest, EBSCO and ERIC,
which provided access to established educational journals and yielded several relevant studies. A
larger number of sources were located through the IB Online Curriculum Centre (OCC), which I
had access to as a candidate for IB certification.

Inclusion criteria: Peer-referenced. Except the classic study (Kulundu and Hayden, 2002) and
seminal study (Hahn, 2003), all studies were published in the past six years to maintain currency
and relevance.

Exclusion criteria: Research bound by the IBDP.

Limitations: Only research published in English and a larger proportion of IB funded studies
were reviewed.

After including the keywords “CAS” “service” and “critical service learning”, further sources
were located through the aforementioned databases. A total of 25 empirical studies and one non-
empirical article (Wasner, 2016) were selected for the review. Five valuable primary data sources
found in Open Access repositories, used critical methodologies and undertaken independent of
the IB. As expected, a considerable proportion of sources (11) were from the IB Research portal
(Appendix 2.)

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 3. KEY TERMINOLOGY

International Baccalaureate (IB)

The IB is the non-profit organisation based in Geneva. The IB refers to both the organization and
its mission-based curriculum.

International-mindedness (IM)

An overarching concept, which underpins the policies and programmes of the IB, IM comprises
of three core constructs- intercultural understanding, global engagement and multilingualism.

Creativity Activity Service (CAS)

The CAS programme was developed to realise the IB mission statement in practice and credited
for transformative learning, enhancing students’ personal, social and civic development through
experiential learning.

Service

In this review, the Service strand includes community service, service learning, academic service
learning and volunteering, but excludes critical service learning (CSL) practices.

4. STRUCTURE OF THE REVIEW

The review begins with an overview of the current state of research on the Service strand and a seminal
study relevant to the current body of research to contextualize this work historically and in relation to
previous findings. The discussion and analysis was organized into two sections- first, to critically
discuss the key challenges within service in fulfilling the transformative potential of the CAS and
actualize the IB mission ideals. As evaluative criteria, the elements of criticality, outlined by CSL, is
distinguished from traditional community service by its explicit focus on social change orientation,
aims to redistribute power amongst all participants in the service-learning relationship and developing
authentic relationships in the community (Mitchell, 2008). The second section aimed to illuminate
promising practice and research approaches through exemplary service programmes and /or research
methods. The review concludes with a brief discussion of the main findings, research gaps and

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suggestions for future directions in research and pedagogy for the IB in the area of Service.

4.1 Overall State of Research

(see Appendix 3).

The research sites were categorized according to the three IB regions (IBO, 2018b)- IBA (IB
Americas), IBAEM (IB Africa, Europe, Middle East) and IBAP (IB Asia-Pacific). Five IBA, eight
IBAP and 11 IBAEM studies were reviewed; the largest of these studies (Hayden, Hemmens,
McIntosh, Sandoval-Hernández & Thompson, 2017) investigated all IB schools within two regions
(IBAP; IBAEM). The studies included one quantitative research, qualitative studies (n=15) and mixed
methods research (n=8). 17 studies were IB funded. Two studies used only curricular analysis (Castro,
Lundgren & Woodin, 2013; Hahn, 2003) Notably, only three studies reviewed used critical approaches
and methodologies to investigate power structures within service experiences: an ethnographic study
based on a transformative paradigm by a morally involved CAS coordinator and critical pedagogue
(Basel, 2016), an auto-ethnography conducted through postcolonial lens and critical pedagogy to
illuminate neocolonial practices in service learning (Christie, 2015) and an ethnographic fieldwork
study by a CAS facilitator who used standpoint theory to emphasize the voice of the marginalized
(Lillo, 2016). All four ethnographic studies (Basel, 2016; Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016; Sriprakash, Singh
& Jing, 2014) utilized ethnographic methods of data collection involving participant observation,
collection of documents and school artefacts (Creswell, 2014). Wasner (2016) problematized the
mission statement as an unfulfilled entity and investigated CAS in relation to global citizenship and IM,
explicitly advocating for CSL in her paper.

