Migrants and Their Vulnerability

MIGRANTS AND
THEIR VULNERABILITY
TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING, MODERN SLAVERY AND FORCED LABOUR
Publication authors:
Fiona David, Katharine Bryant
and Jacqueline Joudo Larsen
Contributors:
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of John Latham, Gareth Larsen and
Asha McNeill, who conducted: the initial literature searches and prepared document reviews
including an annotated bibliography, provided writing assistance and technical editing. The
authors would also like to thank Andria Kenney and Mathieu Luciano from IOM who enabled
expert discussions on a draft of the report and also provided input as the research developed.
The opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and
the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area,
or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.
IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants
and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the
international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance
understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through
migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants.
This publication was made possible through the funding provided by UK aid from the UK
government, under the terms of HQS/FGBR/ME0034.2018 DFID. The views expressed herein
do not necessarily reflect the views of the UK government or its official policies.
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Front cover image:

Venezuelans load cars with goods and food on the irregular migration routes connecting Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela and Pacaraima, Brazil. Migrants who use irregular migration routes are vulnerable to exploitation due to
high-risk situations including the profit motives of smuggling networks and the presence of organized crime.
Credit: Victor Moriyama/Getty Images
Contents
CONTENTS
FAST FACTS.............................................................................................................................................................................. 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Where are migrants most vulnerable?............................................................................................................... 10
Which migrants are most vulnerable?............................................................................................................... 10
What enables migrants to be abused and exploited?................................................................................ 10
What about existing government protections for migrants?.................................................................... 11
Recommendations.......................................................................................................................................................12
Recommendation 1: Increase protections for victims and vulnerable migrants.....................12
Recommendation 2: Reduce capacity and opportunity for potential offenders....................13
Recommendation 3: Increase capacity and focus of guardians and first responders........13
Recommendation 4: Focus research efforts on filling critical gaps in knowledge.................14
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................................................16
METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................................................................................... 20
KEY FEATURES OF THE KNOWLEDGE BASE................................................................................................................21
Methods of studies.......................................................................................................................................................21
Thematic coverage......................................................................................................................................................21
Geographic focus........................................................................................................................................................22
Economic sector or purpose of exploitation..................................................................................................24
Sites of vulnerability...................................................................................................................................................25
SITES OF VULNERABILITY IN THE MIGRATION PROCESS...................................................................................26

Areas beyond the reach of state protection...................................................................................................27
Private dwellings...........................................................................................................................................................28
Private businesses......................................................................................................................................................28
Border crossings..........................................................................................................................................................29
Irregular migration routes....................................................................................................................................... 30
Displacement sites and refugee camps.......................................................................................................... 30
Conflict zones.................................................................................................................................................................31
Natural disasters...........................................................................................................................................................31
Ships...................................................................................................................................................................................31
Rural areas......................................................................................................................................................................32
Commercial sex establishments..........................................................................................................................32
Migrants and their vulnerability to human trafficking, modern slavery and forced labour 1
Contents
VICTIM CHARACTERISTICS............................................................................................................................................ 34
Children and youth......................................................................................................................................................35
Gender..............................................................................................................................................................................37
Visa status.......................................................................................................................................................................38
Knowledge and attitude toward migration.......................................................................................................38
Secondary displacement........................................................................................................................................ 39
Repeat exploitation.................................................................................................................................................... 39
Length of travel............................................................................................................................................................ 39
Sexual orientation and identity............................................................................................................................ 39
Language ability.......................................................................................................................................................... 40
Drug or alcohol addiction........................................................................................................................................ 40
Health............................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Poverty...............................................................................................................................................................................41
Education.........................................................................................................................................................................42
Necessity to support dependents...................................................................................................................... 43
Abusive or unstable family background.......................................................................................................... 43
Homelessness or lack of family support......................................................................................................... 43
Cultural norms.............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Lack of a local support network.......................................................................................................................... 44
Caste status.................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Globalization and inequality.................................................................................................................................. 44
Discrimination against migrants.......................................................................................................................... 45
OFFENDER CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................................................................................... 46
Typologies.......................................................................................................................................................................47
Offender motivations................................................................................................................................................ 48
Perception...................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Resources relevant to offending......................................................................................................................... 49
2 Migrants and their vulnerability to human trafficking, modern slavery and forced labour
Contents
GUARDIAN CHARACTERISTICS..................................................................................................................................... 54
Gaps in responses.......................................................................................................................................................55
Gaps in legislation.......................................................................................................................................................55
Gaps in social protections and labour rights................................................................................................. 56
Non-recognition of foreign qualifications........................................................................................................57
Restrictive immigration policies and weak migration governance structures...............................57
Barriers to collective bargaining...........................................................................................................................58
State-imposed forced labour................................................................................................................................ 59
Lack of political will or capacity to respond................................................................................................... 60
Conflict and natural disasters.............................................................................................................................. 60
Corruption...................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Complexity of the crime types...............................................................................................................................61
Stereotypes and gaps in understanding............................................................................................................61
Discrimination and prejudice.................................................................................................................................62
ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................................................................................... 64

Which migrants are vulnerable, when and in what circumstances?................................................... 64
Pre-migration................................................................................................................................................................ 65
In transit........................................................................................................................................................................... 65
At destination............................................................................................................................................................... 66
On return......................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Addressing the intersections of risk...................................................................................................................67
Recommendation 1: Increase protections for victims and vulnerable migrants...........................67
Recommendation 2: Reduce capacity and opportunity for potential offenders..........................67
Recommendation 3: Increase capacity and focus of guardians and first responders............. 68
Recommendation 4: Focus research efforts on filling critical gaps in knowledge...................... 68
ATTACHMENT A: RESEARCH PROTOCOL...................................................................................................................70

ATTACHMENT B: LIST OF COUNTRIES OR PLACES AND NUMBER OF STUDIES FOUND...........................78
ATTACHMENT C: LIST OF COUNTRIES OR PLACES WITH NO STUDIES LOCATED......................................82
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................................................................... 84
ENDNOTES.............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Fast Facts
FAST
FACTS
258m MIGRANTS*
THERE ARE 258 MILLION
40m
MIGRANTS.*
WITHIN THIS, AN UNKNOWN
NUMBER ARE ALSO PART
OF THE ESTIMATED 40 IN MODERN SLAVERY
MILLION PEOPLE LIVING IN
MODERN SLAVERY.
HOW DO WE IMPROVE OUR
UNDERSTANDING OF THIS
OVERLAP SO THAT WE
CAN PREVENT MODERN
SLAVERY?
* Migrants refers to international migrants.
Fast Facts
THIS REPORT EXAMINES:
WHERE AND WHEN

MIGRANTS ARE PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TO HUMAN
TRAFFICKING, FORCED LABOUR, AND MODERN SLAVERY.
Any situation or place where the authority of the State and society is unable
to protect them, either through lack of capacity, absence of applicable laws
or simple neglect. This includes when migrants are:
• Fleeing situations of violence and conflict;
• Dislocated from community and family support structures, without access
to legitimate forms of employment, legal status and social protection;
• Moving or working through irregular channels;
• Working in sectors that are either literally out of sight, such as work at
sea or in private homes as domestic workers, or in informal sectors that
are either not covered or may even be excluded from existing systems of
labour protections.
WHICH
MIGRANTS ARE MOST VULNERABLE TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING,
FORCED LABOUR AND MODERN SLAVERY.
• Children and adolescents.
• Women and men are vulnerable but in different ways – with women
experiencing higher rates of modern slavery in domestic work, the sex
industry and forced marriage, while men are more likely to be exploited in
forced labour in construction and manufacturing sectors;
• Undocumented migrants;
• Tied visas and other mechanisms that give undue control to employers
or recruiters;
• Restrictive migration systems that fail to take account of labour market
realities or to effectively balance competing policy priorities;
• Corruption of officials involved in the recruitment, migration and
criminal justice processes, including recruitment agents, employers and
government border control, police and military officials;
• Reliance on third party recruiters and agents;
• Gaps in the protective mechanisms provided by government, reflecting
either lack of priority or lack of coverage.
Fast Facts
WHAT
DO WE NEED TO DO TO ADDRESS THIS?
Increase protections for vulnerable migrants

and victims through measures aimed at:
• Providing protection for those fleeing repressive regimes;
• Ensuring access to decent work and finances;
• Addressing the threat of deportation and detention for migrants seeking
redress from employment abuses;
• Filling gaps in national laws and labour protections;
• Expanding child protection systems to include migrant children;
• Creating ethical and safe, fee-free recruitment across borders;
• Reducing discrimination.
Reduce capacity and opportunity for potential

offenders through measures aimed at:
• Prohibiting recruitment fees, restrictions on mobility and withholding
of identify documents;
• Promoting labour rights, inspections and protections;
• Reducing discrimination.
Increase capacity and focus of guardians through

measures aimed at:
• Closing gaps in laws, including criminal and labour laws and protective
responses;
• Creating safe migration pathways that better reflect the realities of
migration and labour markets, as well as the need to balance rights
and security;
• Bolstering capacity of all first responders in crisis situations;
• Ensuring that corruption is investigated, exposed and prosecuted;
• Funding rapid response task-forces as new issues arise. Train first
responders to identify crimes relating to modern slavery;
• Supporting transparency through research and reporting;
• Ensuring rehabilitation of victims includes a financial or livelihoods
components.
Focus research efforts on filling critical gaps

in knowledge, particularly with regard to:
• Offenders.
• Age and gender and their impacts on vulnerability to modern slavery;
• Understudied topics including forced marriage and its connections
to migration, and the recruitment of child soldiers from migrant and
displaced populations;
• Understudied regions and countries, where high prevalence is indicated
but there is limited research on the connection to migration and
vulnerability to modern slavery.
Fast Facts
A woman carries a child after

disembarking from an aircraft
carrying refugees evacuated
from the Libyan city of Misrata
to Rome, Italy. According to
UNICEF, the absolute number
of child migrants has increased
significantly in the last 25
years and migrant children
may fall outside the scope or
focus of local child protection
authorities, thereby creating
heightened risk of modern
slavery for these children.
Credit: Alberto Pizzoli/AFP/
Getty Images
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
Research suggests connections exist between migration
and criminal forms of exploitation such as human trafficking,
forced labour and modern slavery. Certainly, constellations
of risk are seen in certain migrant communities and
migration corridors. However, it is not known how many of the
world’s estimated 40 million victims of modern slavery are
also migrants.
Modern slavery, while not defined in law, serves as an umbrella term that
emphasizes the commonalities between human trafficking, forced labour
and slavery. Essentially, these are all situations of exploitation in which
a person cannot refuse or leave an exploitative situation due to threats,
violence, coercion, deception or abuse of power.1 If we are to understand the
relationship between migration and modern slavery, it is important that we
know more about which migrants are vulnerable to modern slavery, as well as
when and in what enabling circumstances.
Executive Summary
About 200 migrants, mostly

from Ethiopia and Eritrea, have
been detained in the coastal
town of Zawiya, west of Tripoli,
Libya as they tried to cross to
Europe in a truck in June, 2014.
Crackdowns on undocumented
migrants and asylum-seekers
push them into migrating
through more unsafe methods,
thereby creating the conditions
that enable smuggling to thrive.
Credit: Hazem Turkia/Anadolu
Agency/Getty Images
The global community has pledged, through The Global Compact emphasizes the need
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), to address and reduce the vulnerabilities in
to address global challenges to achieve a migration and, through its Objective 10, calls on
better and more sustainable future for all. the international community to “prevent and
SDG 8.7 aims to eradicate modern slavery, combat trafficking in persons in the context of
trafficking, forced labour and the worst forms international migration.” 2
of child labour by 2030, and to end child labour
Recognizing the importance of addressing
by 2025. Alliance 8.7 is a multi-stakeholder
modern slavery and specific vulnerabilities
partnership committed to achieving Target 8.7
of migrants to modern slavery, this report
through coordination, strengthening research,
has been prepared for the Alliance 8.7 Action
data, and knowledge management and sharing.
Group on Migration to help to inform the
Also covered by the SDGs is migration, activities of the group aimed at achieving
most notably under SDG 10.7, which aims SDG 8.7. The report examines the recent
to facilitate orderly, safe, and responsible research literature on migration and modern
migration and mobility of people, including slavery (published between 2014-2018)
through implementation of planned and through a crime prevention lens, to identify a
well-managed migration policies. In addition, set of salient features that will help us better
the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and understand the relevant connections between
Regular Migration seeks to embody the migration and vulnerability to trafficking,
first intergovernmental agreement on forced labour, child labour, and modern slavery.
international migration under the auspices
of the United Nations.
Executive Summary
WHERE ARE MIGRANTS MOST The issue of gender is relevant to

VULNERABLE? vulnerability, with women experiencing higher
rates of modern slavery in domestic work,
Migrants are most vulnerable to abuse and
the sex industry and forced marriage, while
exploitation in situations and places where
men are more likely to be exploited in state-
the authority of the State and society is
sponsored forced labour and forced labour in
unable to protect them, either through
the construction and manufacturing sectors.
lack of capacity, applicable laws or simple
neglect. For example, migrants are highly All relevant studies agree that undocumented
vulnerable when fleeing situations of migrants are at a higher risk of modern
violence and conflict, where the State has slavery than those who are documented.
effectively broken down and society itself Additionally, migrants whose visas are tied to
is in crisis. Even once migrants have fled a specific employer are also at higher risk of
the immediate fighting, when people are on exploitation.
the move, this vulnerability persists while The impact of migrants’ knowledge of
migrants are dislocated from community and migration processes is disputed. Some
family support structures, and are thereby research suggests that poorly informed
typically without access to legitimate forms migrants are at higher risk of exploitation.
of employment, legal status and social However, other researchers argue that most
protection. The risk is further increased when migrants are already aware of the dangers of
migrants move or work through irregular migrant exploitation but are compelled into
channels, where their irregular status puts risky situations by circumstances beyond
them entirely at the mercy of opportunists their control.
who may seek to take advantage of their
desperate circumstances. Restrictive immigration policies (such as
restrictions applied to certain visas or
Migrant workers are also vulnerable in certain arbitrary changes to asylum procedures
labour situations that are either unseen, hard for nationals from certain countries) and
to access or simply not covered by existing weak migration governance structures
legal protections. This includes situations are frequently noted as major causes of
that are “out of sight” such as migrant vulnerability to modern slavery, especially
workers engaged in work at sea or even in when combined with low-wage migration.
private homes as domestic workers, but it In many contexts, migrant workers are
can also include migrants who are effectively excluded from or fall outside the protection
confined to worksites by private employers or of organized labour, where it exists.
agents who have a high degree of control over
their ability to retain a visa, their working and A climate of discrimination against
living conditions, and their mobility. migrants can be a major cause of their
vulnerability to modern slavery. While
sometimes discrimination may play out
WHICH MIGRANTS ARE MOST through tolerance of abuse, it can also mean
VULNERABLE? migrants have limited access to legal and law
Child and adolescent migrants are highly enforcement systems that otherwise might
vulnerable to modern slavery. While an protect them.
estimated 31 million children are migrants
globally, legal routes of migration are typically
closed to children. Children and adolescents
WHAT ENABLES MIGRANTS TO BE
are particularly vulnerable when travelling ABUSED AND EXPLOITED?
alone or having been separated from their With limited access to networks, information
families. Discrimination and racism can result or resources, migrants frequently need to
in some child migrants of certain national or look to third party sources of help. If verified
ethnic origins being targeted more than other information is not readily available through
children and experiencing higher rates of obvious, official channels, then local agents,
victimization. Crimes against children tend intermediaries and employers will be able to
to be underreported and research confirms leverage their superior control of resources
child migrants face additional barriers to to exploit migrant workers with relatively low
reporting, including fear of detention and cost and risk.
deportation.
Executive Summary
A former migrant worker, These include having superior access to Research suggests that those involved in
Haryatin, who is blind information about migration processes abusing migrants can be both opportunistic
because employers
abused her while working and employment systems, local networks and predatory, seeking profit but also personal
in Saudi Arabia, with her (particularly for potential employment), gratification. Perpetrators may not always
daughter Wulan at their financial resources and control of space, view their behaviour as exploitative, as they
home in Blitar, East Java,
September 2013. Many including workplaces. may hold ideological beliefs that allow them
Indonesian domestic to rationalize their exploitation of others.
workers come home The role of third-party intermediaries in the
Examples include reference to concepts
from abroad having migration process is significant. Complex or
experienced a variety of of free choice (“it’s their choice”) or a belief
piecemeal information on official migration
exploitation and abuse that perpetrators are providing a social good
throughout the migration processes, employment and relocation
(“they are better off here”). Xenophobia and
process including torture options, including job vacancies, skills and
and sexual abuse by their discrimination are also highly relevant to the
educational recognition, make it difficult for
employers. Credit: Arief mistreatment of migrants.
Priyono/LightRocket via prospective migrant workers to migrate without
Getty Images third party assistance. As a result, migrants
frequently use recruitment agencies, brokers, WHAT ABOUT EXISTING GOVERNMENT
smugglers and other intermediaries, including PROTECTIONS FOR MIGRANTS?
extended networks through family and friends, While there are laws, policies and practices
to find overseas employment and facilitate that are intended to protect migrants from
their migration. abuse and exploitation, there are many gaps
Transactions with recruiters or recruitment in these mechanisms that leave large areas
agencies are one of the most common where people are entirely without protection.
situations in which migrants are confronted These gaps in protection are actively leveraged
with choices that lead to their exploitation. In by unscrupulous recruiters, agents, employers
many jurisdictions, these agencies are subject and others to extract profit or other personal
to minimal or inefficient regulation. Complex reward from vulnerable migrants. Even where
networks of subcontracting and cross- formal systems exist, corruption, lack of
jurisdictional challenges can obscure legal and oversight and the existence of well-entrenched
financial responsibilities. “shadow systems” undermines protections.
Executive Summary
Even when protective systems do exist,

