Chapter 1 Introduction

History of Flight
–
 History of Flight
–
™  Flight of birds
–  Bird-men
™  Leonardo da Vinci (1500s)
–  The sketches of flying machines
™  Robert Hooke (1655)
–  Human flight would require some form of artificial propulsion.
™  Problems of human flight
–  Balloons
™  Joseph and Etienne Montgofier (1783) : hot air balloon
™  Professor Jacques Charles (Ten days later) : the first gas balloon
–  Kites
History of Flight
–
 History of Flight
–
™ Sir George Cayley (1773 – 1857)
–  “Father of Aerial Navigation”
–  The basic principles on which the modern science of
aeronautics is founded
–  The first full-size man-carrying airplane
™ William Samuel Henson
™ Otto Lilienthal
™ Wilbur and Orville Wright
–  December 17, 1903 (the age of flight had arrived)
–  98 seconds on four flights
History of Flight
–
History of Flight
–
Measurements
–
 Length and Distance
–
™ English system
–  Inch, foot, yard, mile, pint, gallon, pound, and ton
–  Nautical mile (nm)
™  Internationally for navigation
™  Approximate 6080 ft
™  1 nm/h = 1 knot (kt)
™ International System of Units or SI unit
–  Meter
–  Metric Prefix
 Area
–
™ Square of length
™ English system
–  Square inch (in2)
–  Square foot (ft2)
–  Square yard (yd2)
–  Square mile (mi2)
™ SI unit
–  Square centimeter (cm2)
–  Square meter (m2)
–  Square kilometer (km2)
 Volume and Capacity
–
™ The amount of space occupied by an object.
™ Three-dimensional units or cubes
™ English system
–  Cubic inch (in3)
–  Cubic foot (ft3)
–  Pint, quart, gallon
™ SI unit
–  Cubic centimeter (cm3)
–  Cubic meter (m3)
–  liter
Volume And Capacity
Figure 1-4 One-inch cube
 Weight
–
™ English system
–  Grain
–  Troy ounce
–  Avoirdupois ounce
–  Troy pound
–  Avoirdupois pound
–  Ton
™ SI unit
–  Gram
–  Kilogram
 Other units of
measurement
–
™ Force
™ Density
™ Electrical values
™ Light intensity
™ Sound intensity
™ Velocity
™ Energy
Gravity, Weight, and
Mass
–
 Gravity, Weight, and
Mass
–
™  Gravity or gravitation
–  The universal force that all bodies exert upon one another
–  Universal law of gravitation
m1m2
F=G 2
r
™  Weight
–  The pull exerted upon the body by the gravitation of the
earth
™  Mass
–  The amount of material the body contains
 Density
–
™ Mass per unit volume
™ Important physical property
™ Example
–  Density of water 1000 kg/m3
–  Density of water 1.94 slugs/ft3
™ Weight density
–  Weight per unit volume
 Specific Gravity
–
™ The ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water
™ Hydrometer
–  Often used to determine the specific gravity of the
electrolyte
™ Density of gas
–  According to standard pressure and temperature
condition
–  Dry air (1.293 g/L or 0.081 lb/ft3)
 Specific Gravity
Figure 1-5 Hydrometer measuring the electrolyte in an aircraft battery
 Speed and Velocity
–
™ Speed and Velocity
–  Often used in the same sense
–  How fast something is moving
™ Speed
–  The ratio of the distance traveled to the time of travel
™ Velocity
–  The rate at which position changes over time and the
direction of the change
Force and Motion
–
 Units of Force
–
™ Pound (lb)
™ Newton (N)
™ Dyne (dyn or dy)
–  1 dy = the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 g 1
centimeter per second per second
™ 1 N = 100 000 dy = 0.225 lb
 Newton’s Law of
Motion
–
™ Newton’s First Law of Motion
–  A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in
motion tends to remain in motion in a straight line
unless forced to change its state by an external force
™ Unbalanced
™ Inertia
 Newton’s Law of
Motion
–
™ Newton’s Second Law of Motion
–  The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to
the force causing it and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body
™ Acceleration of gravity
™ Terminal velocity
–  The highest velocity reached by a falling object
™ Friction
–  Force opposes motion between two surfaces that are
touching
 Newton’s Law Of
Motion
–
™  Newton’s Third Law of Motion
–  For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
™  Thrust
–  Reaction force
™  The basic formula for the thrust of a gas-turbine engine
w
F=
g
(V2 − V1 )
–  where F = force, lb
–  w = flow rate of air and fuel gases
–  g = acceleration of gravity
–  V1, V2 = initial and final velocity of gases
Newton’s Law of Motion
Figure 1-6 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
 Newton’s Law of
Motion
–
™ Momentum
™ Two kinds of momentum
–  Linear
™  A measure of the tendency of a moving body to
continuous in motion along a straight line
–  Angular
™  A measure of the tendency of a rotating body to
continuous to spin about an axis
Centrifugal and
Centripetal Force
–
 Centrifugal and
Centripetal Force
–
™ Centrifugal force
–  Force tending to cause the weight to fly outward from
the center of the circle
™ Centripetal force
–  An equal and opposite force pulling the weight
inward and preventing it from flying outward
™ Two formula for centripetal force
mv 2 Wv 2
F= (SI) F= (English)
r gr
Centrifugal and Centripetal Force
Figure 1-7 Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
 Composition and
Resolution of Forces
–
 Composition and
Resolution of Forces
–
™ Vector
–  Any quantity involving both magnitude and direction
™ Resultant
–  The combination of vectors
™ Trigonometric function
–  Sine
–  Cosine
–  Tangent
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Figure 1-8 Vector representing 40 lb directed upward
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Figure 1-9 Resultant of two vectors acting from the same point
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Figure 1-10 Functions of a right triangle
Work, Energy, and
Power
–
 Work
–
™ Work
–  Work (W) = force (F) x distance (D)
™ foot-pound (ft-lb)
™ joules (J)
™ 1 J = 1 NŸm
™ 1 J = 0.738 ft-lb
™ 1 ft-lb = 1.36 J
 Work
Figure 1-11 Work done by means of a lever
 Energy
–
™  Energy
–  The capacity for doing work
™  Two forms of energy
–  Potential energy
™  Form of energy possessed by a body because of its position
or configuration
™  The force of gravity, a tightly wound spring, a gas
compressed
–  Kinetic energy
™  Form of energy possessed by a body because of its motion
™  Law of conservation of energy
–  Energy can be neither destroyed nor created; it can be
changed only in form
 Power
–
™ Power
–  The rate of doing work
™ Unit of power
–  Watt
–  Foot-pounds per second
–  Horsepower
™ 1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s = 746 watts
Machines
–
 Machines
–
™  Any mechanical device which aids in doing work
™  Effort force
–  Force applied to a machine
™  Resistance force
–  Force produced by machine
™  Mechanical advantage (MA)
–  The number of times a machine increases the effort force
™  Types of simple machines
–  Lever, Pulleys, Gears and Pulleys, Inclined Plane, Screw,
and Compound Machines
 Machines
Figure 1-12 Mechanical advantage of lever
 Machines
Figure 1-13 Three classes of levers
 Machines
Figure 1-14 Balancing a lever
 Machines
Figure 1-15 Mechanical advantage of pulleys
 Machines
Figure 1-16 Multiplication of forces by means of pulleys
 Machines
Figure 1-17 Mechanical advantage produced by gears
 Machines
Figure 1-18 Mechanical advantage with a pulley drive
 Machines
Figure 1-19 Principle of the inclined plane
 Machines
Figure 1-20 Worn-gear to develop mechanical advantage
Heat
–
Measuring Temperature
–
™ Another form of energy
™ The motion of the matter molecules
™ Temperature = the degree of heat or cold
™ Scale
™ Absolute temperature
9
°F = °C + 32
5
°C + 273 = kelvins
°F + 460 = °R
Measuring Temperature
Table 1-1 Comparison of temperature scales
 Effect of Heat
–
™  The effects of heat make possible many of the powerful
machines.
™  Calorie (cal)
–  1 cal = the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water 1°C (≈ 4.186 J)
™  British thermal unit (Btu)
–  1 btu = the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 lb of water 1°F (≈778 ft-lb)
™  Q: if an engine is burning 40 lb/h of gasoline, how much
power will the engine deliver if it is 35% efficient?
Effect of Heat
Table 1-2 Heat Value
 Specific Heat
–
™ The number of calories (or Btu) required to rise 1 g
(or 1 lb) of substance 1°C (or 1°F)
™ The specific heat of different substances varies
substantially
 Specific Heat
Table 1-3 Specific heat for various substances
 Change of State
–
™ Activity of particles
™ Heat of fusion
–  The energy needed to change from a solid state to a
liquid state or from a liquid to a solid
™ Heat of vaporization
–  The energy needed to change from a liquid to a gas or
from a gas to a liquid
 Expansion
–
™ Heat increases, kinetic energy of particles increases
™ Particles move faster, collide violently
™ Material’s volume increases (expand)
™ Coefficient of linear expansion
–  The increase in length of a metal per unit length per
degree of rise in temperature
™ Turbine engine design (ex. Clearance)
 Expansion
Table 1-4 Coefficient of thermo expansion
 Laws Of
Thermodynamics
–
™ The branch of the science of physic dealing with the
mechanical action and relations of heat
™ The first law of thermodynamics
–  Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be
changed in form
™ The second law of thermodynamics
–  Heat cannot flow from a body of a given temperature
to a body of a higher temperature
Heat Transfer
–
 Heat Transfer
–
™  Conduction
–  The transfer of energy through a conductor by means of
molecular activity and without any external motion
–  Heat conductivity
™  The number of calories per second flowing through the
material
™  Convection
–  The transfer of energy through fluids by the movement of
matter
™  Radiation
–  The transfer of energy that does not require the presence of
matter
 Heat Transfer
Table 1-5 Heat conductivity of different materials
Fluids
–
 Properties of Liquids
–
™ A substance that flows readily
™ Assumes the shape of its container
™ Does not tend to expand indefinitely
™ Virtually incompressible
 Viscosity
–
™ The resistance of the liquid to flow
™ Stiffness of a fluid or internal friction of a fluid
™ Viscosity index
–  A measure of the change in the viscosity of a fluid with
change in its temperature
™ For most liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing
temperature
 Viscosity
Table 1-6 Viscosities of liquids at 30°C
 Archimedes’ Principle
–
™ A body placed in a liquid is buoyed up by a force
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
 Archimedes’ Principle
Figure 1-21 Displacement of a liquid by a floating solid
 Fluid Pressure
–
™ Pressure = force per unit area
™ P = dh
 Fluid Pressure
Figure 1-22 Force exerted by a liquid
 Fluid Pressure
Figure 1-23 Total effect of liquid pressure on differently shaped vessels
 Pressure and Force in
Fluid Power Systems
–
™ Pascal’s law
–  A liquid under pressure in a closed container transmits
pressure undiminished to all parts of the enclosing
wall
™ Hydraulic system
 Pascal’s Law
Figure 1-24 Pressure transmitted by a liquid
 Pascal’s Law
Figure 1-25 Multiplication of force by means of hydraulic pistons
The Nature and Laws of
Gases
–
 The Nature and Law of
Gases
–
™ Boyle’s law
–  P1V1 = P2V2 (temperature constant)
™ Charles’ law
–  V1/V2 = T1/T2 (pressure constant)
–  P1/P2 = T1/T2 (volume constant)
™ General gas law
–  P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
Sound
–
 The Nature of Sound
–
™ That which can be heard
™ A vibration of a substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
™ Exist even though there may be no human ear in the
vicinity to hear
™ Cannot travel in a vacuum
 Vibration
–
™  A rhythmic motion back and forth across a position of
equilibrium
™  Period
–  Time required for the motion to complete one cycle
™  Frequency
–  Number of complete cycles occurring per second
™  Amplitude
–  Distance from the midpoint of the swing to maximum point
™  Displacement
–  Distance form midpoint to vibrating point at any particular
time
 Vibration
Figure 1-26 Demonstration of harmonic motion
 Vibration
Figure 1-27 Sound Wavelength
 Wave Motion
–
™ Transverse waves
–  Back and forth, sideways, or up and down
–  Surface waves on water
™ Compressional wave
–  A series of alternately compressed and expanded
–  Sound
™ Harmonic motion
 Wave Motion
Figure 1-28 Wave motion in a liquid
 Wave Motion
Figure 1-29 Wave motion in a coiled spring
 Wave Motion
Figure 1-30 Vibratory motion
 Sound of Transmission
–
™ Transmitting medium
–  Air
–  A series of expansions and compressions in the
molecules of air
™ Similar nature in liquid or solid
™ Velocity of sound
–  Density of substance
–  Elasticity of substance
 Sound Transmission
Table 1-6 Speed of sound in Various Substances
 Measurement of Sound
Intensity
–
™ The intensity of sound is defined in terms of the
energy being carried by the sound wave
™ Volume (the loudness)
–  The amplitude of the sound waves
™ Decibel (dB)
™ 120 dB (threshold pain)
Measurement of Sound Intensity
Table 1-7 Intensity Levels of Sounds
 Resonance
–
™ Two objects have the same natural vibrational
frequency
™ Matching the vibration of the aircraft structure with
the engine vibration
™ Vibration testing
 Doppler Effect
–
™ The source of a sound wave changes its direction
with respect to the hearer
™ Electronic signals are transmitted by means of waves
™ Navigation radar equipment
 Doppler Effect
Figure 1-31 The Doppler effect