A classic study (Kulundu & Hayden, 2002) investigated the effectiveness of CAS in achieving
programme goals in one case study school in Lesotho. The researchers highlighted that better
preparation, implementation and reflection would increase the likelihood of successful community
service efforts. Research topics related to the Service component were addressed variously in the recent
literature through: community service learning (Basel, 2016), service learning (Christie, 2015; Lillo,
2016), academic service learning (Hatziconstantis & Kolympair, 2016). Two studies (Lillo, 2016;
Martin, Tanyu & Perry, 2016) investigated the policy-implementation gap within service learning. The
IB, recognizing the need to conceptualize a more critical approach to IM (Castro et al. , 2013, p. 4) to
respond to the 21st global context, commissioned a series of exploratory research projects (Barratt

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Hacking et al. , 2016; Castro et al. , 2013; Singh & Qi, 2013; Sriprakash et al. , 2014). Another IB
funded project involved three studies in Turkey, focused on authentic reflection for experiential
learning (Perry, 2015; Perry & Martin, 2016) and structures and support for CAS (Martin et al. , 2016);
another reflection-focused study was conducted in Europe (Brodie, 2014) Other studies addressed
service in relation to civic engagement (Billig, 2013; Billig & Good, 2013; Saavedra, 2016), its impact
on the Learner Profile (Billig, Fredericks, Swackhamer and Espel, 2014), in elite settings (Lee &
Wright, 2016; Wright and Lee, 2014) and its long-term impact on alumni (Billig and Good, 2013;
Hayden at al. , 2017Wright, 2015).

A critical study of the IB by Hahn’s used Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to examine the IBDP’s
written discourse, from 1968 to 2000, to critique its role in perpetuating cultural imperialism on behalf
of the Western hegemonies (Hahn, 2003). This pivotal study revealed a discourse of colonial education
emerged through the themes of service and elitism through the IB’s Western structural relations and its
“colonial legacies” (Hahn, 2003, p. 141). Criticisms of the IB as an ongoing project for cultural
imperialism and elitism (Bunnell as cited in Bates, 2012) are pertinent to this discussion since the
presence of neo-colonialism in Service impacts negatively on its quality and in fulfilling the IB’s
mission ideals.

5. DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

Section I. The following section analyses the key challenges within Service in fulfilling the
transformative potential of the CAS and actualize the IB mission ideals for peace through social justice,
authentic relationships and critical reflection.

5.1 Social Justice

The social justice theme concerns the extent to which service programmes are intentionally structured
to enable action- oriented approaches and practices linked to social justice. Service which lack an
explicit social justice focus can perpetuate hierarchical structures and systems of privilege that create
social inequality instead of functioning as counter-hegemonic projects “to create a better and more
peaceful world” (IBO, 2015a, p. 1). The Global Engagement aspect of IM (IBO, 2015a) is linked to
responsible action taking and the idea of making the world a better place through service (Singh & Qi,

9
2013; Sriprakash, Singh & Jing, 2014).

A research project (Castro et al. , 2013) which examined the IB discourse through CDA and document
analysis, revealed fundamental issues in the IB discourse in relation to Global Engagement. Despite IB
proclamations that globally engaged people “critically consider power and privilege” (IBO, 2015a, p.
7), their study found the IB does not endorse understandings or practices for addressing the following:
global problems and challenges that involve human rights (Global engagement: teaching and learning
about rights: introduction cited in Castro, 2013, p. 41), “transformation of the self” (p. 42) and
questions related to “equal opportunity, stereotyping, marginalization, race, gender, poverty, power
and religion and faith” (p. 59), leading the researchers to recommend the IB needs to critically consider
power across the curriculum.

Two qualitative studies used critical methodologies complementary to examining identity formation
and power structures (Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016). The first study (Christie, 2015) used postcolonial
lens and critical pedagogy to explore the practices of neocolonialism in service-learning in an elite
school in China while the second ethnographic study (Lillo, 2016) investigated a range of proficiencies,
perceived barriers and supports involved in service-learning at three schools in Africa. Scholars found
the absence of social justice focus in service as a major contributing factor to preserving the status quo
through entrenching assymetrical power balances and perpetuating inequality while neglecting
important systemic factors (Christie, 2015; Hatziconstantis and Kolympari, 2016; Wasner, 2016);
service programmes risked becoming “drive by community experiences” (Lillo, 2016, p. 153) when
they failed to address the underlying causes of poverty and enable affluent students to recognize deeper
issues and wider contextual factors (Christie, 2015).

5.1.1 Civic Impact and Advocacy

Civic-mindedness has both social-emotional and behavioral components through the development of an
ethic of service, social responsibility and civic duty (Billig, 2013; Billig & Good, 2013; Kulundu &
Hayden, 2002). A two-phase study led by service learning protagonist Billig (Billig, 2013; Billig &
Good, 2013) in the Americas used a convenience sample to examine the relationship between students’
participation in experiential learning and their conceptualization of civic-mindedness and motivations
to choose particular types of service. They reported that while students engaged in a wide range of

10
service for altruistic reasons, they did not have a clear understanding of civic-mindedness despite
acquiring civic skills. Another study reported a small impact of service participation on students’ civic
attitudes, leading the researcher to conclude that CAS participation did not affect civic-mindedness in a
meaningful way (Poonoosamy, 2016). Building upon the project by Billig’s team, Saavedra (2016)
focused on the development of students’ academic civic mindedness and model citizenship to evaluate
students’ familiarity with effective advocacy techniques at four schools in the USA. In contrast to
findings by Billig (2013) and Billig & Good (2013), Saavedra noted only a minority of interviewees
described CAS as a means to develop the skills necessary for civic engagement. Based on Westheimer
& Kahne (2004)’s citizen typology framework, where three types of citizenship- participatory,
personally responsible and social-justice oriented – were possible outcomes of service programmes,
Saavedra concluded the Service component promoted the conception of the personally responsible
citizen (most likely to conform to the status quo) considerably more than social-justice citizenship
(linked to human rights, structural issues, power dynamics), reinforcing Westheimer & Kahne’s (2014)
study which revealed the social-justice type was least often the goal of service programmes (as cited in
Christie, 2015) and supporting curricular evidence of IB lacking focus on developing learners who are
going to change world for the better, particularly as action and position taking in relation to social
justice appeared “to stop short of politics” (Castro et al. , 2013, p. 42). These findings strengthen
arguments that service for social justice are often dismissed as activism or perceived as overly political,
which problematically leads to developing service programmes that emphasize student outcomes
instead of improving communities (Mitchell, 2008).

The IB’s passivity in merely creating an awareness of social justice (Tarc, 2012 cited in Wasner, 2016)
is problematic from an educational standpoint since “outrage by social injustice” (Oxfam, 2006 as cited
in Castro et al., 2013, p. 41 and Wasner, 2016, p. 244), a fundamental trait of a global citizen, denotes a
strong affective response as a precursor to more critical action-based orientations. Several studies
illustrate the importance of the this affective dimension in service. For instance, students developed
empathy and commitment during service experiences which prompted them to consider ways injustice
exists but were less focused on respecting the dignity and rights of people and even less likely to act
upon on complex problems (Billig; 2013; Billig & Good; 2013; Billig et al. , 2014). In fact, projects
motivated by affective, rather than by practical reasons (e.g. resume-building) demonstrated large
impacts on outcome areas related to social development, civic development and ethic of service (Billig,
2013; Billig & Good, 2013). Personalized and meaningful projects increased students’ commitment and
motivation (Billig, 2013; Billig & Good, 2013; Hayden et al. , 2017; Saavedra, 2016;), with

11
considerable implications for ensuring students are matched with meaningful activities, given the
significant motivator of enjoyment and its links to the transformative potential of CAS (Hatziconstantis
and Kolympari, 2016; Hayden et al. ,2017). A multiple-case implementation study at six schools in
Turkey (Martin, et al. 2016) which investigated how variations in the delivery, structures and
programme supports for CAS impacted on students’ perceptions found that programmes supporting
students’ socio-emotional development must first be improved and implemented before strong
outcomes will be demonstrated, which support earlier research findings (Billig , 2013; Billig & Good ,
2013; Billig et al. , 2014).

One retrospective study which used a life history approach to investigated the experiences of alumni in
relation to the enduring benefits of CAS participation (Wright, 2015) reported that a majority of alumni
made clear links between their IB studies and post-IBDP community work and activism despite
community service not being emphasized in the CAS, prompting questions on whether service
experiences or external influences and factors led to such responses.

5. 2 Authentic Relationships

Both the IB and CSL discourse advocate for service projects focused on building authentic
relationships which are sustained and sustainable, collaborative and mutually beneficial to students and
the communities the service is provided for (IBO, 2015b; Mitchell, 2008). Authentic relationships
should be based on principles of interdependency and reciprocity to disrupt the problematic binary of
server- served and metamorphosize traditional student-teacher roles (Mitchell, 2008). In contrast,
inauthentic service experiences can perpetuate neocolonialism through elitism and paternalism,
particularly when taking place in contexts shaped by the hegemonic forces of colonialism, often to the
detriment of engaging with the realities of local community and culture.

5.2.1 Engagement with the Local Community

Despite being a CAS outcome, engagement with the local community (IBO, 2013) was not actualized
in practice at IB schools in numerous studies (Barratt- Hacking et al. , 2016; Billig et al. 2014; Belal,
2017; Christie, 2015; Lee & Wright, 2016; Poonoosamy, 2016; Wright and Lee, 2014) and was not
perceived as main outcome for participants in a focus group analysis from a study in Egypt (Belal,
2017), which used Allport’s contact theory to attribute the development of IM to the diversity of the

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school student population instead of service participation. Additionally, the IBDP’s elitist and stressful
nature lowered motivational attitudes towards service provision. Another IM-focused study (Barratt
Hacking et al. , 2016) used a multi-method approach to gain a variety of perspectives across three case
study schools in Indonesia, China and the USA while another case study (Poonoosamy, 2016) at an
Indian Ocean Island Nation IB school explored how IM was developed by two students using a socio-
cultural lens to develop insights into each student’s experiences and tensions in the formation of their
identities in relation to IM development. Respondents from both studies recognized the affective
implications and practical applications of service in developing empathy and responsibilities to make
the world a better place, particularly in priveleged international schools (Barratt- Hacking et al. , 2016 ;
Poonoosamy, 2015) yet very few students engaged in service that benefitted the local community,
which researchers attributed to schools privileging internationalist visions (Billig et al. 2014;
Poonoosamy, 2016), such as fundraisers for international causes (Billig et al. , 2014; Christie, 2015),
resulting in students expressing less empathy with the feelings and needs of local community members
(Billig et al. , 2014) and development of IM through a sense of detachment from the locals (Barratt-
Hacking et al. , 2016; Poonoosamy, 2016).

Two studies carried out in five elite IBDP schools in China explored the extent to which the LP and
CAS fostered inter-cultural understanding between students and other communities to illuminate
challenges in developing 21st-century skill at these sites (Lee & Wright, 2016; Wright and Lee, 2014)
found that students acknowledged the benefits of Service in providing opportunities to develop
symbiotic relationships and interactions with local communities yet they risked isolation from their host
communities due to enrolment restrictions and “skyboxification” (Wright & Lee, 2014, p. 162), where
students progressed from one elite school to another to complete their higher education. Another mixed
methods study found that feelings of exclusivity and elitism amongst students of IB schools were
effectively addressed by engaging with local communities through community service (Muller, 2012).
This section highlights a collection of studies which signal considerable attention is needed to rectify
these policy-implementation issues, given that engagement with the host communities have been
demonstrated to be effective in addressing issues related to feelings of elitism.

5.3 Paternalism.

Charity, according to CP, is seen as ‘false generosity’ premised on the ethics of neoliberalism and
criticized for supporting a hegemonic discourse in its failure to address root causes behind the service
while entrenching Otherness and paternalism between the service provider and recipient (Mitchell,

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2008; Freire, 2000). Concerns over the neocolonial implications of humanitarian service as the
‘civilizing mission’ of the colonizers to the colonized which obscured the organization’s political
implications (Hahn, 2003) were more recently expressed by other scholars over the imposition of
Western conceptions of human rights through such humanitarian efforts (Christie, 2015; Kachur, 2008
as cited in Lillo, 2016).

Research demonstrated paternalism was an area of considerable challenge for the IB to overcome in
service provision. A study by Singh & Qi (2013) employed a systematic analysis of IB documents to
gain ethnographic insights into how IM took place at six IB World Schools in Australia, China and
India while Sriprakash, Singh & Jing (2014) conducted an ethnographic study to add empirical insights
at the same sites. Both studies found that ideas behind philanthropy for the ‘good’ of the other were
often accompanied by an absence of critically reflecting on one’s privilege, positionality and role in
increasing global disparity, rather than addressing power imbalances and social injustices (Singh &Qi,
2013; Sriprakash et al., 2014), which strengthens Freire’s (2000) assertions that oppressors who may
genuinely express compassion to assist the oppressed rarely questioned the structural forces that lead to
such repressions in the first place. Likewise, research demonstrated service which failed to develop
authentic relationships led students to see community members as ‘Others’ (Lillo, 2016), reinforced ‘us
and them’ attitudes (Hatziconstantis & Kolympair, 2016) and perpetuated deficit models and thinking
(Barratt Hacking et al. , 2016; Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016; Singh & Qi, 2013).

Additionally, Service motivated by a “saviour mentality” (Lillo, 2016, p. 22) and “middle class guilt”
(Lillo, 2016, p. 142) were major concerns for facilitators who struggled to make an impact without
being paternalistic due to being in positions of privilege. Christie (2015) identified how international
schools are put into the position of relative superiority thus creating a problematic binary of ‘server-
served’ associated with the cultural imperialism. She critiqued direct service as a model rooted in a
capitalist system “which presses people into giving and receiving and ultimately creating social
networks as a way of having more” (2015, p. 15). Research at one Greek school (Hatziconstantis and
Kolympari, 2016) investigated the effectiveness of the Service, focusing on volunteering. Interview
data established that students idealised volunteering as a humanitarian, selfless activity to help and give
joy to others, yet this idealistic focus was mitigated by their motivation to volunteer for feel-good
reasons, to mask their own insecurities and to earn academic credits, which reinforces criticisms made
of ‘false generosity’ as a means to assuage a bad conscience (Freire, 2000). The server-served
phenomenon in this study illuminated the dangers of assuming a hero-heroine role for volunteers, who

14
developed increased responsibility and empathy for those ‘served’ although their responses indicated
unwitting racism and xenophobia towards them.

5.3.1 Fundraising

Fundraising emerged as the most popular service activity among service types in IB schools in
numerous studies (Billig, 2013; Billig & Good, 2013; Billig et al. , 2014; Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016;
Poonoosamy, 2016; Sriprakash et al. , 2014). Fundraising often appear to be acts of social compassion.
Nevertheless, even when fundraisers (oppressors) genuinely express compassion to help the recipient/s
(the oppressed), fundraisers rarely question the structural forces that lead to dominations to begin with
or focus on justice and the elimination of need (Freire, 2000), which are goals of CSL.

Fundraising negatively impacted on civic participation and political awareness due to focusing on
service recipients rather than addressing strategies which could improve communities (Hatziconstantis
& Kolympair, 2016), particularly when raising funds for unknown receipients and causes (Billig, 2013;
Billig & Good, 2013; Billig et al. 2014). In support of Freire’s criticisms (2000), studies revealed
students who feel priveleged to raise funds were less likely to address structural causes of inequities
and make systematic changes, especially when such efforts were ill- structured (Christie, 2015; Lillo,
2016). The persistent phenomena of students defaulting to fundraising was perceived by facilitators as
their biggest challenge since charity efforts reduced poverty to an issue of having/not having money
instead of addressing authentic community needs and likened to Western charity models that view
recipients through a deficit prism (Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016). A major concern raised about
fundraising was that it was not relationship building (Basel, 2016; Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016).

Some researchers argued fundraising was only transformative when they were motivated by worthy
causes and authentic needs (Billig et al. , 2014; Kulundu & Hayden, 2002) and involved physical
involvement with and for people in need (Hayden et al. , 2017; Sriprakash et al., 2014), which resulted
in positive impacts on students and the wider communities. A significant finding emerged across
several studies which revealed that in more developed countries, fundraising was conducted in an
unstructured and decontextualized manner while schools in developing countries had more structured,
systematic and sustainable fundraising efforts in place (Barratt Hacking et al. 2016, Basel, 2016;
Muller, 2012; Sriprakash et al. , 2014).

15
5.4 Critical Reflection

According to scholars, critical reflection is essential to the educational process (Freire, 1985 as cited in
Perry & Martin, 2016, p. 2), crucial for successful service (Kulundu &Hayden, 2002) as a means of
actuating, integrating, and internalizing the social-emotional (Billig & Good, 2013; Perry, 2015), self-
discovery and motivation (Billig et al. , 2014). Despite evidence of its importance, the literature
revealed reflection as a highly problematic area for the CAS and its service component.

An implementation study of the CAS in Europe found students did not understand the purpose or
appreciate the significance of reflection (Brodie, 2014). The IB commissioned three multi-case
implementation studies at six schools in Turkey to improve the reflection process (Martin et al. , 2016;
Perry, 2015; Perry & Martin , 2016). Perry (2015) argued that ineffective implementation of reflection
raises the possibility that students are not accessing the benefits of experiential learning or fulfilling the
mission ideals. Across all three studies at these sites, reflection was poorly implemented and
inauthentic which impacted negatively on students outcomes and goals of service. The problem of poor
quality reflections of limited usefulness (Kulundu & Hayden, 2002) persisted in recent research where
student reflections lacked active engagement, for example, inauthentic reflections through fabricating
CAS experiences (Perry, 2015; Wright and Lee, 2014), mere summaries and descriptions instead of
paying attention civic issues and root causes of community needs and challenges (Billig, 2013; Billig &
Good, 2013). Students were largely negative about reflections, perceiving them as burdensome (Billig
et al. , 2013; Brodie, 2014; Perry, 2015), particularly when written reflections were “very forcefully
identified as a drawback” (Hayden et al. , 2017, p. 45). Additionally, Christie (2015) found that many
projects directed in IS in China had no instructional time provided for critical reflection, discussion and
action (praxis).

Section II. This section reports on promising service practice research approaches through exemplary
service programmes and /or research methods which have incorporated the principles underpinning
CSL which have enabled service to function as counter-hegemonic service experiences.

5.5 Collaborative, sustained and reciprocal relationships

An ethnographic study carried out in Vietnam (Basel, 2016) explored students’ experiences and what
inspired students’ motivations to initially and continue to participate in community service. With

16
multiple roles as a critical pedagogue, researcher and as a ‘morally involved’ participant-observer of
students’ lived experiences and to facilitate her research aims, ethnography was chosen for its inclusion
of participants’ voices. Her study revealed that continued and sustained service led to perspective-
shaping, mutually reciprocal experiences of “double happiness” (Basel, 2016, p. 1), seen as an
expression of love for all participants involved. Notably, students with more sustained service
experienced a naturally occurring phenomenon of spontaneous mentoring and modeling of service for
less experienced students. During interviews, students identified the benefits of direct participation in
challenging the often patronizing perspectives implied in charity or fundraising efforts, which
highlighted the ineffectiveness of fundraising in building authentic relationships , an issue raised in
other studies (Lillo, 2016; Christie, 2015). Basel’s exemplary research highlighted promising research
approaches and practice in service as transformative pedagogy.

Cultivating ‘Dignity Aware Relationships’ between school and the local community to address
authentic needs through respectful and sustainable projects was the goal of most facilitators in one
study (Lillo, 2016). Service was re-envisioned as ‘in-community learning’ empasizing sustained
partnerships to build trust and interdependency so recipients are treated with dignity and respect rather
than a through discourse of privelege and pity (Christie, 2015). Sustained and collaborative service in
partnership with local communities was found to be more influential and effective than a paternalistic
approach towards service recipients and overcoming notions of ‘civilizing mission’ (Barratt Hacking et
al. , 2016). A school at a site with much visible poverty engaged in more change-oriented, critical IM
which embraced constructs like ‘global- local interconnectedness’ to push boundaries, challenge
hierarchies and promote critical reflexivity through engaging with multiple forms of inequality so that
IM is not minimized to ‘common humanity’, which has been exploited to justify Western Hegemony
for those in priveleged positions to project their values and myths onto the marginalized as universal
(Andreotti 2006 as cited in Bates, 2012, p. 191; Sriprakash et al. , 2014)

5.5.1 Comfort Zones

Exposure to unsettling circumstances and encountering differences are fundamental to service

experiences that lead to the development and change desired (Mitchell, 2008; Westheimer & Kahne,
2004). Supporting this assertion, studies found the greatest transformational impact and value on
students occurred during service which were difficult, challenging and pushed them outside of their
‘comfort zones’ (Hatziconstantis and Kolympari, 2016) resulted in students perceiving service as the

17
most rewarding of the CAS strands (Hayden et al., 2017) and linked to positive impacts on creating
critical consciousness in students (Muller, 2012)

5.5.2 Integration of Service

The integration of Service across the curriculum (Billig & Good, 2013) and within a culture of service
were integral to the motivational success of service experiences for students and in meeting CAS goals
(Basel, 2016 ; Hatziconstantis and Kolympari, 2016; Kulundu and Hayden ; Lillo, 2016; Martin et al.,
2016; Sriprakash et al. , 2014), in becoming active participants in their immediate and wider
community (Muller, 2012; Poonoosamy, 2016). It also ensures CAS is not a peripheral programme for
students (Hayden et al. ; Kulundu & Hayden, 2002) or risks becoming compartmentalized (Brodie,
2014). Importantly, sustained change-oriented forms of service (Sriprakash et al. , 2014) within and
across the curriculum must occur in tandem with CP which teaches the language needed to discuss the
barriers to equality (Castro et al. 2013; Lillo, 2016), including “colonialism, globalization, poverty,
capitalism, gender and inequality, as well as anti-racism, class violence, human rights, and social
justice” (Christie, 2015, p. 152).

5.5.3 Critically Reflexive

In relation to active global citizenship, researchers agreed on critical reflexivity for students to develop
critical reflection skills to investigate needs, identify root issues (Martin et al., 2016) and have a critical
understanding of identity and the socio-political and historical contexts (Lillo, 2016) CP was argued to
be imperative in guiding facilitators to be explicit and literate for interrogating positionality within elite
school contexts (Christie, 2015) so they can recognize their own role in issues, interrelated elements
and the larger context involved in community projects to develop more meaningful efforts (Lillo, 2016)
while Barratt Hacking et al. (2016) recommended students need to critically reflect on IM at a deeper
level beyond knowledge and understanding to include engagement, action and emotion

6. FINDINGS

Some significant emergent factors from the review can inform us about the key challenges and
strengths in the Service strand. Fundamental problems were revealed in the IB discourse: a marked
absence of interrogation of critical issues related to power and privilege and little provision for IB
learners to go beyond considering global problems and conflicts to include engagement, action and
emotion in their responses (Barratt-Hacking et al. 2016; Castro et al. , 2013), which intensify the need

18
for CSL to reinstate the ethical and political dimensions currently missing in the IB discourse to fulfill
CAS aims through a more critical, action and change oriented service pedagogy (Wasner, 2016). To
improve civic outcomes for service, the IB must develop a stronger set of reflection and investigation
activities alongside more guidance on optimal ways to structure service experiences (Saavedra, 2016)
as well as ensuring service projects are enjoyable, personal, challenging and affectively motivated
(Billig & Good, 2013; Hayden et al. 2017; Martin et al. , 2016). Recommendations were made in
improving the depth and authenticity of reflections if they occurred within a culture of reflection and
viewed as an ongoing process (Billig & Good, 2013; Brodie, 2014; Perry, 2015; Perry & Martin, 2016).
The literature also highlighted the importance of service providers in being reflexive in recognizing
their own roles, including their civic orientations, in contributing to social inequalities (Billig, 2013;
Billig & Good, 2013; Saavedra, 2016).

Further research is required to address issues associated with neocolonialism so that service can operate
in partnership with the community – for instance, studies which offer local community members’
perspectives on service and consider neoliberal ideologies at play as well as into the practice of the
mission ideals within elite schools (Basel, 2016; Christie, 2015; Lillo, 2016). Conceptual challenges
linked to paternalism such as notions of civilizing mission and philanthropy for the good of the ‘Other’
create a problematic binary of server-served and exploitation of guilt to market community services,
therefore, service must be based on a philosophy of reciprocity which encourages students to do things
with, rather than for, others and focuses on long-term, reciprocal and respectful partnerships which
metamorphosizes traditional student teacher roles (Christie, 2015; Hatziconstantis and Kolympari,
2016; Lillo, 2016;). Fundraising must be contextualized within frameworks of sustained involvement to
ensure interdependency, dignity and respect of all participants within projects for worthy causes and
authentic needs (Barratt Hacking et al. 2016, Basel, 2016; Billig et al. , 2014; Christie, 2015; Hayden
et al. , 2017; Kulundu & Hayden, 2002; Lillo, 2016 ; Muller, 2012; Sriprakash et al., 2014; Sriprakash
et al. , 2014).

A complex dilemma remains for how the DP’s elitist and stressful nature can be effectively addressed;
for instance, China’s enrolment barriers which severely limit students’ exposure to socio-economic and
cultural diversity (Lee & Wright; Wright & Lee, 2014). Longitudinal studies investigating the long-
term impact on alumni and on sustained service in various cultural contexts can illuminate the
transformative nature of long- term service and the implications for students and the communities in

19
which they take place (Basel, 2016). This review demonstrated that the integration of service into the
culture of school and across the curriculum were hallmarks of succesful service experiences (Basel,
2016 ; Billig & Good, 2013; Brodie, 2014; Christie, 2015; Hatziconstantis and Kolympari, 2016;
Hayden et al. ; Kulundu and Hayden ; Lillo, 2016; Martin et al. , 2016; Muller, 2012; Poonoosamy,
2016; Sriprakash et al. , 2014)

7. CONCLUSION

The literature review confirms that an absence of criticality compromises on the quality and
effectiveness of Service programs in fulfilling the transformative goals of CAS and hinders service
experiences from functioning as counter-hegemonic projects for peace and a better world, as stated in
the IB mission ideals. The numerous shared approaches and goals of CSL and the CAS’ Service strand
provide strong justification to integrate both pedagogical approaches to improve service programmes so
they can be transformative in its purpose and practice for all participants involved. The review of IB
funded studies and independent research using critical methodologies by IB pedagogues demonstrated
a shift in research which argue for the need for more criticality in Service, evidenced by research
exemplars which suggest ways forward for much needed critical research and critique of the IB service
discourse and practice. The immense potential to actualize the IB mission ideals in practice through the
Service strand warrants future research into this area to provide the organization with opportunities to
respond to charges of elitism while mobilizing its mission ideals for peace and a better world so IB
learners can act as global citizens who can critically engage with the complexities and problems of the
present and future globalized context.

20
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Appendix 1: IB mission statement

Mission Statement:

“The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help
to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop
challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners
who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.”

(International Baccalaureate Organization, 2016)

25
 Appendix 2. Search Results

Search platforms via Murdoch Library

ProQuest Wiley Online Library SAGE Taylor & Francis

Dissertations & Theses

Hahn (2003); Lillo (2015) Kulundu & Hayden(2002) Belal (2017); Hatziconstantis & Kolympair (2016); Poonoosamy (2016) ; Saavedra (2016) 8
Martin et al. (2016)

IB Research

Barratt Hacking et al. (2016); Billig (2013); Billig & Good (2013) ; Billig et al. (2014) , Brodie (2014); Castro et al. (2013), Hayden et al. (2017); Perry (2015); Singh & Qi
(2013) ; Sriprakash et al. (2014) ; Wright (2015)
11

Open Access Repositories

PQ Open Minerva UNB Scholar

Muller (2012) Basel (2016) Christie (2015) 3

Online Educational Journals

IJCED ERIC International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement

Lee & Wright (2016) Wright & Lee (2014) Perry & Martin (2016) 3
Appendix 3. Overall State of Research

Research IB Region Sample

Research area Critical
Focus Methodologies

IB funded

IBAEM
Type

IBAP
IBA
Barratt Hacking et al. Ql * IM; Service. * * * 3 schools
(2016).
Basel (2016). Ql Community SL Ethnographic study. Critical Pedagogy lens * 1 school
Belal (2017) IM. Engagement with local community * 1 school
Billig (2013). Ql * CAS. Service. Civic-engagement. * 14 schools
Civic-mindedness
Billig & Good(2013) Qn * CAS. Service. Civic mindedness. * 58 schools
(214 Alumni )

Billig et al. (2014). Ql * LP. service. * 5 schools

Brodie (2014). mm CAS. * 10 schools
SL
Castro et al. (2013). * IM; GE CDA -
Christie (2015). Ql SL. global citizenship Postcolonial/CP lensAuto-ethnography. * 1 school
Hahn (2003). Ql IBDP corpus CDA -
Hatziconstantis & mm Academic SL. Volunteering. * 12 schools
Kolympair, (2016).

Hayden et al. (2017) mm * CAS. Service. * * All schools in

2 regions
Kulundu & Hayden Ql * CAS. Community service. * 1 school
(2002).
Lee & Wright (2016) mm * CAS. LP. Elitism. Critical perspectives. * 5 schools
Lillo (2016). Ql SL. Global citizenship Standoint theory * 3 schools
Martin et al. (2016). mm * CAS. SL. Global citizenship. 6 schools
Muller (2012). Ql IM 5 schools

27
Perry (2015). Ql * CAS. Reflection * 6 schools

Perry & Martin Ql * CAS. Reflection. * 6 schools

(2016).
Poonoosamy(2016) Ql IM * 2 schools

Saavedra (2016). mm * Academic civic mindedness. Model * 4 schools

citizenship.
Singh & Qi (2013). Ql * IM. GE * 6 schools
Sriprakash, et al. Ql * IM. GE Ethnographic study. * 6 schools
(2014).
Wasner (2016). IM. Global citizenship. Critical service learning. -
Non-empirical.
mm * CAS-LP- elitism * 5 schools
Wright and Lee
(2014).
Ql * Long-term impact. 23 alumni
Wright (2015). Community service.

Abbreviations used in table.

Regions: IBA (IB Americas); IBAEM (IB Africa, Europe, Middle East) ; IBAP (IB Asia-Pacific).

IB = International Baccalaureate. IM= International Mindedness. CAS= Creativity, Action, Service. LP= Learner Profile. SL= service learning.

28