research confirms that modern slavery
is a low priority for some legal and
RECOMMENDATION 1:
law enforcement systems, with higher INCREASE PROTECTIONS FOR VICTIMS
priority (and consequently funding) given AND VULNERABLE MIGRANTS
to immigration control. There are also Prevention efforts should focus on strategies
considerable challenges with oversight and to increase the safety of migrants in
enforcement when the affected populations the locations and situations where high
are essentially hidden, particularly when vulnerability coincides with opportunity for
there are disincentives for victims to self- offending:
identify such as the threat of criminalization a. Ensure protection is provided universally
for offences committed while exploited. for migrants escaping repressive States
Any lack of capacity to protect will be that subject their own citizens to forced
worsened in crisis situations, where labour.
formal controls break down, systems and b. Increase migrants’ access to information
infrastructure are stretched to the limit about the migration and recruitment
(including at borders and in countries of processes.
destination), and those who hold power may
themselves be complicit in the abuse. c. Increase migrants’ access to legitimate
sources of work and/or finance along
migration pathways and in destination
RECOMMENDATIONS countries.
While there are myriad factors that contribute
to vulnerability of certain migrants to human d. Ensure that access to safe financial
trafficking, forced labour and modern slavery, services, such as short term loans, and
it is possible to identify salient patterns safe work or livelihoods programmes are
of risk. These are the areas where our part of responses to displacement.
prevention efforts should focus: e. Address the threat of detention and/
1. Increasing protections for victims and or deportation that hangs over many
vulnerable migrants. migrant workers by creating systems and
structures that enable temporary and
2. Reducing the capacity and opportunity even irregular migrants to access basic
for potential offenders. labour rights and justice, particularly
3. Increasing capacity and focus of around wage theft in both formal and
guardians and first responders. informal sectors.
4. Focusing research efforts on filling critical f. Eliminate gaps in labour protections for
gaps in knowledge. workers in informal sectors.
g. In destination and transit countries
where children are on the move, ensure
that local child protection systems are
strengthened and supported to provide
protection to migrant children.
h. Provide access to reasonable livelihoods
for migrant parents and inclusive
education support for all children
regardless of migrant parents’ status.
i. Recognize and address the inherent
potential for exploitation of children in
crisis situations and take steps to ensure
that children are safe even while fostered
or being cared for through other informal
childcare practices.
Executive Summary
RECOMMENDATION 2: RECOMMENDATION 3:
REDUCE CAPACITY AND OPPORTUNITY INCREASE CAPACITY AND FOCUS OF
FOR POTENTIAL OFFENDERS GUARDIANS AND FIRST RESPONDERS
Prevention efforts should focus on strategies to Prevention efforts should focus on strategies
reduce capacity and opportunity for offending: to increase the capacity and focus of guardians
such as law enforcement, labour inspectors
a. Redress the power imbalance between and other potential first responders:
employers and employees by prohibiting
recruitment fees, prohibiting restrictions a. Close gaps in criminal laws by criminalizing
on mobility and withholding of identity forced marriage, all forms of human
documents, and promoting labour rights, trafficking and forced labour, the use of
child soldiers, and the buying and selling of
inspections and protections. This is
children for sex.
particularly urgent in high-risk sectors
such as the manufacturing, domestic work, b. Close gaps in protective responses and
construction and fishery sectors. ensure all victims of these crimes, including
migrants, men, women and children, are
b. Reduce perpetrators’ control of included in services and are able to access
recruitment processes through more them.
transparent regulation and system design
while fostering innovative use of information c. Ensure that all migrant workers are
technology and increased availability of protected by labour laws, including the right
free or low-cost information. to collective bargaining.
c. Focus on the structures, policies and d. Review immigration laws and policies to
ensure they reflect the realities of labour
societal norms that enable discrimination to
market and migration pressures, but also to
be perpetuated against migrants and other ensure a humane balance is struck between
marginal populations. competing policy priorities, such as security
and human rights of migrants.
e. Strengthen migration governance systems.
f. Ensure that corruption is investigated,
exposed and prosecuted.
g. In crisis situations, anticipate the risk
of human trafficking, forced labour and
modern slavery. Bolster the capacity of
governments, humanitarian workers and
partners in these situations. Actively
develop protective systems to identify and
assist at-risk populations both during crisis
and in protracted or post-crisis settings,
including in neighbouring countries and
areas of return.
h. Fund rapid response task-forces and
provide them with the flexibility to respond
to emerging threats.
i. Provide training and support to first
responders, including creating specialized
law enforcement capabilities, and pursue
labour inspections in the informal sector to
detect instances of modern slavery.
A workman sits on the ground,
taking a break from filling brick j. Encourage transparency of efforts through
moulds with damp clay in a support for research and reporting on the
brick factory, March 2014 in operation and effectiveness of existing
Udaipur, India. The brick-making responses.
industry in North-Western India
is a particularly risky sector for
migrants’ exploitation due to the
k. Focus on rehabilitation that includes a
ingrained system of employers
financial or livelihoods components to
advancing workers wages and the prevent re-victimization of people who have
normalization of debt bondage. exited exploitative situations.
Credit: urbancow
Executive Summary
d. Understudied regions and countries,

where high prevalence is indicated
RECOMMENDATION 4: but there is limited research on the
FOCUS RESEARCH EFFORTS ON FILLING connection to migration and vulnerability
CRITICAL GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE to modern slavery specifically, such as
Effective responses to modern slavery the Caribbean, Oceania (notably the
depend on the availability of relevant, reliable Pacific Island Nations), Southern Africa,
data to help understand the problem and its Middle Africa, Eastern Asia, the Russian
solutions. Research is needed to fill gaps in Federation, Central Asian Republics, the
knowledge, particularly on: Islamic Republic of Iran, Somalia, Burundi
a. Offenders, most notably the methods, and Mauritania.
backgrounds and motivations of e. Protective factors, such as how cultural
modern slavery’s perpetrators and the norms and diasporas can be better
development of a better typology of leveraged to provide protection for
perpetrators in various types of modern migrants and counter the misinformation
slavery. and exploitative networks that benefit
b. Age and gender and their impacts on offenders.
vulnerability to modern slavery.
c. Understudied topics, such as forced
marriage and its connections to migration,
as well as recruitment of child soldiers
from migrant and displaced populations.
INCREASE
PROTECTION
FOR VULNERABLE
MIGRANTS
Executive Summary
A Yemeni refugee shows

a picture of young boys
conscripted by rebels in Yemen
at their accommodation in
Jeju island, South Korea in
July, 2018. Boys aged 10 or
older in Yemen are subject to
conscription as government
forces battle Houthi rebels
amid the widespread
humanitarian crisis.
Credit: Chris Jung/NurPhoto
via Getty Images
01
INTRODUCTION
There are an estimated 258 million international migrants
globally. 3 While it is true that all international migrants have
something in common, as they are all people currently
living outside of their country of birth, in reality the migrant
experience is highly diverse. The term migrant refers to
any person who has moved – voluntarily or involuntarily –
across an international border (international migrants) or
domestically within a country away from their usual place of
residence (internal migrants). 4 This can include highly paid
bankers from London working for global financial institutions
in New York, university students from China studying in
Singapore, parents who relocate from Italy to be closer to
their family members who have moved to the United States
and families fleeing extreme violence in the Syrian Arab
Republic seeking the relative protection of neighbouring
countries like Lebanon. While the experience of internal
migrants is important, this report focuses primarily on the
experience of international migrants, that is, migrants who
have moved across international borders.
01 Introduction
Syrian refugees working in the

agricultural camps in Adana,
Turkey, July 2017. Syrian
refugees lacking work permits
and Turkish language skills often
take low-wage job in Turkey’s
agricultural sector and face
extreme poverty, exploitation
and sub-standard living
conditions in rural farm camps.
Credit: Diego Cupolo/NurPhoto
via Getty Images
Research suggests there are connections The global community has pledged to address
between migration and modern slavery. global challenges to achieve a better and
Certainly, constellations of risk are seen more sustainable future for all through the
in migrant communities and migration Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). SDG
corridors. However, it is not known how many Target 8.7 aims to:
of the world’s estimated 40 million victims Take immediate and effective measures
of modern slavery, as identified by the 2017 to eradicate forced labour, end modern
Global Estimates, can also be classified as slavery and human trafficking and secure
migrants. Modern slavery, while not defined the prohibition and elimination of the worst
in international law, serves as an umbrella forms of child labour, including recruitment
term that emphasizes the commonalities and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end
between human trafficking, forced labour and child labour in all its forms.
slavery. Essentially, these are all situations of
exploitation in which a person cannot refuse Alliance 8.7 is an inclusive global partnership
or leave due to threats, violence, coercion, committed to achieving Target 8.7. It is a
deception or abuse of power. 5 If we are to multi-stakeholder partnership that brings
understand the relationship between migration together actors at all levels to collaborate,
and modern slavery, it is important to examine strategize, share knowledge and ultimately
more precisely which migrants are vulnerable accelerate progress so we can deliver on this
to modern slavery, when and in what enabling commitment.
circumstances.
01 Introduction
Migration is covered under the SDGs, A crime prevention lens also recognizes that
most notably, SDG 10.7, which aims to crime does not happen in a vacuum and that
facilitate orderly, safe and responsible broad contextual factors like State instability,
migration and mobility of people, including discrimination and disregard of human rights
through implementation of planned are critical to any understanding of modern
and well-managed migration policies. slavery offences.
Pursuant to this, the Global Compact for
It looks at migration and modern slavery from
Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration is
the perspective of what is known about:
the first intergovernmental agreement on
international migration under the auspices 1. Where this crime occurs in the migration
of the United Nations. The Global Compact process (sites of vulnerability).
emphasizes the need to address and reduce 2. Victim characteristics (or what makes
the vulnerabilities in migration and, through some migrants more vulnerable to
its Objective 10, calls on the international modern slavery than others?)
community to “prevent and combat
trafficking in persons in the context of 3. Offender characteristics (or what makes
international migration.”6 some people both willing and able to
offend?)
Prepared for the Alliance 8.7 Action Group
on Migration, this report examines the recent 4. Guardian or first responder perspective
research literature on migration and modern (or what hinders first responders
slavery (published between 2014-2018) and other guardians from providing
through a crime prevention lens in order to protection?)
identify a set of salient features that can The concept of vulnerability is not purely
help us understand the relevant connections technical. However, it is defined by the
between migration and vulnerability to forced International Organization for Migration (IOM)
labour, human trafficking and modern slavery. as the susceptibility to harm of certain people
relative to others as the result of exposure
This crime prevention lens, applying
to a certain type of risk. IOM notes there are
situational crime prevention theory, is
at least four dimensions in which migrant
based on the understanding that for modern
vulnerability might manifest: individual
slavery-related crimes to occur, there
factors (such as age, gender, ethnicity),
needs to be a vulnerable victim, a motivated
family and household factors (such as
offender and the absence of a capable
internal family dynamics), community factors
guardian. Guardians include duty bearers
(such as cultural attitudes and the natural
with formal roles in enforcing laws and
environment) and structural factors (such as
standards (such as law enforcement) along
legal structures and broader social stability).7
with Good Samaritans, people who may see
something and offer assistance (such as local
residents and community members).
01 Introduction
Members of the The term vulnerability is also used in certain This report is divided into six sections. The first
Venezuelan indigenous describes the methodology and examines the
group Warao fleeing legal texts, most notably in Article 3 of the
the humanitarian United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress overall scope and coverage of the literature.
crisis take refuge at a and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially The second summarizes what the literature
shelter over the border tells us about sites of vulnerability or where
in Pacaraima, Brazil, Women and Children, supplementing
April 2019. Refugee the United Nations Convention against migrants are being exploited. Section three
camps and other Transnational Organized Crime (the examines the literature from the perspective
displacement sites are of what it tells us about how individual,
environments where “Trafficking in Persons Protocol”), which
displaced populations provides that one of the “means” through household, community and structural
are highly vulnerable which exploitation takes place is “abuse factors impact on vulnerability. Section four
to exploitation. Credit: summarizes the literature related to offender
Victor Moriyama/Getty of a position of vulnerability.” 8 If we are to
Images effectively combat human trafficking, forced motivations and what enables offending. The
labour and other forms of modern slavery, we fifth section examines what is known about
must understand what is known about these the characteristics that limit the ability or
“positions of vulnerability,” in this sense but willingness of potential guardians, such as law
also more broadly. enforcement, to provide effective oversight.
The sixth section considers what all of this tells
us in terms of where to focus next steps and
concludes with recommendations.
01 Introduction
METHODOLOGY Further, a draft version of the literature review

was shared at a consultative workshop. This
In order to understand the current state resulted in the identification of 18 additional
of knowledge regarding these issues, a sources that had not been uncovered by the
systematic literature review was conducted searches but that all fell within the criteria
(for a full research protocol, see Appendix A). for inclusion. These were reviewed for
Data was located through searches of four completeness.
academic library databases (University of
Chicago, Northwestern University, University After duplicates and irrelevant sources were
of Illinois at Chicago and the School of removed according to the research protocol,
Oriental and African Studies, University a resulting 191 sources remained and they
of London). In these cases, due to the low are summarized in a separate annotated
number of relevant results found through bibliography.
database searches, relevant literature was The literature review concentrated on
located by systematically reviewing all English-language literature. While the
relevant books within shelf marks related researchers are conversant in a number of
to human trafficking, forced labour, and foreign languages (French, German, Russian
modern slavery. and Japanese) and a handful of non-English
sources were reviewed, the searches were all
performed in English and on English-language
databases.
Content of the literature was identified
and reviewed through a theoretical
framework to group relevant information
around key themes and indicate gaps in
existing knowledge. First, the literature was
examined to identify key features of the
knowledge base, including the scale of the
research undertaken, methodology used,
and geographic and thematic coverage
(summarized in Appendix B). Second,
the research was examined to identify
what is known about features that are
relevant to crime prevention. Theories of
A migrant worker
awaits registration Systematic searches of an academic journal crime prevention suggest crime, including
at a centre operated database (EBSCOHost) were also conducted. organized crime, is most likely to occur at the
by the Ministry of These produced a raw total of 518 results “convergence of criminal opportunity.”
Labour, March 2018
in Bangkok, Thailand, published between 2013 and 2018. A title This occurs when there is both a suitable
aimed at addressing and abstract scan narrowed this total to 138, target (the vulnerable victim) along with
the large numbers and removing duplicate results gave a final a person or group of people who are both
of irregular migrants
from Myanmar, Laos total of 28 relevant peer-reviewed articles. willing and able to offend (the offender), and
and Cambodia. Finally, the publications of nine international there is either an inability or unwillingness
Undocumented organizations, 10 international humanitarian among those who are supposed to provide
migrants are at
a higher risk of NGOs and 20 regional organizations and protection (for example, law enforcement)
modern slavery due NGOs were reviewed systematically. The to do so. Situational crime prevention theory
to their engagement following documents were summarized in the contends that it is relevant to examine the
with smugglers and
facilitators in the annotated bibliography: sites where crimes happen along with the
migration process, • 11 peer-reviewed monographs victims, offenders and the role of crime
and the need to preventers or guardians in the process.
accept unstable and/ • 52 chapters in edited collections of peer-
or precarious work. reviewed articles The results indicate critical gaps in current
Credit: Thomas De knowledge and provide broad guidance
Cian/NurPhoto via • 28 peer-reviewed journal articles
for focusing efforts to respond to modern
Getty Images
• 44 reports of international organizations slavery in the migration process.
• 27 reports of international NGOs
• three reports of regional organizations
• three reports of national anti-trafficking
organizations
• five reports of regional or national anti-
trafficking NGOs
01 Introduction
KEY FEATURES OF THE Of those studies that recorded their sources,

the vast majority relied on semi-structured,
KNOWLEDGE BASE qualitative interviews of victims of modern
The review identified 191 sources, which were slavery (87 studies) or stakeholders involved in
then categorized into an EndNote database. anti-modern slavery work (e.g. NGO personnel,
Key features of the literature were catalogued police personnel) (49 studies). Other
to provide some insight into the overall nature data sources used included qualitative or
and characteristics of the literature, including quantitative surveys of populations affected by
the scale of the research undertaken, the modern slavery (15 and 9 studies respectively),
methodology used, thematic and geographic reviews of legal cases involving modern slavery
coverage, and economic sectors covered (18 studies), statistical analyses of databases
along with specific sites. The findings on these of victims of modern slavery held by criminal
features are summarized in this section. An justice organizations and NGOs (11 studies),
additional source of data used in this report to and unstructured interviews or focus groups
complete and support the findings presented of victims or stakeholders (17 and 6 studies
is the Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative respectively).
(CTDC). CTDC is the first global data hub on It is significant that only a few studies (9)
human trafficking, with data contributed by used qualitative interviews to speak directly
organizations from around the world. 9 to perpetrators of modern slavery-related
crimes. This indicates a more general lack of
METHODS OF STUDIES knowledge of the backgrounds, methods and
The scale and methodologies of reviewed motivations of perpetrators of modern slavery.
literature varied considerably. A large
number of studies did not clearly state their THEMATIC COVERAGE
methodology, data sources or the sample size The majority of the studies that were reviewed
and sampling strategy that was utilized. While addressed human trafficking and/or forced
the majority of studies did record their research labour (132 and 128 studies respectively).
process, relatively few provided a sample Fewer studies were found on the topics of
interview questionnaire or dataset. Details child commercial sexual exploitation (35
about the further processing of data (e.g. the studies), slavery-like practices (24 studies) and
process of drawing conclusions from raw slavery (i.e. the ownership and sale of people)
interview data) were also relatively rarely given. (18 studies). Relatively few studies focused
on forced marriage (14 studies). While noting
possible overlap with the categories above,
literature on the worst forms of child labour
(9 studies) and the recruitment of child soldiers
(5 studies) was very limited (Figure 1.1).
Studies by Type of Exploitation
Human Trafficking 132
Forced Labour 128

Child Prostitution 35
Slavery-like Practices 24
Slavery 18
Forced Marriage 14
Worst Forms of Child Labour 9
Recruitment of Child Soldiers 5
0 30 60 90 120 150
Figure 1.1: Thematic

coverage of literature.
01 Introduction
GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS Other countries and regions that are

relatively understudied include:
The most-studied countries and places
were Thailand (28 studies), the United • Eastern Asia, particularly China. While
Kingdom (25 studies), India (24 studies), the a large number of studies (12) refer to
United States (20 studies), Cambodia (19 Chinese migrants abroad, only four studies
studies), Indonesia (18 studies), Myanmar examine the experience of international
(17 studies), Bangladesh, Viet Nam, China migrants to China. While this review
and the Philippines (16 studies each). Thirty- focused on international migrants, it is
one studies drew on global data sources or notable that no studies focused on the
included migrants from all origins. When these experience of internal migrants within
global studies are discounted, 28 countries China, a practice that affects millions
were each referred to only in a single study. of people in that country.10 This may be
For a list of the number of studies found for due to the lack of review of Mandarin or
each country and all countries and territories Cantonese sources, although given the
for which no studies were found, see scale of internal migration in China, this
Attachments B and C of this report. seems to be a major gap in the literature.
Furthermore, there is relatively little
The geographic coverage of countries is set literature related to modern slavery in
out in Figure 1.2. The most-studied regions Japan (only one source reviewed).
were South-Eastern Asia (132 studies),
Western Asia (including the Arab States)
• The Russian Federation, Central Asia
and the Caucasus. Similar to the Chinese
(77 studies), Southern Asia (70 studies), case, the majority of studies related to
Southern Europe (43 studies) and Eastern exploitation of international migrants
Europe (41 studies). The large number of who originate from these countries, as
studies of Eastern Europe is likely due to a opposed to the exploitation of migrants
number of factors. First, several countries residing within them. There also appears
are normally mentioned in each study to be little Russian-language information
of this region, either as origin, transit or on this issue, although further research is
destination points for migrants. This may necessary.
give a misleading impression of the overall
number of studies of modern slavery in this • The Islamic Republic of Iran, Burundi,
region. Secondly, interest in labour migration Mauritania and Somalia. Despite having
from new EU states and increased migration high-risk factors for modern slavery,11
through the Balkans have led to a large only a single study each of forced labour
number of studies of these phenomena. in Burundi, Mauritania and Somalia were
found, and there were no studies for Iran.
The least-studied regions were the Caribbean
(1 study), Oceania [including Micronesia
(1 study), Polynesia (1 study), Melanesia
(2 studies) and Australia/New Zealand
(6 studies)], Middle and Southern Africa
(7 studies each) and South America (16
studies). The relatively small number of
studies of both Middle and Southern Africa
appears to be a major gap in the research.
It is unclear if the lack of studies of South
America identified is a major gap in the
research or simply reflects the limits of the
research process, which did not include
reviewing publications written only in
Spanish or Portuguese.
01 Introduction
Studies by Region
South-Eastern Asia 132

Western Asia 77
Southern Asia 70
Southern Europe 43
Eastern Europe 41
Northern Europe 38
Eastern Asia 34
Eastern Africa 32
Global 31
Western Africa 27
Northern America 26
Northern Africa 26
Central Asia 21
Central America 21
Western Europe 20
South America 16
Southern Africa 7
Middle Africa 7
Australia/New Zealand 6
Melanesia 2
Polynesia 1
Caribbean 1
Micronesia 1
0 30 60 90 120 150
Figure 1.2: Literature identified by region of focus

according to UN Department of Economic and
Social Affairs classifications.12
01 Introduction
ECONOMIC SECTOR OR PURPOSE OF EXPLOITATION

The most frequently studied economic sectors were domestic work (69 studies), sex work
(59 studies), agriculture (38 studies), manufacturing (36 studies) and construction (32 studies).
See further information in Figure 1.3 below.
Studies by Economic Sector or Purpose of Exploitation
Domestic Work 69
Sex Work 59
Agriculture 38
Manufacturing 36
Construction 32
Fishing 21
Hospitality 16
Begging 10
Ransom 9
Brick-making 7
Sales & Retail 7
Military Service 7
Smuggling & Transport 7
Forestry 3
Quarrying & Mining 3
Drug Trafficking 2
Entertainment 2
Food Processing 2
Market Trading 2
Organ Trafficking 2
Janitorial & Maintenance 1
Petty Crime 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 1.3: Literature identified by economic

sector or activity.
01 Introduction
SITES OF VULNERABILITY
The sites of vulnerability (places where migrants are particularly vulnerable to exploitation) that
were studied most intensively were recruitment agencies (55), private businesses (47 studies),
private dwellings (44 studies), irregular migration routes (43 studies) and border crossings
(39 studies). Relatively little-studied sites of vulnerability were safe houses (2 studies), prisons
and detention centres (3 studies), repressive States (6 studies), short-term work placements
(9 studies), tied accommodation (10 studies) and areas of state breakdown (11 studies). See
further detail in Figure 1.4 below.
Studies by Sites of Vulnerability
Recruitment Agencies 55
Private Businesses 47
Private Dwellings 44
Underground Migration Routes 43
Border Crossings 39
Rural Areas 33
Brothels 27
Entertainment Establishments 21
Refugee Camps & Other 21
Displacement Sites
Ships 17
Conflict Zones 12
Stateless Areas 11
Tied Accommodation 10
Short-Term Work Placements 9
Repressive States 6
Prisons, Detention Centres
3
& Labour Camps
Safe Houses 2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Figure 1.4: Literature on different sites

of vulnerability.
02
SITES OF
VULNERABILITY
IN THE MIGRATION
PROCESS
Migration is a process that occurs across time and space.
What begins, as an example, as an interaction between a
prospective migrant and a recruiter in a village in Africa
may involve transit on land through multiple countries,
and through a combination of regular and irregular
channels, before ultimately reaching the destination where
opportunities for work may or may not exist.
02 Sites of vulnerability in the migration process
Migrants tried to march to the

Northern Greek border after a
false rumour of open borders
spread via social media, near
Thessaloniki, Greece in April
2019. Greek police blocked
them using riot police forces
and tear gas as angry migrants
threw stones, bottles and sticks
towards them in their effort to
reach the borders. Guardians’
prioritization of immigration
control measures over anti-
modern slavery initiatives may
reduce their ability to disrupt
exploitation and increase
migrants’ vulnerability to
trafficking. Credit: Nicolas
Economou/NurPhoto via
Getty Images
As such, the migration process potentially AREAS BEYOND THE REACH OF

involves a variety of places, actors and STATE PROTECTION
situations that provide opportunities for
The literature suggests that migrants are most
protection but also an abuse of vulnerability.
vulnerable in places where the authority of the
As the opportunities for individual actors State and society does not protect them, either
to intervene will vary along the migration through lack of capacity or through intentional
process, it is important to be precise about neglect.14 There are exceptions to this rule,
where, when and how vulnerability arises at most notably in cases of state-imposed forced
different points in the migration process. In labour. However, most frequently, it is the
this section, we examine the situations in which isolation of migrants in places where they are
migrants appear to be most vulnerable, both not noticed, monitored or cared about by the
from a spatial perspective (so-called sites of State or wider society that provides a space in
vulnerability or places) and an environmental which they can be exploited. Examples include
perspective (what constitutes a favourable ships (where migrants are physically isolated
environment for crime to occur).13 from the rest of society), private houses and
embassies (which are considered “private” and
“domestic,” leading to their physical isolation
and exclusion from labour protections), and
conflict zones (where the state has effectively
broken down and society is itself in crisis).
The following are specific types of locations PRIVATE BUSINESSES

in which migrants find themselves at
This is a catch-all category for factories,
particular risk of exploitation. These places
shops and other premises under the control
may be the locations in which exploitation
of an employer where owners and managers
actually takes place or where migrants are
can abuse the workers they employ. In most
confronted with difficult choices that may
cases where this occurs, exploitative owners’
lead to their exploitation.
and managers’ control of financial resources
and ownership of workspaces is the most
PRIVATE DWELLINGS potent weapon they possess.
The physical isolation of migrant domestic
Examples of particularly risky forms of
workers and spouses in private dwellings can
private businesses include:
place them in dangerous situations.15 The
structural background to this vulnerability • Small manufacturing firms in suburban
is the ongoing feminization and historic areas which can escape the notice of
low status of domestic work in many labour inspectors. 21
societies.16 Research shows that while both • Work locations where workers’
men and women participate in domestic accommodations are tied to their
work, domestic workers are more likely employment, placing more power in the
to be female. Of the estimated 11.5 million hands of employers. 22
international migrant domestic workers, • Factories that primarily employ migrants
73.4 per cent (or 8.5 million) were female and in coordination with recruiters in order to
26.6 per cent (or approximately 3 million) hold workers in de facto debt bondage,
were male.17 When combined with the idea such as in the garment sector. 23
that private dwellings are part of the “private” • Factories and mines in areas with relatively
sphere, this leads to governments exempting limited government control. 24
domestic workers from labour protections,18
which in turn can provide fertile ground for • Work locations in which legal immigration
status is tied to a particular job. 25
exploitation. For example, an analysis of
coverage of labour laws of G20 countries • Types of business where exploitation is
noted that labour laws do not cover domestic normalized (for example, brick kilns in
workers in parts of Australia, Germany, North-Western India, where debt bondage
India, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, is deeply entwined with systems of
the Republic of Korea, Turkey, Saudi Arabia employers lending money to workers). 26
and the United States.19 These factors also
contribute to the vulnerability of migrant
spouses to domestic servitude and
forced marriage. 20
11.5M INTERNATIONAL
MIGRANT DOMESTIC
WORKERS
Women sit by a shelter

in the Nakivale refugee BORDER CROSSINGS • Migrants are often vulnerable when they
settlement, September have just arrived in a new country. At this
2015 in south west Border crossings are frequently noted
point, migrants are less likely to have a
Uganda, a site which was as places where migrants are especially
first established in 1958. support network that can mitigate the risk
vulnerable to falling into exploitative situations.
Long-term residence in of exploitation. They can also be stranded
displacement sites or There are three major reasons for this:
in border areas, either due to plans falling
refugee camps can lead
to disruptive changes in
• When migrants cross borders irregularly through, lack of funds or lack of access to
social norms such as the
using people smugglers, they may find funds or possibility of deportation, which
processes and traditions themselves in situations of relative places them in a vulnerable position. 29
of marriage or traditional disempowerment due to their lack of
gender roles. Credit:
resources (such as vehicles, mobile phones • Finally, other illegal trade (e.g. drug or arms
Sally Hayden/SOPA trafficking) can be more common in certain
Images/LightRocket via or access to food, water and shelter), lack
Getty Images of knowledge (such as about which officials border areas (e.g. North-Eastern India).
are amenable to bribery or gaps in the The fact that illegal activity can be embedded
surveillance system), and their desire to in the local economy and is beneficial to a
remain hidden from the authorities. This relatively large number of people can lead to
increases their vulnerability to exploitation de-sensitization towards criminal activity or
by smugglers and by unrelated criminal a lack of respect for the law. In this situation,
groups who prey on migrants when they are there may be a greater risk of criminal groups
unprotected by State authorities. 27 Data engaging in human trafficking and other
from cases whom IOM assisted over the last forms of modern slavery.30
10 years shows that more than 20 per cent
of international human trafficking journeys
cross through non-official border points. 28
IRREGULAR MIGRATION ROUTES Repressive States can act as major drivers

of irregular migration, particularly when
Migration can entail a lengthy process
migrants are forced to leave the country
of movement, often spanning several
illegally. These migrants consequently have
countries rather than being limited to a single
to use dangerous irregular migration routes,
frontier zone. Over time, irregular migration
which may result in their exploitation or
routes become well-trodden, as informal
enslavement in neighbouring or destination
infrastructure springs up to support migrants
countries. 39
along the journey. For example, in recent
years, large flows of people have sought to While noting that high risk irregular migration
migrate via Libya to Europe through irregular corridors do exist, several studies assert
channels, whether to improve their economic that irregular migration networks and people
prospects or seek asylum. Caught between smuggling are not always or inherently
detention centres, which can prove to be exploitative. These studies suggest that
little more than staging pens for human migrant smuggling networks are organized as
trafficking, and increasingly restrictive networks of trust in which migrants frequently
migration controls at the borders of Europe, are grateful to smugglers.40 Notably, Zhang
these would-be migrants have fallen victim et al. found in an extensive study of migration
to unthinkable extremes of abuse, including to San Diego that while abuses did occur
having been sold in slave markets and
on irregular migration routes, they were far
subjected to extortion, violence and sexual
less common than abuses at the hands of
abuse in detention centres. 31
employers within the United States.41
From the literature reviewed, migrants who
use irregular migration routes are at higher
risk of exploitation in the following situations:
DISPLACEMENT SITES AND
REFUGEE CAMPS
• When migrants use smuggling networks
that seek to profit not only from the Displaced international or internal
facilitation of movement but also the populations in displacement sites can be
abuse and extortion of the migrants highly vulnerable to exploitation. There are
themselves. 32 Recent high-profile a number of reasons for this:
examples include movements through • Since displaced populations tend to
Libya into Europe and the movements of have lost their usual financial and social
Rohingya populations fleeing Myanmar. 33 networks, their resilience is reduced.42
• When migrants use networks under With fewer people to look out for them,
the control of organized crime groups. migrants can be forced into exploitative
Generally, these networks are older situations as a matter of survival and can
and more established than the ad be harder to extract from these situations.
hoc networks used by recent migrant • Unaccompanied child migrants can be
influxes. 34 An example would be the in particular danger due to being housed
network of Eastern European gangs near or with unrelated adults without the
involved in sex trafficking, which dates to
usual protection provided by parents
before the fall of the Iron Curtain. 35
or guardians.43
• When migration routes pass through • Displacements sites or camps can
conflict zones or areas with minimal State
control, such as Eastern Sudan and ISIS- concentrate vulnerable individuals in a
controlled areas of Libya. 36 single location. In areas with poor security
such as Eastern Sudan and certain urban
• When migrants run out of money, including districts in South Africa, this can make
because they were robbed or have fallen
them targets for raids by traffickers.44
victim to extortion, 37 and have limited
options to earn money, such that they may • Displacement sites are often in a legally
be willing to accept exploitative situations irregular position, for example, those
in order to pay debts. 38 established on private land. As a result,
landowners gain greater power to exploit
the occupants of the camps, as happens in
Northern Lebanon.45
• Long-term residence in displacement sites Apart from regions in which conflict is ongoing,
or refugee camps can lead to disruptive regions in which the state has little or no
changes in social norms. For example, effective control can be particularly dangerous
female Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh for migrants as criminals and opportunists
have been compelled to seek employment, can operate there with near-impunity. This
despite a traditional culture which confines may result from poor infrastructure and lack
them to the home.46 As a result, they can be of state resources, as in Eastern Sudan, 53 or
effectively compelled to accept risky forms a complete collapse of the state, as in the
of employment or even child marriage or Central African Republic. 54
forced marriage, with little access to redress
for abuse. NATURAL DISASTERS
Several studies suggest that natural disasters
CONFLICT ZONES can magnify pre-existing vulnerabilities to
Migrants are particularly vulnerable to modern slavery. This includes both rapid
exploitation in areas where there is an ongoing onset natural disasters, such as earthquakes,
conflict. Notably, these areas have the highest that have immediate impacts on individuals,
score on the Vulnerability Model in the Global as well as slow onset natural disasters, such
Slavery Index.47 as drought, which can lead to incremental
This risk of exploitation takes several forms: large-scale displacement. While there does
• Existing vulnerabilities may be exacerbated not seem to be significant evidence for natural
by the breakdown of existing societal and disasters causing vulnerabilities, the economic
economic structures. For example, as and social disruption they cause can increase
of 2015, the abuse of migrant domestic the risks that affected individuals already face.
workers in the Syrian Arab Republic Examples for rapid onset natural disasters
appeared to be much more severe than in include an increase in dangerous, irregular
the surrounding countries.48 Similarly, the migration after the 2015 Nepal earthquake, 55
risk of trafficking for sexual exploitation and floods in Bangladesh leading to a greater
appears to be much higher among conflict- vulnerability to trafficking. 56
displaced persons in Central America.49
• Reduced ability of existing law enforcement SHIPS
and other “guardians” of the social and The physical isolation of workers aboard ships
legal order to intervene in highly abusive puts them in a particularly precarious situation.
situations. Conflict may also reduce the Without intervention from police or other
ability of parents and guardians to prevent authorities, and away from the rest of society,
modern slavery abuses of their own children. abuse of ships’ crews can be particularly
For example, in the case of child labour severe and easily achieved.
exploitation of West African migrants,
parents and family members may lack the In general, the less the ship docks in port, the
resources to intervene due to their own more dangerous it is for its crew, with long-haul
desperate situations. 50 fishing vessels identified as being particularly
risky. 57 Fishing vessels operating in markets
• Armed forces may set up networks of sexual with low margins, such as low-value or “trash”
exploitation. These armed forces include
not only insurgent groups, but also regular fish and small coastal fisheries, are also more
foreign military forces and peacekeeping likely to be places where migrant workers
forces. 51 are abused. 58
• Child soldiers and forced labourers may

be recruited by armed groups. This may
be for fighters, cooks, porters or runners
within armed groups, or for forced labour in
begging or construction. 52
RURAL AREAS COMMERCIAL SEX ESTABLISHMENTS

In some settings, the relative isolation and Commercial sex establishments can be
distinctive social structures of certain dangerous locations for sex workers in
rural areas seems to be associated with certain circumstances. Notable examples
vulnerability of migrants from these areas. include:
This includes situations, such as in parts of • Areas where sex work is illegal or
India, where internal migrant workers are stigmatized and the trade is driven
frequently recruited from poorer, rural areas underground.65
where the state’s reach is diminished.59 This
also occurs in the recruitment of migrant
• Commercial sex establishments under the
direct control of organized crime.66
workers from impoverished, rural areas to
work in the sugar cane industry in Guatemala60 • Establishments where the sexual nature
and the palm oil industry in Ecuador.61 of work performed is hidden to avoid
oversight. Examples include hostess
Other vulnerability factors include:
bars, massage parlours, cantinas and
• Social relations may be governed by a strip clubs. These can act as a front for
paternalistic social order that legitimizes more covert sexual transactions.67 These
more traditional forms of modern slavery establishments may be located outside of
such as bonded labour. This type of social traditional red-light districts.68
relation is noted in several countries in
Southern Asia.62 The reviewed literature emphasizes that
commercial sex establishments are not
• Migrant workers in agricultural industries always dangerous to the women working
can be in remote locations that are largely
hidden from authorities and from wider within them. Indeed, at least three reviewed
social view. This leads to an isolated sources suggest that the equation of sex
space in which they can be exploited; 63 work and human trafficking can actually
for example, migrant workers in the increase the vulnerability of sex workers
United States’ agricultural sector to exploitation.69
who have been the victims of human
trafficking operations.64
Syrians who flee the attacks of

Syrian and Russian air forces,
shelter at vehicles and try to
live their lives with humanitarian
aid, close to the Bab al-
Salameh border crossing on
Turkish-Syrian border near
Aleppo, Syria in February, 2016.
Migrants are highly vulnerable
to modern slavery when fleeing
situations of violence and
conflict, where the state has
effectively broken down and
society itself is in crisis. Credit:
Fatih Aktas/Anadolu Agency/
Getty Images
03
VICTIM
CHARACTERISTICS
The following section discusses factors related to the
personal and socio-economic characteristics, motivations
and actions of migrants that are thought to increase
vulnerability to modern slavery. Many of these are factors
that individuals have little or no control over, such as
individual characteristics or structural factors.70
While a focus on specific risk factors is important in understanding the
vulnerability of migrants, often an individual’s vulnerability is significantly
increased when multiple factors interact. There are only a small number
of quantitative studies that examine how a combination of these different
factors might interact in ways that amplify risk. For example, a 2017 IOM study
that surveyed migrants along the Central and Eastern Mediterranean routes
identified a set of statistically significant predictors of vulnerability to human
trafficking and other exploitation.71 Such studies are useful for identifying
which migrants are most likely to need help and support.
03 Victim characteristics
Migrants on a journey to
Western Europe, mostly from
war-torn Afghanistan and
Pakistan, take shelter in an
abandoned vehicle in February,
2017 in Belgrade, Serbia. Many
were returned to Serbia after
being arrested in Hungary,
complaining about alleged
violence from Hungarian police
officers. Research suggests
that migrants who have been
travelling for longer distances
are at greater risk of suffering
abuse and exploitation during
their journey. Credit: Pierre
Crom/Getty Images
CHILDREN AND YOUTH The vulnerabilities of children to these crime

types are reflected in official statistics and
It is already known that children (that is,
victim support data. One third of detected
those under 18 years of age) have particular
victims of trafficking, recorded in national data
vulnerabilities to human trafficking, forced
provided to UNODC, are children.74 According
labour and modern slavery. The Global
to data reported on the Counter Trafficking Data
Estimates of Modern Slavery found that one in
Collaborative website, 21 per cent of the victims
four victims of modern slavery were children
of trafficking assisted by IOM, Polaris and
under 18 years of age.72 Of the sub-category of
Liberty Shared were under 18 years of age.75
people in forced labour, this included about
4.3 million children aged below 18 years in In order to understand the risk factors for
forced labour, representing 18 per cent of child migrants to human trafficking, forced
the 24.8 million total forced labour victims labour and modern slavery, it is necessary to
worldwide. This estimate includes 1.0 million understand the populations in question. While
children in commercial sexual exploitation, data on migrant children is poor, a 2016 report
3.0 million children in forced labour for other from UNICEF brought the best of the key
forms of labour exploitation, and 300,000 available data together in one place.76 Key data
children in forced labour imposed by state points are summarised on the following page.
authorities.73
On migrant children, it was noted that of the But barriers to legal migration rarely
244 million migrants in the world in 2015, stop people from moving, they only push
around 31 million were children. Since 1990, them underground – thereby creating
the proportion of international child migrants the conditions that enable smuggling to
within the global population of children thrive. Reliance on smugglers can cause
has remained stable at just over 1 per cent. dependency and vulnerability, and can result
However, given increasing population sizes, in appalling abuse and exploitation if children
the absolute number of child migrants has fall into the hands of traffickers, armed
increased significantly in the last 25 years. groups or other predators. 82 Abuses can also
Most children who migrate do so within their be perpetrated in the detention system. 83
own geographical region, with boys and girls
In addition to the direct dangers that child
in almost equal numbers. Half of the world’s
migrants may face along the migration
child migrants live in 15 countries, led by the
journey or even at their destination, they
United States, which is home to 3.7 million
are also at increased risk of dangerous
child migrants.77
coping mechanisms such as child marriage
With regard to refugee children, of the (particularly for female children) and child
31 million migrants who are children, some labour. 84 UNICEF has noted that families in
11 million are refugees or asylum seekers. crisis may turn to these measures because
Refugee children are heavily concentrated they feel it is the only option for safeguarding
in certain countries. Around 50 per cent of a child’s future or supporting a family’s
the overall refugee children population under immediate needs. These practices put
UNCHR’s mandate is in just two countries, children at risk of emotional and physical
the Syrian Arab Republic and Afghanistan, abuse and have cascaded longer term
and around three quarters of them are consequences as these children are less likely
distributed across just 10 countries.78 to finish school and accordingly more likely to
have children themselves at an early age. 85
If internally displaced children are included
as migrants, then of the 41 million people While gender and age can combine to play
who were displaced by violence and conflict children at risk, research from the analysis
within their own countries by the end of 2015, of some 11,000 migrant and refugee children
an estimated 17 million were children.79 (adolescents aged 14–17) and youth (18–24),
conducted by by IOM and UNICEF along the
Existing research confirms that child
Central and Eastern Mediterranean routes to
migrants, particularly those who travel
Europe in 2016 and 2017 suggests that racial
alone or have been separated from their
discrimination may also play a role in some
families, are at risk of human trafficking,
children being more at risk of victimization
forced labour and modern slavery. Given this
than others. On both routes, factors such as
specific risk profile, it is worth noting that
additional years of education and travelling
in 2015, nearly 100,000 unaccompanied or
in a group, whether with family or not, afford
separated children filed claims for asylum in
young migrants and refugees a measure
78 countries.
of protection. However, where they come
While precise statistics on the scale of the from outweighs either of these factors. An
problem for migrant children do not yet adolescent boy from sub-Saharan Africa,
exist, the indications are that the problem is who has secondary education and travels in a
“pervasive”. 80 Crimes perpetrated against group along the Central Mediterranean route,
children are underreported in any event but faces a 73 per cent risk of being exploited. If
research also points to the additional barriers he came from another region, the risk would
that affect reporting of these crimes for drop to 38 per cent. The research noted that
child migrants, including fear of detention, anecdotal reports and qualitative research
deportation and other state actions against from the Mediterranean region and elsewhere
children with uncertain legal status. 81 suggest that racism underlies this difference,
with testimonies from young migrants and
UNICEF research notes that for many children
refugees from sub-Saharan Africa showing
who are on the move, legal routes to migrate
that they are treated more harshly and
are simply not available. Family reunification,
targeted for exploitation because of the
humanitarian visas, refugee resettlement
colour of their skin. 86
places and work or study visas are out of
reach for most children on the move.
A migrant worker
sorts cantaloupe with
GENDER Research also points to differences in access
to services and outcomes for victims based
machinery in the field Studies with a global focus note the relevance
of a farm. Workers in on their gender. High numbers of complaint
of gender on patterns of victimization. 87 The
agricultural industries resolution rates for female migrants in Thailand
can be in remote Global Estimates of Modern Slavery confirm
compared to its regional neighbours is
locations that are largely women and girls are disproportionately
hidden from authorities credited to partnerships between NGOs and
affected by modern slavery, accounting for
and from wider social migrant worker resource centres to provide
view, leading to an 28.7 million, or 71 per cent of the overall total.
gender-responsive services, 88 indicating the
isolated space in which More precisely, women and girls represent
they can be exploited. importance of tailoring responses to victim
99 per cent of victims of forced labour in the
Credit: Edwin Remsburg/ characteristics.
VW Pics via Getty commercial sex industry and 58 per cent in
Images other sectors, 40 per cent of victims of forced While modern slavery operates in highly
labour imposed by state authorities, and 84 per gendered ways, this should not obscure the
cent of victims of forced marriages. vulnerability of men and boys to modern
slavery. In some situations, research has shown
The Global Estimates indicate profound
male migrants travelling alone may be at higher
differences between women and men in terms
risk of exploitation than female migrants,
of how they are affected by modern slavery.
although for this study it is notable that sexual
Whereas women are disproportionately
exploitation was not considered. Notable
victims of forced labour in the private economy
examples include mixed migration flows using
(including in domestic work and in commercial
the Western Balkans route and the Central
sexual exploitation) and forced marriage,
Mediterranean route to Europe, although this
men are disproportionately subject to state-
study did not collect information on trafficking
imposed forms of forced labour, reflecting
for sexual exploitation or other forms of
the impact of abusive conscription and
gender-based violence. 89 CTDC data reflects
imprisonment on men, as well as to forced
this phenomenon: while about 70 per cent of
labour in the construction, manufacturing and
the victims in the dataset are women, over the
agriculture sectors. While the specific variable
years a growing number of men and boys have
of immigration status was not covered by the
been assisted. Concretely, in 2002, all victims
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery, it seems
assisted by IOM were women, but in recent
likely that these highly gendered patterns are
years women account for slightly less than half
relevant to the vulnerability of male and female
of the caseload of the CTDC partners. 90
migrants to modern slavery.
VISA STATUS KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE

All relevant studies agree that undocumented TOWARD MIGRATION
migrants are at a higher risk of modern The impact that migrants’ knowledge
slavery due to their engagement with of migration processes has on risk of
smugglers and facilitators in the migration exploitation is disputed. For example, some
process, and the need to accept unstable authors focusing on the Greater Mekong
and/or precarious work that may require sub-region argue that migrants who are
bribes to corrupt officials to avoid detention, poorly informed of the potential dangers
deportation or arrest. Examples include the associated with migration are at higher risk
“constant extortion” of irregular migrant of exploitation. 98 However, other researchers
workers from Myanmar in Thailand to avoid argue most migrants are already aware
arrest, 91 former migrant domestic workers of the dangers of migrant exploitation
who have fled their abusive employers and but are compelled into risky situations by
are forced into the sex trade in the Gulf circumstances beyond their control. 99
Cooperation Council countries, 92 agricultural This has been noted among bonded
workers in Sicily, 93 sex workers in Tijuana labourers in Southern Asia, Ethiopian and
who are unable to cross the border due to Indonesian migrant domestic workers in
a lack of official documentation, 94 irregular the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and
migrants working on Thai fishing vessels, 95 Hong Kong SAR, China, and Chinese garment
and undocumented immigrants in the workers in Italy, among others. In this latter
United States construction and food service set of circumstances, World Vision argues
industries. 96 that a focus on “protective behaviours,” as
Migrants whose visas are tied to a single opposed to simple warnings, may be more
employer are also at risk of exploitation. effective.100
Systems such as the Middle Eastern kafala Another study shows that finding trustworthy
systems, the United Kingdom’s Overseas sources of information is a real challenge
Domestic Worker (ODW) visa and the H2-B for migrants and that information about
visa in the United States create dependency border crossings and the risks involved on
beyond the usual employer-employee the journey is obtained primarily through
relationship, which in turn creates an word of mouth. Phones are used primarily
opportunity for exploitation. 97 for communication with friends or family, as
the use of mobile phones may increase the
migrant’s exposure to crime and abuse.
For example, there have been reported cases
on the United States and Mexico border
where criminals have robbed migrants of
their belongings in order to access phone
numbers of friends and family, whom they
then blackmail or coerce into paying large
sums of money.101
The physical isolation of

migrant domestic workers
in private homes leads to
them being “out of sight”
of state and societal
authorities, contributing to
a high-risk environment for
abusive and exploitative
working conditions. Credit:
Heshphoto
Similarly, a 2015 study by Zimmerman et al. REPEAT EXPLOITATION

has found that it is unclear which advice and
Studies of former victims of forced marriage
information to offer prospective migrants
and domestic servitude who migrate to Europe
will help prevent exploitation.102 Advice for
suggest that individuals who have previously
migrants to obtain written contracts or to
been victims of one form of modern slavery
keep hold of identity documents may be
will frequently become victims again.109 This
impractical where written contracts are rare
vulnerability may be due to the loss of financial
or where passports need to be handed over to
and interpersonal resources during their
agents for registration purposes. Zimmerman
previous experience of exploitation or a lack of
states that “the absence of job information
support reintegrating back into their countries
is problematic, particularly in highly informal
of origin. For example, a study of Nigerian
sectors. Further research, including migrant-
irregular migrants returned from Europe,
led and employer-informed insights, is needed
including victims of human trafficking, revealed
to identify messages that might reduce the risk
that the majority would consider leaving Nigeria
of exploitation.” 103
for work overseas again in the future.110
Further, some studies highlight that the
underpinning logic that more information and LENGTH OF TRAVEL
more awareness will lead to safer migration
Studies of post-crisis migration in Nepal and
and lower the risk of exploitation is untested,104
the Western Balkans suggest that migrants
with few evaluations conducted.105 Central
who have been travelling for longer distances
to many awareness-raising campaigns is the
are at greater risk.111 However, it is unclear
concept that migration is inherently risky,
whether long-distance travel is inherently
which is not necessarily the case – most
dangerous or whether this is due to greater
people who migrate do not become trafficked
exposure to a constant level of risk or an
or exploited.106 Awareness-raising campaigns
erosion of capacity and resources the longer
that target sometimes thousands of people
a journey continues. A survey of migrants
will often affect only a handful of people and
along the Central Eastern Mediterranean
their behaviours. More effective campaigns
Routes finds that a longer journey increases
are those that go beyond raising awareness
the probability that a migrant will experience
to target specific behaviours, drawing on
exploitation or human trafficking.112
local migration perceptions and those that
are conducted in conjunction with other
interventions.107 SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND IDENTITY
Studies of Syrian refugees in Turkey and Latin
SECONDARY DISPLACEMENT American sex workers in New York suggest
that LGBTQ* individuals are generally at higher
Studies of Palestinians fleeing the Syrian Arab
risk of modern slavery, particularly trafficking
Republic and stateless people in the Greater
for sexual exploitation.113 However, this remains
Mekong sub-region, among others, suggest
an under-researched topic. In particular, there
that people who experience secondary
is scant data on the trafficking of transgender
displacement are at higher risk of exploitation.
people.114 CTDC partners do assist transgender
This is because these populations may already
and non-conforming victims. While the current
lack connections, financial resources or
dataset reflects very few instances, available
documentation, having lost these in their initial
figures support the hypothesis that this
process of seeking asylum.108
demographic, broadly speaking, is trafficked
mainly for the purpose of sexual exploitation
(85 per cent of cases).115
•
Known customarily as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
questioning/queer.
LANGUAGE ABILITY For example, women and children are at

risk of sexual violence, coercion and sexual
Studies of South Asian and Ukrainian
exploitation as well as forced or child
migrants in Slovakia, Cambodian migrants in
marriage throughout their migration journey.
Thailand and migrant domestic workers in the
The same study suggests that any policy
United Kingdom argue that migrants unable
response to protect migrants and migrants’
to speak the language of their destination
health must factor in the multiple phases of
country are at higher risk.116 These authors
the migration process.
argue since they cannot understand
contracts and documents written in a foreign Certain health conditions may increase
language, these migrants may be at a higher victims’ risk of exploitation. Two studies link
risk of exploitation. However, this finding is HIV-positive individuals with a higher risk
not universal. Zhang et al.’s extensive study of exploitation, however, further research
of Mexican migrants in San Diego found is required to investigate the nature of
that language ability was not significantly an association between HIV status and
correlated with exploitation in that context.117 vulnerability.120
Previous trauma and experience of violence
DRUG OR ALCOHOL ADDICTION and abuse prior to trafficking, and particularly
Studies of trafficked Russian sex workers in during childhood, can increase vulnerability to
Western Europe and the Russian Federation being trafficked and or re-trafficked.121
and Mexican sex workers in the United States
There is evidence that victims of trafficking
suggest that migrants addicted to drugs or
have encountered multiple traumatic events
alcohol are at higher risk of exploitation.118
prior to, during and after their trafficking
This also applies to migrants who are
experience. There can be an element of
recovering or former addicts.
betrayal in trafficking experiences, with
periods of captivity and loss of autonomy
HEALTH meaning that victims of trafficking can
Potential health risks and health protective have difficulties trusting others, as well
factors that affect short- and long-term as problems with agency, assertiveness
well-being occur throughout each phase and decision-making. A trauma-informed
of a migrant’s journey. While in transit, for approach is essential for any service
example, health can be affected by transport providers engaging with trafficking victims.122
used and pathogenic or environmental Studies on the links between health,
exposures.119 Abubakar et al. (2018) also migration and exploitation have tended to
highlights the highly gendered experience focus on migrants being exploited for sexual
of migrants, with women, men, and sexual exploitation or migrants who experience
minorities experiencing different health risk sexual violence or child or forced marriage.123
and protection opportunities at each phase
of a migration journey. A 2015 study looked at the health risks of
migrants and trafficked workers in Argentina,
Peru and Kazakhstan.
UNDOCUMENTED
MIGRANTS ARE
AT RISK
Workers in each country experienced common Other studies reach similar conclusions,
risk exposures, such as working long hours notably the Women and Law in Southern Africa
without breaks as a significant risk factor Research and Education Trust’s study of
for workplace accidents. Migrants in each of labour trafficking in Lesotho, Abebaw’s study
the three countries experienced equipment- of Ethiopian migrant domestic workers, and
related injuries, dust-related lung diseases, Maternick and Ditmore’s study of trafficked
musculoskeletal problems and tuberculosis. workers in the United States. The latter of
Psychological and verbal abuse was more these studies specifies that poverty during
common among interviewees than physical childhood is a particular vulnerability factor.128
abuse, including threats of reporting workers to However, there are caveats to this conclusion.
immigration authorities and police. Stress was
First, while a link between poverty and
a common complaint, caused by long hours,
vulnerability to modern slavery is apparent, it
financial worries, poor living conditions and
is less clear whether this link is correlative or
pressure from colleagues. Those who were
causative. Of those authors who do state an
trafficked had more restricted movement, were
opinion on this issue, the majority argue poverty
more likely to be physically abused and lived in
is directly or indirectly causative of vulnerability
worse conditions, worked more hours per day
to modern slavery. Kara’s global study, Anti-
and were paid less. What was striking is that
Slavery International’s study of trafficked Roma
the research found that many of the abuses
children and UNICEF’s study of West African
reported by victims of trafficking were also
labour migration argue that poorer migrants are
reported by numerous migrant workers who
strongly encouraged into dangerous situations
were not identified as victims of trafficking.124
due to lack of economic opportunity in their
The health sector can also act as a protective home situations. They have “nothing to lose,” as
factor by identifying and providing to support the UNICEF report puts it.129
to trafficked persons. The Buller et al. 2015
Secondly, poverty is not necessarily a direct
study found that access to and use of medical
indication of increased vulnerability to modern
services was limited across each country
slavery. Studies of Nigerian migrant workers
because of cost, legal status and lost wages
in Austria, Indonesian migrant fishermen on
from missing work. There is therefore a larger
South Korean vessels, trafficked Cambodian
role for labour inspections in protecting the
workers in Thailand and Chinese restaurant
health of migrant workers, while mobile health
workers in the United Kingdom note that the
units and wider-reaching occupational health
group most at risk are not those in absolute
promotion are needed in locations with high
poverty, as they lack the resources to migrate,
numbers of migrant workers.125 A further study
but rather those who are able to leverage
conducted in 2015 found that in a sample
some financial resources to fund the migration
of 782 health professionals working for the
process but still incur major debt or a position
National Health Service in the United Kingdom,
of social dependency in doing so.130
13 per cent had been in contact with a patient
who had been trafficked or they suspected Further, studies of sex and labour trafficking
had been trafficked. Sixty per cent of these in Ghana, South-Eastern Asia and the Russian
professionals also stated that they did not Federation note that not all of those who
know their role in responding to trafficking fall victim to modern slavery come from
cases or how to interact with those that had poor backgrounds and that the majority of
been trafficked. Training health professionals relatively poor people in a given society are not
would therefore be a concrete step to trafficked.131 As noted in the Global Estimates
increasing protection of trafficked persons, of Modern Slavery, while poverty can drive a
including migrants.126 decision to migrate for labour, it can also act
as a barrier to migration, as members of the
POVERTY poorest groups are often unable to raise the
money required to reach their destination,
A number of studies note that poverty is highly
whether through accessing loans in their local
relevant to vulnerability to modern slavery.127
communities or from others in the migration
For example, Siddarth Kara’s study, based on
industry. With limited empirical data providing
interviews in Nigeria, Southern and South-
insight into the connection between income
Eastern Asia, Europe and North America,
levels and forced labour movements, the
argues that poverty is the most important factor
estimates of victims of forced labour were
in creating vulnerability to modern slavery.
examined according to the income levels of
the victims’ country of residence and of the
country where the exploitation took place.
Nur, who doesn’t The results suggest very little movement The correlation between low education and
know her age across income groupings. Ninety-four per vulnerability to modern slavery also has
but thinks she is
between 14 and cent of victims of forced labour were exploited caveats. For example, studies of exploited
16 years old, sits in a country that was in the same income- migrants from post-Soviet countries indicate
segregated from based regional grouping as their country of that victims in these cases do not typically
men on the day
of her wedding residence. People who were exploited in the have poor educational levels.135 Moreover,
to Rayeed, 20, low and lower-middle-income groupings were there appears to be no direct negative
in a camp for almost exclusively residents of countries that correlation between regional or national
Rohingya refugees
in November, 2017 were in the same income grouping.132 education levels and rates of modern
in Cox’s Bazar, slavery. For example, Vijeyarasa and the
Bangladesh. Nur
said that her parents EDUCATION UNODC note that Ukraine and the Indian
arranged the state of Kerala have relatively well-educated
Some studies, such as Kara’s global
marriage for her and populations but also high levels of human
she had no choice in study and Williams’ and Pande’s studies
trafficking.136 In CTDC data, nearly a quarter
the matter. Credit: of sex trafficking in India, concluded that
Allison Joyce/Getty of the victims assisted have some technical
low education levels are correlated with
Images training, and nearly half of them have
vulnerability to modern slavery.133 The
secondary education (including 21 per cent
reasons for this, however, have not been
middle school, 20 per cent high school and
extensively studied. Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick
6 per cent secondary school).137
argues that education can be closely
correlated with attitudes that provide
resilience to modern slavery, for example, a
rejection of caste-based paternalism in rural
India.134 However, beyond this it is unclear
whether low education levels are correlated
with ignorance of the dangers involved with
migration, lack of economic opportunity or
other factors.
NECESSITY TO SUPPORT DEPENDENTS HOMELESSNESS OR LACK OF FAMILY

Studies of Ethiopian migrants in the Gulf SUPPORT
Cooperation Council countries, South Asian Studies of trafficked workers in the United
migrants in Slovakia and Vietnamese domestic Kingdom and the Russian Federation
workers in the United States, among others, suggest that those who lack a family support
conclude that migrants are often forced to network are at higher risk of exploitation.
remain in exploitative situations due to the This particularly affects individuals who are
necessity to support dependents. These homeless.144 Foreign children separated from
dependents may be in the country where the their family support structures or without
migrants are working or (more frequently) in stable homes are targeted for recruitment by
their home country.138 non-state armed groups in the Syrian Arab
Migrants supporting families in their home Republic and Iraq.145
countries may also be rendered vulnerable by
direct threats of violence to victims’ families. CULTURAL NORMS
This has been noted in certain cases of Studies have noted a number of cultural
trafficking by organized criminal groups, such concepts within local communities that may
as the trafficking of Moldovan sex workers to increase the vulnerability of certain community
Western Europe and of Central American sex members to exploitation.
workers to the United States.139
First, a cultural norm whereby certain forms of
sexual exploitation are considered shameful
ABUSIVE OR UNSTABLE FAMILY to their victims and are not discussed may
BACKGROUND increase the isolation of victims and their
Some studies suggest that a past history of vulnerability to modern slavery. Notable
sexual or physical abuse within the household examples of this phenomenon include male
is a major vulnerability factor, particularly in child trafficking in Afghanistan,146 rape and
cases of trafficking for sexual exploitation. In sexual violence among Eritrean refugees,147
some cases, this may lead to trafficking by the and sexual violence against domestic workers
victim’s family themselves.140 For example, this in Sudan.148
process has been observed among trafficked
A second, related concept that may increase
Indian sex workers and children trafficked for
vulnerability is honour, in which an individual’s
sex in the Russian Federation. Alternatively, the
sexual purity is a major element in social status.
desire to escape an abusive situation may lead
This may increase the risk of exploitation since
to a greater willingness by the victim to accept
underlying causes are not discussed or tackled.
exploitation perpetrated by others.141 This
Examples include the culture of ijaat (honour)
process has been observed among migrant
in Nepal,149 patriarchal social norms in the
sex workers in India, Viet Nam, Cambodia,
United States and Latin America that stigmatize
Thailand, Argentina, Nigeria, Brazil and Spain,
women who violate them (notably, through
among others.
being raped),150 and comparable patriarchal
In the United States, criminal networks or norms in Indonesia and Timor-Leste.151 This kind
independent traffickers are known to target of culture can lead to a particularly high risk of
vulnerable women and girls from Mexico and forced marriage, as women are forced to marry
Central America who have been victims to rapists or sexual abusers to “expunge” the
an abusive past into sex trafficking.142 A large shame of their assault.152
proportion of child sex exploitation victims in the
Thirdly, a deferential culture that sees
United Kingdom report an unstable home life.143
inequality as natural, proper or divinely ordered
can be a major resource for exploiters.153
For example, this culture has been linked
to the persistence of bonded labour among
rural communities in the Indian states of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Karnataka, and the
perpetuation of debt bondage by recruitment
agencies in the Philippines. Furthermore, this
kind of culture can stop exploited migrants
from showing the “proper” reaction authorities
expect from trafficking victims.154
Finally, cultural norms where migration is This is reported to be reinforced by other

seen as the best route to achieving fortune factors such as inadequate access to
and prestige may encourage risk-taking or healthcare and social benefits, poor working
disregarding warnings. This process has and living conditions and low literacy, all of
been documented, for example, in Ethiopia, which increased vulnerability of these already
the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Nigeria and marginalized groups.161 For example, certain
Nepal.155 In particular, media depictions of studies suggest Dalits are more commonly
life abroad or in major cities – for example bonded labourers,162 and 90 per cent of
in Brazilian soap operas shown on Ukrainian all modern slaves interviewed by Siddarth
TV and in Indian TV dramas – can present Kara were members of a minority caste
the outside world as unrealistically full of group.163 Furthermore, domination of official
rewarding opportunities.156 institutions by higher-caste individuals
may mean lower-caste individuals avoid
Interestingly, this norm can be perpetuated by
them due to the perceived shame resulting
returned migrants, even those who have not
from this power imbalance.164 When these
been successful. For example, in her study
institutions control legal migration processes,
conducted in Viet Nam, Daniele Belanger
as in Nepal, this may lead to a rise in unsafe,
noted that returned migrants may take out
irregular migration.
loans to buy consumer goods to keep up an
appearance of successful migration.157 Further related vulnerability factors occur at
the intersection between caste and gender.
LACK OF A LOCAL SUPPORT NETWORK Khan notes that prohibitions on intercaste
marriage can create a shortage of eligible
Studies of Ethiopian domestic workers
brides and create an incentive for trafficking
in Khartoum and Romanian agricultural
for forced marriage, for example between
workers in Sicily suggest that for migrants
Hisar district and other regions in India’s
who have recently arrived in a foreign
Haryana state.165
country, the lack of a supportive community
is a major vulnerability factor.158 One of the Moreover, certain caste traditions of
most common means of migrants escaping devadasi (marriage to a god or goddess for
exploitative situations is through friends or service in a temple) can easily lead to female
other supportive members of an expatriate sex trafficking.166 This process has been
community; as such, the lack of this kind noted in the trafficking of girls from rural India
of network can increase the risk of their to Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi.
exploitation. Conversely, where this kind of
network is present, resilience to exploitation GLOBALIZATION AND INEQUALITY
is much higher. For example, among Mexican
Several studies suggest a link between
migrant workers in Southern California, rates
globalization and vulnerability to modern
of exploitation among agricultural workers
slavery. On the one hand, Austin Choi-
tend to be lower due to more established and
Fitzpatrick’s study of bonded labour in
long-term migrant community networks.159
rural India suggests that caste-based
paternalism in Southern Asia has been
CASTE STATUS radically undermined by the extension of
In Southern Asia, members of historically the market economy, which increases the
oppressed castes and tribes are at particular resilience of workers to exploitation.167
risk of modern slavery. This applies However, other studies, for example Siddarth
particularly to members of Scheduled Kara’s study of victims of modern slavery,
Tribes, Scheduled Castes and Other Rekha Pande’s study of sex trafficking
Backward Classes.160 While efforts to combat victims in India, Chenda Keo’s study of
discrimination against these groups have sex traffickers in Cambodia and Chigozie
been put in place, social stigmatization and Nnebedum’s study of Nigerian sex trafficking
economic marginalization are nonetheless victims, suggest that economic disparities,
reported to still be a characteristic of reflected in the different income levels of
modern and globalizing Indian society. high and low income countries, increase the
vulnerability of those who are not yet lifted
out of poverty.168 At the same time, global
interconnectivity has also led to growing
opportunities for migration.169
In some cases, market pressures create DISCRIMINATION AGAINST MIGRANTS

incentives for employers to subject their
Studies of trafficking in Viet Nam, Taiwan
workers to conditions of modern slavery.
Province of the People’s Republic of China, the
Examples include the Thai fishing industry,
Republic of Korea, and the Philippines, among
where low-profit margins and opaque
others, suggest a climate of discrimination
subcontracting structures allow widespread
against migrants can be a major cause of
forced labour,170 and the internationalization of
their vulnerability to modern slavery.173 This is
garment manufacturing, where intermittency
particularly true when discriminatory attitudes
of demand creates low-profit margins and
influence law enforcement. For example, Shin
encourages the exploitation of workers in
suggests that a belief that Filipina women
Argentina, Cambodia and Italy.171
are manipulative pervades the South Korean
A handful of authors argue that forms of justice system, impacting on law enforcement
modern slavery are not an unintended product and prosecutions.174
of global economic structures but rather are
In certain extreme cases, discrimination
an integral feature of it. Notably, Genevieve
can effectively mean that migrants have no
LeBaron argues that the United States
access to justice and the country becomes a
government’s inaction against de facto debt
repressive state from their point of view.
bondage in the agricultural sector constitutes
As one example, Round and Kuznetsova’s study
tacit official endorsement of the practice, and
of more than 300 Central Asian migrants’
Tom Vickers argues that policies and practices
experiences in the Russian Federation found a
that bar refugees and asylum seekers from
climate of impunity in which business owners
work in the United Kingdom effectively punish
frequently denied access to medical care
them for “not following the rules,” push them
and physically abused their employees, while
into dangerous work, and put them at higher
migrants actively avoided any contact with the
risk of exploitation.172
police.175 Other research studies have pointed
to discriminatory practices that are both
structurally built into local laws and policies
but also reflected in how these laws
are implemented.176
DISCRIMINATION
ENABLES
EXPLOITATION
OF MIGRANTS
04
OFFENDER
CHARACTERISTICS
Understanding the modus operandi, motivation and ability
of offenders to commit criminal acts is fundamental to
developing crime prevention strategies. At its most basic
level, potential offenders can take advantage of a criminal
opportunity only if they are both willing and able to do so.
In order to understand the determinants of offending, it
is therefore critical to understand the factors that impact
motivation but also those that impact ability and resourcing
for offending. This section examines what the literature tells
us about the motivations and resources of perpetrators of
modern slavery.
04 Offender characteristics
Migrant workers pick

strawberries in a field in
Virginia, United States. Polaris
analysed more than 32,000
cases of human trafficking
and found in some cases,
traffickers used agricultural
worker’s lack of visa
portability to instill fears about
deportation to prevent workers
leaving an abusive situation.
Credit: Ariel Skelley
TYPOLOGIES Foreign nationals make up the vast majority

of victims within some typologies. Industries
The review identified three studies that drew
where migrants make up approximately
on data from reported cases to construct
80 per cent of victims or more include:
typologies of human trafficking, forced labour
outdoor manual labour including agriculture,
and modern slavery. This research studies
forestry, construction, animal husbandry
the way that these crimes are perpetrated, to
and landscaping; domestic work; hospitality,
provide insight into factors like offender profile,
including restaurants, hotels and food service;
recruitment practices, methods of control and
and health and beauty services. Across
motivations. This type of research can greatly
multiple typology categories, traffickers
assist in moving beyond simplistic descriptions
commonly use document confiscation,
of cases as “sex” or “labour” trafficking and
threats of blacklisting or reporting migrants
create more nuanced categories that better
to immigration officials, and the migrants’
reflect the complexities of these cases.
own lack of English to control victims. In some
In the United States, Polaris analysed more cases, traffickers used agricultural worker’s
than 32,000 cases of human trafficking lack of visa portability to threaten deportation
documented through the National Human while domestic victims’ visas were intentionally
Trafficking hotline and associated text line. This allowed to expire to use their newly
produced 25 typologies of human trafficking in undocumented status to create fear, distrust
the United States. Of these, more than half of and submission.177
the typologies involved active recruitment of
migrants, either on route to the United States or
who were already in the United States.
Research in the United Kingdom looked OFFENDER MOTIVATIONS

at the four dimensions of recruitment,
There has been relatively little research
profit, organization, and control. Again, this
undertaken on the perpetrators of modern
research provided insight into the myriad
slavery.180 The overall lack of research in
ways that migration intersects with the
this area may result in statements about
human trafficking process. With regard
perpetrators being uncritically repeated
to recruitment, for example, many cases
or insights being used out of context.181 As
involved recruitment of victims outside of
a result, our overall knowledge of modern
the United Kingdom. Each typology was
slavery, and particularly of the isolated
classified on a spectrum of profit motivation
sites of vulnerability where many offences
from high profit, described as “run-like-
occur, is diminished. There is a need for an
a-business,” to limited financial gain, to
increase in research on the backgrounds and
no financial gain. While many instances of
motivations of perpetrators.
offending were for a profit motive, some
were related to personal gratification such Only six studies used interviews to
as some forms of sexual exploitation or speak directly to perpetrators of modern
immigration outcomes such as visas from slavery-related crimes. This contributes
forced sham marriages.178 to a more general lack of knowledge of the
backgrounds, methods and motivations of
Earlier research on offender characteristics
perpetrators of modern slavery.
in Australia drew on a reasonably small set
of prosecuted cases (15 in total) to identify Studies indicate that exploiters have access
offender characteristics, level of organization, to ideological beliefs that allow them to
relationship between the victim and offender, rationalize their exploitation of others.
how control was exercised, intersections with Examples include:
other criminality such as immigration fraud, • A belief that contracts made in an
and motivations. The analysis highlights that unequal power situation are nonetheless
in this context, offenders and victims were valid and legitimate.182
often the same gender and shared similar • A belief that perpetrators are doing the
backgrounds and experiences (including workers a favour in a paternal manner by
prior victimization). All the offenders were providing them with food and shelter.183
motivated by profit, and at least in this
context the trafficking process often involved • Belief in a patriarchal form of social
authority which gives male perpetrators
other criminal activity such as immigration
rights over women.184
fraud and money laundering. The precarious
immigration status of most of the victims • Beliefs that sex workers are undeserving
meant that the threat (actual or implied) of of sympathy, which allows perpetrators to
deportation created an environment in which view their exploitation of sex workers as
victims were often afraid to seek help from legitimate.185
Australian authorities, including police.179
Muslim maids from the

Philippines wait to break
PERCEPTION RESOURCES RELEVANT TO OFFENDING
their Ramadan fast at Several studies note that a lack of effective This section lists a number of resources that
a shelter managed by implementation of criminal laws can undermine perpetrators have been able to leverage to
Labour and Welfare
officers in Dubai, the deterrent effect of such laws.186 Similarly, take advantage of migrants’ vulnerabilities.
August, 2010. The several studies draw attention to gaps in These resources can be physical, economic
house maids live at the regulation and light penalties for exploiters in and psychological, and can give perpetrators a
refuge after fleeing their
employers’ homes due certain jurisdictions. For example, although position of power relative to their victims that
to unpaid salaries, long there has been progress in Qatar, it was can be abused.190
working hours, physical only in 2018 that the government there set a
and sexual abuse and
various other forms of temporary monthly minimum wage for migrant Control of recruitment
mistreatment. Credit: workers of 750 riyals (USD200) and created To maximize the potential for successful
AFP/Getty Images a committee to resolve disputes. There is still migration, migrants seek out advice and
no licensing system for businesses employing enablers spanning the entire journey. Absent,
migrant workers in Qatar or the United Arab complex or piecemeal official information
Emirates (UAE).187 Similarly, in India, Rekha on migration processes, employment, and
Pande argues human traffickers face relatively settlement – including job vacancies, skills and
lenient prison sentences, which make the educational recognition and familial needs –
rewards of exploitation far greater than the increases reliance on agents and recruiters.
risks.188 Siddarth Kara argues penalties for These agents or recruiters have existing
labour exploitation in Southern and South- contracts or relationships in a labour supply
Eastern Asia are particularly light when chain country to facilitate the complicated
ultimate responsibility for this is obscured recruitment process. For example, migrant
by a supply chain.189 workers in the Malaysian electronics industry
are recruited via sub-agents located in small
towns and difficult-to-reach rural areas of the
sending country. The sub-agents refer the
workers to larger recruitment agencies in major
cities that have contracts to source workers to
employment agents or factories in Malaysia.191
Tailored advice and the solution-focused While international migration is greatly

approach of recruitment agencies and assisted by a network of recruitment
brokers across the migration cycle can agencies and brokers, in many jurisdictions
simplify the migration process but also these agencies are subject to little or
project a false sense of security to the inefficient regulation.196 This frequently
migrants through the exchange of payment for results from the patchwork nature of sectors
a service. In the Philippines, the expectation for which governments allow temporary
of payments in return for labour migration is labour migration, resulting, in effect, in the
so pervasive that when fees were removed, outsourcing of government responsibilities to
workers were suspicious it was a sham.192 recruitment agencies.197 Complex networks
of sub-contracting, which often obscure
legal and financial responsibilities, are also
a common problem, as this may result in
workers not being paid or not being able to
obtain their legal rights.198 A final issue is
structural: recruitment agencies can come
under great pressure from their clients to
keep wages low and to circumvent more
expensive legal recruitment procedures.199
Some governmental practices can
exacerbate situations of de facto debt
bondage imposed on migrant workers
through the levying of fees by recruitment
agencies. These practices include requiring
a bond to be paid by the migrant to the
agency as a barrier to “absconding,” which
can increase the indebtedness of migrant
workers. 200 In all these cases, the essential
precondition for this exploitative practice
is the high level of control of recruitment
Somali and Nepalese processes by recruitment agencies, which
immigrants travel Accordingly, this “outsourcing” of migrant according to Daniele Belanger’s research
on a canoe while support can also put tremendous power over were used by every one of the Vietnamese
crossing the jungle
of Darién gap in recruitment into the hands of potentially migrant workers she interviewed, and in all
January, 2015 in unscrupulous recruiters. Indeed, recruitment cases demanded high recruitment fees.
Panama, on their way agencies are one of the most common
to the United States. UNODC suggests that a better approach to
Credit Jan Sochor/ places in which migrants are confronted with
regulation of recruitment agencies may be
Latincontent/Getty choices that can lead to their exploitation
Images that of the government of the Philippines,
– for example, being presented with an
which instead requires the recruitment agency
exploitative contract as the only alternative to
to pay a deposit to the government in return
abandoning their plans to migrate. Potential
for its operating license. 201 This deposit is
migrants may not understand employment
forfeited if the agency is found to be complicit
contracts when they are presented to them
in the abuse of workers. This approach may
due to language or literacy difficulties. For
avoid complicated legal wrangling and puts
example, Nepalese and Indonesian workers
the burden on the recruitment agency to
in the Malaysian electronics industry
demonstrate its own good behaviour.
commonly report signing contracts they did
not understand.193 Similarly, three quarters of Rather than concentrating only on
foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong SAR, abuses, some authors suggest providing
China, reported their recruitment agency potential migrants with “whitelists” of
did not provide them with or explain their reputable employers who adhere to labour
standard employment contracts, despite standards. 202 This may increase migrants’
being legally obliged to do so.194 As such, the knowledge of safe migration processes and
control of recruitment processes provides decrease the power imbalance between
perpetrators with a major power advantage themselves and perpetrators. Ideally,
over migrants, which can be abused to allow this should be done in conjunction with a
exploitation. This form of abuse has been system where migrant workers are able to
particularly widely noted in South-Eastern freely switch employers, including to others
and Southern Asia.195 operating in the same sector.
Financial resources For example, on palm oil plantations in

Studies of agricultural labourers in rural India, Guatemala, workers on one to three short
trafficked sex workers in Timor-Leste, Nigeria, term contracts had their wages withheld and
Argentina, Brazil and the Republic of Korea, were not paid if they did not complete the
and migrant construction workers in the Gulf entire term. 208
Cooperation Council countries, indicate that
superior access to financial resources can Control of space
provide perpetrators with leverage enabling A number of studies emphasize that
them to exploit migrants. In particular, access perpetrators’ legal, physical or psychological
to the following types of financial resources control of a space in which migrants are
give perpetrators an advantage over many working or residing is a particularly important
migrant workers: source of power. Examples include:
• Access to credit. It is particularly • Control of accommodation that is tied
common for perpetrators to have access to a particular job or is on the same site.
to credit unavailable to victims. This This is a particularly important source of
allows perpetrators, whether employers perpetrators’ power, as victims risk losing
directly or intermediaries such as brokers shelter as well as financial resources if
or recruitment agents, to become sole they leave a job or attempt to seek redress.
providers of credit to migrants. This debt Examples include domestic workers who live
can then be leveraged to force migrants to with their employers in Denmark, 209 workers
work in exploitative conditions – a situation in suburban sweatshops in Buenos Aires, 210
of de facto debt bondage. 203 This process and Romanian migrant agricultural workers
has been observed, for example, among in Sicily. 211
bonded agricultural labourers in rural India, • Control of a workspace or ship.
sex workers in Timor-Leste, and female sex Perpetrators’ ability to prevent workers
trafficking victims in Argentina, Brazil and from leaving a workspace can be a major
Nigeria. Fishing boat workers in Thailand source of power over migrants. This might
also commonly have their wages withheld by be achieved by violence, as in the cases
boat owners for long periods, during which of brothels in Indian urban areas, 212 or by
time workers are provided cash “advances” control of a ship’s movements. 213
to cover their basic needs. 204
One of the reasons why domestic workers
• Effective control of the distribution of are particularly vulnerable to exploitation is
financial resources. Apart from controlling
that since they work in the private, domestic
the payment of wages, perpetrators
sphere, they are consequently denied labour
frequently have the legal right to set contract
rights. The invisibility of their workplaces leads
conditions. As such, it is possible for them
to their labour often not being recognized as
to manipulate the framework through
“work,” a situation that is compounded by
which workers are paid in order to create
the boundary between the workspace and
a situation of exploitation. For example,
tied accommodation and leisure time being
contracts can be kept secret or altered
intentionally blurred by employers. 214 It is
without the permission of employees, as has
therefore suggested domestic workers should
been done to Indian construction labourers
be recognized as workers with concomitant
in Qatar. 205 Fishing boat workers in Thailand
labour rights. 215 Mullally and Murphy
are given no way of verifying the money
suggest that these rights can be promoted
they are owed, while being subjected to
internationally through wider ratification of
financial penalties for misdemeanors and
the 2011 ILO Convention on Domestic
unexplained deductions. 206 Perpetrators can
Work and by strengthening it to make its
also institute a system of fines that workers
recommendations binding. 216
are only able to pay by doing the bidding
of exploiters. For example, in hostess bars
in the Republic of Korea, victims are able
to make only enough money to pay fines
and meet “sales quotas” through engaging
in involuntary sexual encounters with
patrons. 207 Perpetrators can also force
workers to stay in positions of exploitation
through the withholding of wages until
after harvesting or jobs are complete.
Migrant domestic workers can be particularly Familial relationship, friendship

vulnerable when their visas are tied to or acquaintance
a specific employer. Examples of these
A familial relationship, friendship or
systems vary in their level of restrictiveness
acquaintance is frequently an important
and include the Middle Eastern kafala
resource for perpetrators. Studies of Syrian
system and the United Kingdom’s Overseas
refugees and of Mexican sex trafficking
Domestic Worker (ODW) system. 217 When
victims in the United States indicate that
migrants’ visa status and residence in the
victims are often trafficked by relatives or
country effectively depend on the goodwill of
friends rather than by strangers, since they
their employer, there is a heightened risk of
are able to use a pre-existing social bond
exploitation. This situation of dependency is
as a resource for exploitation. 222 This may
further heightened when it is a requirement of
be particularly true for children: among the
the visa system that the worker live with the
victims assisted by CTDC partners, 36 per
employer, which gives the employer control
cent of the children were recruited by a
of the worker’s accommodations. 218 Other
family member or a relative, compared with
regulations may create barriers to domestic
11 per cent for adults. 223 In cases including
workers changing employers, for example the
employers of bonded labourers in India, sex
“Two-week Rule” in Hong Kong SAR, China,
traffickers in Cambodia and labour and sex
which stipulates migrant domestic workers
traffickers on the India-Bangladesh border,
must find new employment within two weeks
exploiters have similar backgrounds and
of leaving their jobs or leave the jurisdiction.
economic statuses to their victims. 224 This
This is extremely difficult for workers to do
may be a resource perpetrators can use,
as it takes four to six weeks to process an
since similar status or life experiences may
employment application, leaving migrant
aid them in winning victims’ trust.
domestic workers very reluctant to leave
their current jobs as they are likely to lose
their right to work. 219
Knowledge of migration processes
Superior knowledge of migration processes
Parrenas and Silvey, Shamir and Amnesty may give perpetrators a position of power
International therefore suggest that a system over their victims. Particularly in cases of
similar to that for temporary domestic trafficking, exploiters may have superior
workers in Italy should be more widely knowledge of the customs and procedures
adopted. 220 In the Italian system (as of 2017), of the destination country, along with the
workers are allowed to “vote with their feet” methods migrants can use to get there.
and move to a different employer within Examples of the abuse of this resource
the same sector. This system also includes include perpetrators who have lived abroad
greater domestic worker protections, notably utilizing their knowledge to gain the trust of
the legal right to a day off, which may reduce prospective migrants in Ethiopia, 225 Nigerian
exploitative employers’ control of the space sex traffickers using their superior knowledge
in which migrants may operate. of exchange rates to manipulate migrant
Increased levels of consular assistance for sex workers’ pay, 226 and spouses of recently
migrant workers in the Gulf Cooperation arrived foreign brides in Norway controlling
Council countries have been correlated with access to Norwegian-language legal
a decrease in exploitation. Good practices resources. 227
include regular site and accommodation
inspection visits by Indian and Filipino Criminal associations
labour attachés, and the operating and In certain cases, perpetrators have access to
staffing of confidential phone lines for organized criminal groups or are themselves
reporting abuses. 221 members of one. These associations provide
the actuality or potential of violence, which
can be used to exploit migrant workers.
Examples of this process include the use
of violence by gangs or mafia-like groups in
cases of sex trafficking in Western Europe
and Central America 228 and the ability of
wealthier business owners in rural India to
hire gangs of goondas (thugs) to intimidate or
murder labour activists. 229
Political influence Access to technology

Studies indicate that in some cases exploiters In some cases, exploiters may have better
have access to political influence. This access to communications technology, which
resource may allow them to directly alter the can enable them to coordinate their efforts.
course of investigations into their activities For example, Pande reports that access to
and thereby perpetuate the exploitation of mobile phones allows sex traffickers in urban
migrant workers. Alternatively, more indirect India to keep tabs on their victims. 233 Similarly,
political influence may be exerted to influence Newell, Gomez and Guajardo report that
lawmakers to turn a blind eye to exploitation. criminal gangs preying on migrants crossing
Examples include wealthier business owners the United States-Mexico border seek out
in rural India, notably quarry and kiln owners, migrants with mobile phones in order to access
who have major influence through political data on family members who can then be
campaign contributions, 230 the political blackmailed. 234
influence of fisheries magnates in Thailand,
which compelled the Thai police’s head of anti-
trafficking in fisheries to flee the country, 231
and the political influence of wealthy foreign
nationals in the United Kingdom leading to
a blind eye being turned to exploitation of
domestic workers. 232
TIED VISAS
CREATE
VULNERABILITY
05
GUARDIAN
CHARACTERISTICS
Guardians are any group or individual in a position of
authority with the ability or mandate to prevent acts of
modern slavery. Sometimes this role is formally mandated,
as is the case for national, state or local governments
including police, judicial or legal authorities. However, this
role can also be more informal, with village or tribal elders,
faith leaders and service providers from health and civil
society organizations also having a potential protective
role. The vulnerability of migrants to modern slavery may
be increased by gaps in guardian responses, such as the
inability or unwillingness of these guardians to prevent
exploitation, which is in turn can be exacerbated by a
breakdown in law and order due to ongoing conflict or natural
disasters, endemic corruption, the inherent complexity in
tackling modern slavery, or competing government priorities.
05 Guardian characteristics
Migrant garment workers in

the manufacturing industry
are vulnerable to exploitation
by their employers. The
intermittency of demand for
clothing creates low-profit
margins which increases
the incentives for employers
to subject their workers to
conditions of modern slavery.
Credit: Monty Rakusen
GAPS IN RESPONSES GAPS IN LEGISLATION

Globally, there is large variability in the While the existence of national criminal laws is
responses of governments to modern slavery. not enough on its own to ensure guardians are
Data from the Government Response Index, empowered to take action, laws do provide a
in the Global Slavery Index, suggests national critical basis for exercise of coercive powers
responses to modern slavery are improving (such as powers of arrest) and also underscore
overall. 235 However, there are some countries the priority of specific issues for affected
where the response is becoming weaker. agencies. On this point, there is considerable
variation across countries. For example, in
These gaps in responses increase vulnerability
2018, 122 countries had laws that criminalized
of migrants in different ways – gaps in
human trafficking in line with the United
legislation fail to deter perpetrators, while
Nations Trafficking Protocol, while only 38 had
gaps in protections either fail to prevent the
criminalized forced marriage. Only 56 countries
exploitation of migrants or exacerbate the
have criminalized the buying and selling of
situations of those already in modern slavery.
children for sex and only 27 have criminalized
The following sections identify some of the
the use of children in armed conflict. 236
gaps of guardian responses.
GAPS IN SOCIAL PROTECTIONS Hila Shamir further suggests the specific

AND LABOUR RIGHTS exclusion of migrant workers from social
protections places them at a higher risk
Comparative analysis of government
of exploitation and undercuts indigenous
responses country by country also
workers, creating resentment and further
confirms critical gaps exist in many forms
increasing migrants’ vulnerability. 244
of protection. For example, the Government
Response Index confirms that 50 per cent of Migrant children may fall outside the scope
countries globally exclude either migrants, or focus of local child protection authorities,
men or children from accessing services. Not thereby creating heightened risk for these
only are certain groups of victims not being children. Due to the scale and severity of
identified, even when they are detected they the crisis involving vulnerable children on
are unable to access services. 237 The ILO 2018 the move, UNICEF has developed a six-point
report Ending Forced Labour by 2030 found action plan to help protect this group. 245
out of 107 countries which provide protection
services to victims, within 57 of these access 1. Protect uprooted children from
was conditional on cooperation in legal exploitation and violence.
proceedings. More specifically, comparative 2. End the detention of refugee and migrant
analysis of responses at the regional level children by creating practical alternatives.
suggests very low levels of protection being
made available in the Gulf Cooperation 3. Keep families together and give children
legal status.
Council countries to some of the highest
risk groups, namely migrant workers. 238 This 4. Help uprooted children to stay in school
is reflected in research that documents and stay healthy.
high levels of exploitation of workers
travelling from Africa and Asia into the Gulf
5. Press for action on the causes that uproot
children from their homes.
Cooperation Council countries for work. 239
Studies of construction workers in the United
6. Combat xenophobia and discrimination.
Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Thailand, Rather than create new protection authorities
Canada and South Africa, and of au pairs specific for migrant children, UNICEF
in Norway and Ireland, suggest migrants recommends the expansion and integration
are overrepresented in these occupations, of national services to cover migrant
which have been described as “precarious” children on the move. As one example of a
because of their lack of job security or other government taking steps to protect uprooted
protections. 240 This precarity is exacerbated children from exploitation and violence, the
by the practice of classifying migrants as Government of Germany responded to the
non-workers or non-residents who cannot influx of migrant children not by creating a
access labour protections. new system to protect migrant children but
by strengthening its existing child protection
A broader context is provided by studies
system. They also developed standards for
of the political economies of Cambodia,
protecting children in refugee centres and
India, the United Kingdom and Japan.
focused on strengthening the capacities of
These suggest a connection between risk
service providers to implement and monitor
for migrants and cutting of certain social
these standards. 246
welfare programmes that provide resilience
to exploitation. Examples include the UNICEF has also noted that while few
cutting of social protection programmes in countries have eliminated the practice
Cambodia under an International Monetary of detaining children because of their
Fund-administered structural adjustment, immigration status, there are examples
which resulted in an explosion of low-paid of systems being established to improve
work, 241 a similar withdrawal of social and monitoring of the operation of these systems.
labour protections in India, with a similar In Greece, in the absence of a national
result, 242 and the imposition of welfare-to- system to track and monitor unaccompanied
work programmes in the United Kingdom and children, the National Centre for Social
other Western democracies, which can force Solidarity (EKKA), a government agency that
excluded migrant groups such as asylum manages the national referral and placement
seekers into exploitative work. 243 system for unaccompanied children in
Greece, has emerged as an important monitor
of unaccompanied children in detention.
The office has increased the number of child The effect of strong “pull factors” for migration
rights monitoring visits to dozens of locations and a restrictive immigration policy results in
across the country, including detention a demand to migrate in situations where there
facilities and reception, identification centres are few if any legal, safe migration routes.
and hotspots. It has also established a network Examples include Thailand having strong pull
of NGOs, bringing together more than 20 child factors for migrants but high border crossing
protection actors that monitor rights violations fees, 251 crackdowns on undocumented
and advocate for children. Building on these migrants and asylum-seekers that push them
efforts and with thorough data analysis, the into migrating through more unsafe methods,
Greek Ombudsman’s office has been a critical for example moving into Libya from Egypt and
advocate on behalf of uprooted children and Sudan, 252 and the inadequate official European
has effectively worked to remove children from response to the so-called “migration crisis,”
protective custody. 247 which pushed many migrants into more unsafe
migration practices. 253 In another similar
NON-RECOGNITION OF FOREIGN example, in 2012 Ecuador included additional
QUALIFICATIONS restrictions in its asylum system and reduced
the maximum window of time for filing asylum
In certain cases, migrants’ qualifications from claims from 180 to 15 days after arrival in the
foreign educational institutions may not be country. Although since reversed and the
recognized by employers and/or government window extended to 90 days, these decisions
bodies in their destination countries. This resulted in a 25 per cent drop in application
lack of recognition may push more highly approval rates and forced higher numbers
skilled migrants into underpaid or otherwise of Colombian refugees into undocumented
exploitative labour. 248 status, exposing them to exploitative
conditions at palm oil plantations due to their
RESTRICTIVE IMMIGRATION POLICIES lack of employment alternatives. 254
AND WEAK MIGRATION GOVERNANCE Weak migration governance, in the face of
STRUCTURES influxes of migrants as shown by the example
Restrictive immigration policies are noted as of inadequate European responses to migrants
a cause of vulnerability to modern slavery, along the Central Eastern Mediterranean
especially when they are combined with strong Routes, as well as limited capacity to respond
economic incentives for low-wage migration. to emigration, can increase vulnerability.
This process occurs in irregular migration from In Ethiopia, the 2013 ban on migration to
Central America to the United States and from the Middle East saw an increase in the
sub-Saharan Africa to Europe. 249 This also number of migrants using irregular means
increases vulnerability of migrants in the Gulf to cross borders. A similar effect occurred
Cooperation Council countries, which host in Nepal, where the ban on young female
nearly one tenth of the migrant workers globally labour migration from Nepal drove migration
in a context of very restrictive migration underground via more dangerous routes. 255
policies and widespread discrimination against
migrant workers and women. 250
One form of immigration restriction is a BARRIERS TO COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

temporary worker system. However, when
Barriers to worker-led organizing, collective
temporary worker systems tie workers to a
bargaining and worker ownership are
single, specified employer, exploitation more
noted as a cause of migrants’ vulnerability
readily results. An example is Thailand’s tied
to modern slavery. 268 Notably, studies of
visa systems for manufacturing and fishery
sex worker collectives in Canada and New
workers, 256 agricultural workers in the United
Zealand, garment workers’ co-operatives in
States257 and domestic workers in the United
Argentina and labour unions in Thailand and
Kingdom. 258 In these cases, the dependence
Western Europe, among others, suggest that
of migrants on employers for their legal visa
unionization and forms of worker ownership
status places tremendous power in the hands
are among the strongest resilience factors
of employers. As noted above, rules in Hong
against exploitation. 269 As such, barriers to the
Kong SAR, China requiring that domestic
formation of unions or to worker ownership
workers must find a new employer within two
are a major structural vulnerability factor.
weeks of leaving their existing employer can
make workers very reluctant to leave even However, in numerous jurisdictions, migrant
very abusive situations. 259 Moreover, the fact workers are either blocked from union
that these programmes are often fragmented membership or major barriers are put in their
and targeted at specific sectors means way. These prohibitions include those against
their operation is frequently outsourced and undocumented workers joining unions in
hard to effectively monitor. 260 Finally, this Spain, Cyprus, Latvia and Lithuania, the Thai
temporary status itself is problematic as it government’s resistance to the unionization
stops workers from creating social networks of domestic workers, and the legal ability
that can protect them from exploitation. 261 of employers in the United States to fire
undocumented workers for unionizing. 270
Guardians’ prioritization of immigration
Furthermore, unions may themselves choose
control measures over anti-modern slavery
to exclude migrant workers. Migrants may
initiatives may also reduce their ability to
be entirely prevented from membership, or
disrupt exploitation. This may occur due to
disqualified from leadership positions, as in
governmental or institutional priorities, or
certain Thai unions. 271 In some cases, migrant
to immigration violations being much easier
workers are outsourced and the workers’
to investigate and prosecute. 262 Examples
wages, benefits and other entitlements
include the introduction of “pink cards” to
are provided by the labour intermediary.
identify migrant workers in Thailand, which
Outsourced electronics workers in Malaysia
are frequently kept by employers or ship
are subject to different work conditions,
captains and give them power over their
may not be covered by existing collective
crews, 263 the revocation of labour protections
bargaining agreements and cannot join
for overseas domestic workers in the United
labour unions. 272
Kingdom due to fears of increased low-
skilled migration, 264 Israel’s denial of Eritrean Numerous sources argue one of the most
refugees, which left them exposed to serious important actions that can be taken to
abuses in the Sinai, 265 and the “securitization” alleviate exploitation of migrant workers
of the EU’s migration policy, which has denied is an expansion of their right and ability to
safe migration routes to Syrians and has collectively bargain. 273 This approach is likely
increased their vulnerability to trafficking. 266 to be more applicable in certain sectors than
in others, particularly in situations where
In this context of restrictive immigration
an exploitative employer controls a defined
policies, Anti-Slavery International suggests
workspace and the inflow and distribution of
anti-trafficking measures may be helped
benefits within it, as in manufacturing, fishing
by the prioritization of human trafficking
and domestic work. The existence of unions
screening over criminal prosecution of
may challenge such employers’ exclusive
low-level criminal offences such as
control of financial and spatial resources by
small-scale drug dealing and petty theft. 267
providing a conduit for collective action.
This may reduce the power of exploiters to
draw exploited migrants into larger-scale
criminal enterprises.
Migrants are pictured

sleeping in an open
As such, Pradella and Cillo, Marks and Olsen, STATE-IMPOSED FORCED LABOUR
Shamir, Buckley, Mantouvalou and Farsight
air camp in June, 2015 The role of the state in forced labour can be
in Paris, as European suggest the removal of restrictions on migrant
linked to high-risk migration practices and to
nations grapple with unionization, and that a positive right to join
how to handle a wave risk for migrants from these countries both
a union be provided to them. However, this
of people crossing the at exit and in transit. 275 The Eritrean case is
Mediterranean. The approach is likely to be most effective in
particularly significant for migration. Many
Global Slavery Index democratic or semi-democratic political
2018 noted in recent young men and women also flee Eritrea
systems where some existing labour rights or
years a tightening to escape the mandatory and indefinite
of migration policy tolerance for their ideals already exists.
national service which is imposed by the
in Europe has been
accompanied by a In a number of sectors (including garment government.277 In addition, Hepner and
reduction in protection manufacturing and sex work), some studies Tecle have suggested that the government
for migrants. Credit: suggest worker self-management, particularly aims to drive out younger, better-educated
Joel Saget/AFP/Getty
Images through worker-owned co-operatives, can Eritreans in order to gain a source of finance
improve working conditions. 274 This is because via remittances from the diaspora. 276 This
worker self-management removes two powerful leads to highly dangerous migration by Eritrean
tools exploiters can hold over their workers: refugees, who are vulnerable to kidnapping,
control of finance and control of the workspace. ransom and outright enslavement. A study
based on 134 qualitative interviews with
Eritreans who had migrated to Israel and
Ethiopia found that 31 per cent of interviewees
were abducted or had been forcibly moved for
extortion during their migration experience. 277
Despite the signing of a peace treaty between
Ethiopia and Eritrea in July 2018, it is yet to be
seen how this will affect forced migration in the
Horn of Africa. So far, the Eritrean government
has announced it will relax its national service
policy, which may reduce the flow of refugees
from the country. 278
Interviews with defectors from the CORRUPTION

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea also
Corruption takes many forms that impact
illustrate the very real risks that migrants
vulnerability of migrants, whether this is
fleeing the North will face, including
through the excessive fees that result from
deportation and forced repatriation, where
payment of bribes or facilitation payments
they may experience forced labour as
in the recruitment and migration process,
punishment, forced marriage and abuses
or lack of access to justice that results from
related to reliance on smugglers and
corruption in the criminal justice process.
border officials. 279
As one example, in an “exploratory” study
looking only at three illustrative migration
LACK OF POLITICAL WILL OR CAPACITY corridors – Nepal to Qatar, Myanmar to
TO RESPOND Malaysia, and Myanmar to Thailand, Verité
Driving these gaps in responses can be a has documented extensive corruption, both
lack of political will or limited capacity to of private sector actors and government
respond. Studies indicate that modern slavery officials, involved in the movement and
is a low priority for some governments. As a recruitment of migrant workers. This
consequence of this, or as a result of a general included payment of kickbacks to agents and
lack of funding, resources are unavailable employers along the corridor for a demand
to disrupt systems of modern slavery. For letter or job order; bribes or un-receipted
example, Montero Bressan and Abalo note fees paid to government officials to facilitate
that there are too few labour inspectors discretionary decisions relating to issues
in Argentina to properly suppress labour such as foreign worker quotas, demand for
trafficking to garment workshops where workers, visas, medical certificates and work
there are a large number of international permits; and bribes paid to border control,
migrants, 280 and Priyanka Mishra notes that police and military officials who facilitate
anti-trafficking operations are a low priority irregular migration. 285 Corruption such as
for the authorities in Timor-Leste, with no this contributes to the fee burden carried
specialized support services available. 281 by many migrant workers, demonstrated by
unscrupulous recruiters in the Philippines, 286
CONFLICT AND NATURAL DISASTERS which in turn contributes to their vulnerability
to abuse and exploitation. In another
In crisis situations, capacity to provide a example, low wages for labour inspectors in
whole range of core community services, Guatemala has also been identified as a key
from law enforcement to education, may be corruption risk by labour experts. 287
limited, which contributes to increased risk
of exploitation. For example, since the 2012 Many countries fail to respond to corruption
start of the conflict in Mali, the government even when it appears directly implicated in
has been unable to provide education facilitating modern slavery. The Government
for children, a situation which has seen Response Index found that 68 countries
increased risks of children being recruited to had experienced either endemic complicity
fight for armed groups. 282 In another example, in modern slavery cases or instances of
violence perpetrated by drug traffickers government official corruption or complicity
and organized criminal groups plaguing that were routinely not investigated.
Guatemala since that country’s civil war limits Examples include widespread bribery of law
the ability of labour inspectors to carry out enforcement officials in Ethiopia, the Republic
their duties at palm oil plantations known for of Moldova, Sudan, Egypt and the Russian
exploitative practices because of threats Federation to overlook trafficking rings, and
to inspectors’ personal safety. 283 In crisis widespread corruption in Belgian embassies
situations, it may also be necessary to set up that allowed the issuing of fraudulent
anti-slavery initiatives where none previously passports for sex trafficking purposes. 288
existed. Klaffenboeck, Todorova and
Macchiavello concluded that police and NGO
anti-trafficking responses to the 2015 Nepal
earthquake were more successful than those
along the Western Balkan migration route
due to the prior existence of anti-trafficking
support frameworks in Nepal. 284
COMPLEXITY OF THE CRIME TYPES STEREOTYPES AND GAPS

Human trafficking, modern slavery and forced IN UNDERSTANDING
labour are complex crime types, often involving The complexity of modern slavery can lead
several actors or organized crime groups who to stereotypes and limited understanding,
seek to actively leverage holes in protection which can in turn drive harmful responses and
regimes while operating across multiple misallocation of resources to combat modern
jurisdictions. Addressing them requires intra slavery. These issues may be divided into
– and inter-governmental coordination and four categories:
resources to tackle the crime effectively. • A conflation of sex trafficking and sex work
Modern slavery is also a hidden crime, with can mean that anti-trafficking resources
the added difficulty of locating affected are diverted into sting operations and
populations. Modern slavery frequently occurs raids on non-trafficked sex workers. 292
among migrant populations that are either This tendency has been observed in Spain,
little-known to the state or who actively seek Thailand, India, Cambodia, the United States
to stay out of sight of the authorities, such as and Argentina. 293 The United States’ “Anti-
with undocumented migrant workers. 289 As a Prostitution Loyalty Oath,” which prevents
result, its victims can be difficult to locate and entities that distinguish between sex work
protect. Many governments are proactive in and trafficking from receiving American
their attempts to identify and uncover cases development aid, prompts particularly
of modern slavery, either through training of heavy criticism. 294
first responders (152 out of 162 governments
in the Government Response Index) or
• A widespread perception that human
trafficking affects only women and girls can
establishing specialized police units (121) or
lead to trafficking of men and boys being
labour inspections in the informal sector (54) to
underreported. As a consequence, the
detect instances of modern slavery.
trafficking of men and boys is not addressed
A further consequence is that the scale and by anti-modern slavery programmes. 295
extent of modern slavery are extremely • Simplistic responses that fail to address
difficult to determine. However, gathering the systematic drivers of vulnerability. For
reliable and comparable data can itself be example, the literature gives examples
difficult due to varying evidence-collecting of domestic workers in the UAE whose
practices between or across different only choices are being able to choose
jurisdictions, 290 or the lack of any systems between staying in the abusive situation or
for collecting statistics on modern slavery becoming irregular and risking deportation,
offences, as for example in Nigeria. 291 or seeking help from their Embassy
for assistance to return home. While
getting workers to safety and providing
opportunities for workers to go home
voluntarily undoubtedly has a place in the
possible suite of responses, this should
not be seen as a substitute for responding
to systemic drivers of vulnerability such
as tied visas, requirements that workers
live in the homes of their employers, and
a lack of labour protections for some
groups of workers. The literature also notes
that removing the worker without holding
employers to account for abuses, including
through criminal justice processes if the
worker wishes to participate, means the
cycle continues. Equally, the literature
notes that responses to abuse should
begin by considering the outcomes that are
important to the migrants themselves, which
may include wanting to find an alternative
decent job in the destination country
and stay to pay off existing debt or make
money. 296 This is important to breaking the
cycle of abuse.
• A focus on extreme instances of crime DISCRIMINATION AND PREJUDICE

may be used to justify minimal focus on
Existing prejudices in society will very likely
more prevalent labour abuses and gender-
play out through the delivery of functions
based violence. Jaleel, Lewis and Waite,
like law enforcement and other services.
and Marschke and Vandergeest argue that
“modern slavery” exceptionalizes certain While these may take the form of active
forms of exploitation, which they argue and overt discrimination, they can also be
may be better considered not as modern reflected in gaps in protection. As noted in
slavery but as extreme forms of labour the Global Slavery Index 2018, the higher
exploitation and gender-based violence. 297 than expected rates of prevalence of modern
They argue that the framing of modern slavery in highly developed, high income
slavery as an exceptional abuse diminishes countries underscore that even in countries
our ability to draw links with other forms of with seemingly strong responses to modern
labour exploitation and thereby may allow slavery, certain vulnerable groups, including
exploiters a way of rationalizing behaviour migrants, can be excluded from existing
that they themselves might not consider protections. It was noted that in Europe in
modern slavery. 298 Ramona Vijeyarasa recent years a tightening of migration policy
suggests an approach more similar to has been accompanied by a reduction in
contract law may be more effective, in protection for migrants. Similar approaches
which modern slavery is seen as an abuse have been adopted in the United States and
or breach of trust; this may better capture Australia. 303
migrants’ agency than seeing them as Studies note that when members of law
helpless victims. 299
enforcement or law-making bodies are
It is important that victim support systems prejudiced against migrants or against
respond to the actual needs of their clients workers in general, they are less likely to
rather than to assumed priorities. Baye protect them. Examples include racialized
and Heumann and Urzi suggest that the ideas of “victimhood” which may prevent
system in force in Italy (as of 2015) should be law enforcement officials from recognizing
more widely implemented. 300 This system or assisting trafficking victims who do not
emphasizes a robust focus on rehabilitation conform to stereotypes. 304 Widespread
that includes a financial component. While xenophobia against migrants in general
there are problems in accessing this system, may lead to the passage of discriminatory
this provision of financial resources can laws and inaction on modern slavery. For
help prevent the re-trafficking of previous example, Marschke and Vandergeest noted
victims of modern slavery, who appear to be that xenophobic attitudes towards Burmese
a more at-risk group (see “individual factors”). migrants in Thailand reduced low-ranking
Moreover, once this system is accessed, police officers’ willingness to address their
victims are allowed to work and are provided exploitation. 305 Research on migrants in the
with accommodation while they are enrolled Middle East and Northern Africa suggests
in a work programme. other instances of discrimination. 306
Similar suggestions are made by Meshkovska
and the UNODC, based on research in
Argentina, and Andhra Pradesh. 301 In these
cases, a rehabilitation system that provides
access to microcredit finance is likely to be
more effective than one that seeks to “reform”
victims. IOM argues that a similar financial
component to rehabilitation, in the form of job
creation and training programmes, has proved
effective in crisis situations, notably following
Typhoon Haiyan. 302
Sanora holds a photograph of

her nephew, Asmot, July, 2015
in Shamlapur, Bangladesh.
Ula and his father fled to
Bangladesh from Myanmar in
2005, and they both left for
Malaysia at the end of 2012 to
find steady work. “They thought
they would find peace there”
says Ula’s Aunt, Sanora. She
has not heard any word from
them since. Credit: Shazia
Rahman/Getty Images
06
ANALYSIS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
San, a 17-year-old victim of
modern slavery in Myanmar
shows her scarred arms
and twisted fingers whilst WHICH MIGRANTS ARE VULNERABLE,
recovering in her family’s
village in the Kawmu township WHEN AND IN WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?
located outside Yangon, in
September, 2016. She stares
at her burnt, scarred hands The literature confirms that the vulnerability of migrants to
and twisted fingers, a reminder
of her years of abuse, one of human trafficking, forced labour and modern slavery is not
thousands of young domestic
workers feared to be at risk of
evenly distributed. Some individuals, demographics or
exploitation. Credit: Ye Aung
Thu/AFP/Getty Images
sub-groups are more vulnerable to abuse than others.
The literature also helps to shed light on the reality that
different risks occur along the course of the migration
process, depending on the combination of enabling factors
in place in each location. Figures 6.1 to 6.4 capture in very
broad terms how, where and for whom risk converges at
different points in the migration process.
06 Recommendations
PRE-MIGRATION
Prospective migrants are vulnerable when:
• They are fleeing conflict, crisis situations.
• They are under economic or other pressure to migrate,
with limited ability to access information about jobs
overseas or migration process.
Migrants
• Fall into a category of migrants with few or no legal
migration options.
In circumstances where governments:

• May be focused on detering migration.
• Have not prioritized labour migration.
• Are unable to act due to limited or unclear legal powers
Labour brokers, Governments or capacity.
third party agents, • Are busy delivering existing bureaucratic process that
recruiters are not fit for scale/nature of labour migration needs.
And labour brokers, third party agents or recruiters:

• Have superior knowledge of navigating legal/irregular
migration process, or access to jobs, employers.
• Have unclear legal responsibility for what happens
upstream/overseas.
• Know they can act with impunity.
• Control resources, such as financial or logistical.
• Rationalize as “helping”.
Figure 6.1: Which migrants are vulnerable in the pre-migration stage?
Migrants are vulnerable when they:

IN TRANSIT
• Are disconnected from support networks.
• May be stuck/stranded without funds.
• Have limited options to earn funds.
• May be excluded from legal labour market.
• Experience longer stays, which permit more risk/
desperation.
Migrants • Have limited/no ability to obtain visas legally, pay
debts.
• Lack documentation.
• May have incentives to remain isolated or hidden.
• Have limited/restricted mobility, or are dependent on
others for mobility.
Agents, recruiters, Governments

third party service and local
providers organizations In circumstances where governments and local
organizations are:
• Overwhelmed and capacity is pushed to breaking

point.
And agents, recruiters, third party service • Are mandated to prioritize border control over
providers have: individual safety.
• Have low incentive or mandate or funds to protect/
• A captive audience for recruiting.
prioritize foreigners.
• Low risk of redress in legal limbo.
• Access to opportunities to exploit, coined with an
absence of law enforcement.
Figure 6.2: Which migrants are vulnerable while en route, at transit points
such as border crossings, or in displacement sites or other settlements?
06 Recommendations
AT DESTINATION
Migrants are vulnerable when they:
• Perceive bad conditions or poor treatment as
inevitable.
• Fear deportation.
Migrants • Have limited or no independent finances or ability to
provide for basic needs.
• Are not covered by local labour/other protections
• Are excluded from or have limited options to access
legal employment.
• Have no recourse for wage theft.
• Have limited networks, as diaspora/other migrants
are critical.
Employers and Governments • