STUDENTS HANDBOOK

2011 AR 408 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS & STUDY OF

SOCIOLOGY, ECONOMICS AND CULTURE
-Ar.Asha Sreenivas
Asst.Professor ,SCMS SOA,Karukkutty
 2011 AR 408 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS & STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY,
ECONOMICS AND CULTURE
M.G UNIVERSITY

Course objective: This course covers topics on settlements in the development

of human civilization,the architecture of settlement in development of human
civilization, development concepts and human settlement planning; and ap-
proaches in analyzing human settlement problems.

Module I
Introduction to sociology
Primary concepts- society, family, community, Association, Institution, Religion
etc. Social process –cooperation, conflict, competition, Accommodation, Assimi-
lation, Progress and evolution - Relating these concepts to architecture - Rel-
evance of study of sociology for architects.
Principles of human settlements: ancient, medieval, modern.. Ancient text, trea-
tise on settlement and area planning.

Module II
Culture and society, cultural lag, Deviant sub culture, Culture and civilization, So-
ciety and environment, Social change, Factors of social change, Social stratifica-
tion, rural & Urban, class & cast,social change in Kerala-structural, occupational,
rural, religious, housing and Urbanization Man Environment and Society. Unity
and diversity in India. Rural society, Village community, traditional patterns and
trends of change. Society, architecture and settlement pattern of Kerala.
Cultural anthropology, Culture and architecture. Concept of social structure. Re-
lation between social structure and spatial structure. Social aspects of housing.
Social problems of slums

Module III
Economics
Definition and scope of economics-basic terms and concepts -goods, utility,
value-wealth-factors of production-law of diminishing marginal utility – indiffer-
ence curve analysis – law of demand -law of supply Production possibility curve
and technological choice
 MODULE -I
SOCIOLOGY AND ITS BASIC CONCEPTS.
Introduction to sociology
Primary concepts- society, family, community, Association, Institution, Religion
etc. Social process –cooperation, conflict, competition, Accommodation, Assimi-
lation, Progress and evolution - Relating these concepts to architecture - Rel-
evance of study of sociology for architects.
Principles of human settlements: ancient, medieval, modern.. Ancient text, trea-
tise on settlement and area planning.
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is the youngest of all the social sciences.The word sociology is derived
from Latin word.Societus means society and Greek word logos means study or
science.

In short sociology is thus the science of society.

The most distinctive feature of human life is
its social character. All human beings have to
interact with other human beings in order to
survive.
As Aristotle said “ Man is a social animal”
Both Nature and necessity impel man to live in
a society.Mans behaviour in society is deter-
mined by two forces.Social and physical.
In the early stages man carried out study not of society but of different aspects
of society gave rise to different social sciences.
HISTORY-History is the record of unique events related to man
ECONOMICS- Economics is concerned with his activities related to production
and consumption of wealth
POLITICAL SCIENCE-Political science deals with his political activities and institu-
tions.
ANTHROPOLOGY-Anthropology studies activities and institutions as they existed
in time long past.
PSYCOLOGY –is interested in the spring of human action, impulses and motives
that sustain mental and bodily activity and regulate human conduct.

These social sciences do not give us complete picture of society, they may give
snapshot view of society from various angles of vision but never a view of soci-
ety its comprehensive totality and utility.
So there was a need for a general science which should purview the society as a
whole. And sociology was designed to achieve this end.
Thus sociology appeared when it was felt that other fields of human knowledge
do not fully explain mans social behaviour.

DEFINE SOCIOLOGY
These are some of the definitions of sociology given by some important
sociologist :
Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena.
L.F. Ward
(Lester F. Ward was an American botanist, palaeontologist, and sociologist. He
served as the first president of the American Sociological Association)
Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social
action
Max Weber
(Karl Emil Maximilian “Max” Weber was a German sociologist, philosopher, ju-
rist, and political economist whose ideas profoundly influenced social theory and
social research.)

Sociology is a body of learning about society. It is a description of way to make

society better. It is social ethics, a social philosophy. Generally, however, it is de-
fined as a science of society.
W.F Ogburn
(William Fielding Ogburn was an American sociologist .)

These definitions shows that sociologists differ in their opinions about the sub-
ject-matter of sociology.

Still sociology is
A science of society
A science of social relationships
The study of social life
The study of human behaviour in groups
The study of social action
The study of forms of social relationships
The study of social groups or social systems
ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY
It was in 1839,that Auguste comte,the French philosopher and sociologist had
coined the term sociology and defined the scope of this social science and meth-
ods which it should employ.

Auguste comte is for this reason, traditionally considered to be the father of

sociology
Auguste Comte-(side Auguste Marie François Xavier Comte, better known as
Auguste Comte, was a French philosopher. He was a founder of the discipline of
sociology and of the doctrine of positivism)
Sociology is not only a science with its own subject matter but the mother of all
social sciences.It has been said surprisingly enough by some critics that sociology
does not have a subject matter of its own and that it is hotch-potch of different
social sciences.
Social sciences are sciences of associational forms of life and therefore can never
ascend the throne reserved for sociology
CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGY
Society,family,Community,Association,Institution,Religion

SOCIETY
In common parlance the word society is usually used to designate the members
of specific in group rather than the social relationship of those persons.

In sociology;The term society refers not to a group of people but to complex pat-
tern of the norms of interaction that arise among them.

Derived from Latin- Socio- Companionship or friendship

A society is intangible; it is a process rather than a thing, motion rather than

structure.

Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of be-

haviour which mark them off from others. Who do not enter into these relations
or who differ from them in behaviour
-Ginsberg
Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal relations in which
associating individuals are bound together
-Gidding
(Franklin Henry Giddings, was an American sociologist and economist)
Society is not a group of people, it is the system of relationship that exists be-
tween the individuals of the group.
-Prof. Wright
Society is the larger group to which any individual belongs
-Green

Two types of definitions of society

Functional definition
Structural definition

From functional point of view society is defined as a complex of groups in recip-

rocal relationship, interacting upon one another, enabling human organisms to
carry on their life-activities and helping each person to fulfil his wishes and ac-
complish his interest in association with his fellows.

From structural point of view society is the total social heritage of folkways, mo-
res and institutions of habits, sentiments and ideals
Thus society is both a structural and functional organisation.it consists in the
mutual interactions and mutual interrelations of the individuals but it is also a
structure formed by these relations. It is a pattern , a system and not the people.
Characteristic of Society:-
1.Society consists of people
2.Mutual interaction –society is a process by which man interpolate into the
mind of others
3.There must be some similarities or likeness (life will be monotones if there is
no difference
4.Society implies differences
5.Depends on co-operation and division of labour
6.Sharing a common task
7.Refer to mutual working together to attain a common goal
8.Society is dynamic (change is an inherent quality no society can exist without
change)
9.Social control – society have its own way to control.
10.Culture- every society is different related to the culture of people.
11.It all happen due to the gregarious nature of man (gregarious- tendency to
live in a group)
Two types of society :
Traditional Society
Modern Society
Characteristics of Traditional society and Modern Society. Discuss?
Traditional Society:-
-Govern by Traditional institution- Religion and culture.
-Status of person is described by hereditary.
-Social mobility is lacking.
-Social behaviour is predominated by primary institution.
-Primary institutions- family,neighbourhood,community.
-Isolated from normal society.
-Less technological advancement.
-No mass scale production and specialisation.
-Homogeneous in nature.
-Intimate and personal intimacy.
-Prominence of primary control-family, cast, religion.
-Social structure is rigid according to tradition and custom.
Modern Society:-
-Social mobility is fast or dynamic.
-Flexible in nature.
-Individual achievement plays vital role.
-Class and caste is based on the income of people.
-Stability is less.
-Lack of community living.
-Primary control with secondary institution,association and trade union.
-Competition.
-Less importance to religion.
-Have scientific outlook.
COMMUNITY
Maclver defines community as an area of social living marked by some degree of
social coherence.
Whenever the member of any group, small or large, live together in such a way
that they share, not this or that particular interest but basic conditions of a com-
mon life we call that group a community

Community is a human population living within a limited geographic area and

carrying a common inter-dependent life.
-Lundberg
Community is a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and living in given
area
-Bogardus
Community is a total organisation of social life with a limited area
-ogburb and Nimkoff
Community is a cluster of people, living within a contiguous small area, who
share a common way of life
-Green Arnold
Elements of community
1.Group of people: Community is a geographical area which have common inter-
est.It includes a number of organization
Community is a total organization of social life within a specific area.
Ex: Village, City, District
2.Locality:Community is a territorial group. Some geographical location having a
boundary.It helps the members to fulfil their needs or common interest.
3.Community sentiments feeling of belonging together
Members should be aware of togetherness.It is a kind of identification within the
group.With the sense of identification.Without sense of awareness
With giving and sharing same interest.
4.Permanency: A Community is not transitory like a crowd. It essentially in-
cludes a permanent life in a definite place.
5.Naturality: Communities are not made or created by an act of will but are
natural. An individual is born in a community.
6.Likeness : In a community there is a likeness in language,customs,morals etc.
7.Wider ends : in communities the people associate not for fulfilment of a par-
ticular end. They have wider ends which are natural and not artificial.
8. A particular name: ex: punjabis, kashmiris, keralites
9. No legal status- A community is not a legal person.in the eye of law it has no
rights and duties
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY
-In a community , presence of sentiment among the members is necessary. Sen-
timents is not so necessary in a society
-Society has no definite boundary or assignable limits. Community is group living
together in a particular locality
-Community is a species of society.it exists within the society. Society have more
than one community
-Society is an abstract but community is rigid/Concrete.
-Society have likeness and difference in community likeness is more prominent
-Society is self sufficient. Community cannot be self sufficient
ASSOCIATION
An association is a group of person organised for a particular purpose or a lim-
ited number of purpose.
According to Maclver an association is an organisation deliberately formed for
the collective pursuit of some interest or set of interest, which its members
share
According to Ginsberg an association is a group of social beings related to one
another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organisa-
tion with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends

To constitute an association there must be

Firstly, a group of people
Secondly, these people must be organized ones i.e. there must be certain rules
for their conduct in the group
Thirdly they must have a common purpose of specific nature to pursue

Difference between Community and Association

-An association is partial while the community is a whole
-Association exists within community. Community is integral can have several as-
sociation.
-Association is an artificial creation. Community
is a natural growth.
-Membership in association is voluntary but in community it is compulsory.
-Community is not so organised but association is well organised
-Community don’t have specific but general needs. Association have specific
needs.
-Community is relatively stable. Association is long lasting or temporary.
-No legal status for community Association have legal status.
-Social control through tradition and custom and not through rules and regula-
tions. Association have their own rules and regulation.
INSTITUTION
Sociology is a study of social institution.
Institution have been defined by Maclver as the established forms or conditions
of procedure characteristic of group activity.
Social institutions are the social structures and machinery through which human
society organizes, directs and executes the multi-farious ( having many aspects)
activities required for human need.
Characteristic of institution:
1.Institutions are means of controlling individuals.
2.Institutions depend upon the collective activities of men.
3.Institution is more stable than any other means of control( family, religion).
they are relatively permanent changes takes place slowly or gradually.
4.Some institutions are very rigid in nature ( superstructure changes but founda-
tion remains same)
5.Not visible/intangible
6.Every institutions has some rules which must be compulsorily obeyed by the
individuals.(standardised norms and procedure)
7.Institution has got a symbol which may be material or non material
8.Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of men.it has social recog-
nition behind it.

Two types of institutions

Primary- found in primitive communities evolved or developed naturally or un-
consciously Ex-Religion, Marriage etc.
Secondary- those support primary association
Law, constitution.

FAMILY
In the context of human society, a family is a group of people affiliated by con-
sanguinity (“blood relation”, from the Latin consanguinitas), affinity, or co-resi-
dence and/or shared consumption. 

Family is a group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood or adoption;

consisting of a single household, interacting and inter-communicating with each
other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, mother and father, son
and daughter, brother and sister creating a common culture.
burgess and locke
Nature of family
1.Universality : universal in nature. First institution in the history of man.
2.Emotional Basis : Fundamental unit. Close-knit group which fortifies emotions
3.Limited Size
4.Formative influence : family exercises the most profound influence over its
members.
5.Nuclear position
6.Responsibility of the members : in family the child learn the meaning of social
responsibility
7.Social regulation :family is guarded by customs and legal regulation
8.Permanent and temporary : when one member marries he/she will start a new
family

SOCIAL PROCESS
Social interaction usually takes place in the form of cooperation, competition,
conflict, accommodation and assimilation. These forms of social interaction are
also designated as social processes.
These may therefore be described as the fundamental way in which men interact
and establish relationship.
These are repetitive forms of behaviours found in social life.
Social process includes:
Co-operation,Conflict,Competition,Accommodation,Assimilation,Progress and
evolution.

CO-OPERATION
Co –operation is the most pervasive and continuous of the social processes. It is
an integrating activity and is believed to be the opposite of competition.
Co-operation generally means working together in the pursuit of like or com-
mon interest.
Cooperation is brought about several circumstances which are
i)Desired for individual benefits
ii)Desire to give
iii)Devotion to common purpose
Situational necessity and
iv)Desire to achieve larger goals.
Types of Co-operation
1.Direct cooperation – doing things together
2.Indirect cooperation – people do different task to attain a common end. Divi-
sion of labour
3.Primary cooperation – found in primary groups such as family
Secondary cooperation- found in secondary groups like government,industry,chu
rch,trade union etc.
4.Tertiary Co-operation – interaction between various big and small group to
meet particular situation (purely opportunistic)
COMPETITION
Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle between indi-
vidual or groups for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply all may
not have.
Woodward and Maxwell
Characteristics of competition
1.Competition is impersonal struggle.
2.Competition is an unconscious activity. When there is a shift in interest from
the object of competition to the competitors themselves, it is call rivalry or per-
sonal competition.
3.Competition is universal.

On a social level individuals compete with one another, when

i)They are striving to achieve the same goal that is scarce.
ii)They are prevented by the roles of the situation from achieving this goal in
equal amounts.
iii)They perform better when the goal can be achieved in unequal terms.
They have relatively few psychologically affiliative contacts with one another.
CONFLICT
Conflict is the social process in which individuals or group seek their ends by
directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence as a process,
it is an anti thesis of co-operation.
Any human action is likely to thwart(prevent (someone) from accomplishing
something.) the hopes or interfere with the plans of someone else such a action
becomes conflict.
i)Conflict is a conscious action.it is a deliberate intent to oppose.
ii)Conflict is a personal activity.
iii)Conflict lacks continuity.
iv)Conflict is universal.
Types of Conflict
1.Personal conflict
2.Racial conflict
3.Class conflict
4.Political conflict
5.International conflict
Conflict can be also of these types
1.Latent and overt conflict
Latent(hidden or concealed) conflict becomes overt (done or shown openly)
conflict when an issue is declared and hostile action is taken, the overt conflict
occurs when one side or the other feels strong and wishes to take advantage of
this fact.
2.Corporate and personal conflict
corporate conflict occurs among the groups within a society or between
two societies. Personal conflict occur within a group.
ACCOMODATION
Accommodation is resolution of conflicts which generally means adjusting oneself
to the new environment. Adjusting may be to the physical or social environment.

Adjusting to the former takes place trough organic or structural modification

transmitted by heredity and is termed adaptation, while adjusting to the latter is
achieved by an individual through the acquisition of behaviour patterns transmit-
ted to him socially and through the adoption of the new ways of behaving and is
termed accommodation.
Characteristics of accommodation
1.Accommodation is the natural result of conflict. If there is no conflict. There
would be no need of accommodation
2.Accommodation is mainly deliberate and it can be an unconscious activity.
3.Accommodation is universal
4.Accommodation is a continuous process
5.Accommodation is a mixture of both love and hatred.

Forms/Methods of accommodation
1.Yielding to coercion or admitting ones defeat.
2.Compromise
3.Arbitration and conciliation
4.Toleration
5.Conversion
6.Rationalisation
7.Super ordination and subordination
ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is the process whereby persons and group acquire the culture of
other group in which they come to live by adopting its attitudes and values, its
patterns of thinking and behaving in short its way of life.

Factors favouring assimilation

Tolerance, equal economic opportunity, sympathetic attitude on the part of the
dominating group towards the minority group, exposure to the dominant culture,
similarity between the cultures of the minority and dominant groups and amalga-
mation or intermarriage
Factors hindering assimilation
Isolated conditions of life attitudes of superiority on the part of dominant group.
Excessive physiological, cultural and social difference between the groups and
persecution of the minority group by the majority group.

Difference between Assimilation and Accomodation

-Assimilation is permanent. Accommodation is non permanent
-Accommodation is a sudden and even sometimes a radical process. Assimilation
is a slow process
-Assimilation is unconscious. Accommodation is deliberate
EVOLUTION
Evolution is a process of differentiation and integration the term evolution comes
from the Latin word evolvere which means to develop or to unfold.it is equivalent
to the Sanskrit word vikas it means more than growth.
It is a process in which hidden or latent characters of a thing reveal themselves.it
is an order of change which unfolds the variety of aspects belonging to the nature
of the changing object.
Principles of evolution:
1.Social evolution is one cultural or human aspect of the law of cosmic evolution.
2.Social evolution takes place in the same way in which cosmic evolution takes
place.
3.Social evolution is gradual,
4.Social evolution is progression.
IDEA OF PROGRESS
1.Progress is change – A change in some direction.
2.Change can be called progress only when it fulfils the desired aim.
3.Progress is communal i.e.. Related to social system
4.Progress is volitional it requires desire and volition(will).
5.The concept of progress is variable. What is considered today the symbol of
6.progress may tomorrow be regarded as sign of regress
There is no limits to human progress.
WHAT IS HUMAN SETTLEMENT?
Vancouver Declaration defined human settlements as follows:
Human settlements means the totality of the human community - whether city,
town or village - with all the social, material, organizational, spiritual and cultural
elements that sustain it. The fabric of human settlements consists of physical ele-
ments and services to which these elements provide the material support. The
physical components comprise

Shelter, i.e. the superstructures of different shapes, size, type and materials erect-
ed by mankind for security, privacy and protection from the elements and for his
singularity within a community

Infrastructure, i.e. the complex networks designed to deliver to or remove from

the shelter people, goods, energy or information

Services cover those required by a community for the fulfilment of its functions
as a social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutri-
tion.

Doxiadis, Constantinos A. (1913-1975)

Born in Greece, Constantinos A. Doxiadis,
Graduated from the Athens Technical University and later obtained a
Doctorate at Charlottenburg University, Berlin.
Chief Town Planning Officer for the Greater Athens Area
Head of the Department of Regional and Town Planning in the Ministry of Public
Works.
After W.W.II he founded Doxiadis Associates, a private consulting firm that un-
dertook architectural and engineering projects throughout the world. The firm
specialized in implementing the principles of ekistics ( The study of Human Set-
tlements) that Doxiadis developed in numerous publications.
Design of Islamabad, the planned capital of Pakistan, and also contributed signifi-
cantly to national master plans in Ghana, Iran, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Greece.
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT
Nature
Man
Society
Shells
Network
 GROWTH OF SETTLEMENT

Energy model of the central settlement of

a system of villages. Daily per capita energy
consumption, 12,000 calories.
Energy model of the central
settlement of a system of villages dur-
ing the era of the automobile. Daily
per capita energy consumption, 25,000
Calories

Energy models of the central settlement of a system of villages during

the era of the automobile and of Daily per capita energy
Consumption (left) 45,000 calories; (right) 100,000 calories.
SHAPING OF SETTLEMENTS
-maximization of man’s potential contacts with the elements of nature
-minimization of the effort required for the achievement of man’s actual and po-
tential contacts
-optimization of man’s protective space, which means the selection of such a dis-
tance from other persons, animals, or objects that he can keep his contacts with
them (first principle) without any kind of sensory or psychological discomfort.
-optimization of the quality of man’s relationship with his environment, which con-
sists of nature, society, shells (buildings and houses of all sorts), and networks
man organizes his settlements in an attempt to achieve an optimum synthesis of
the other four principles, and this optimization is dependent on time and space, on
actual conditions, and on man’s ability to create a synthesis.

ECUMENOPOLIS: TOMMORROW’S CITY

The cities of the future will be extra-hu-
man in dimension, therefore our task is
to create them as a web of many com-
munities with human dimensions. Such
cities will finally be interconnected in
one continuous network, the Ecumenop-
olis, which will retain its human content
despite its size.

Ecumenopolis on the earth in the year

2120, by which time it is expected
that the population of the earth will
have Leveled off at a minimum of
20,000,000,000 people, and the popula-
tion of the definitely urban areas at a
minimum of 18,000,000,000 people.
DEATH OF CITIES-STORY OF SQUARE

Cause for the decay

Three big events are responsible for
these changes.
An unprecedented increase of popula-
tion,
The socialization encompassing all politi-
cal systems and social classes and
The emergence of the machine in our
lives

Expected questions from module I

short answer questions(5 marks)

1.Explain the characteristics of society
2.Describe the term accommodation.
3.Briefly trace the origin of settlement.
4.explain the functions of family
5.distinguish between progress and evolution
6.discuss the need for settlement
7.Explain the term “sociology of architects”
8.describe the features of human settlements in ancient society
Essays (10 and 20 marks)
9..Describe the changing trend in human settlement.
10Discuss the relevance of studying sociology for architects
11.explain the term social change and discuss the factor of social change.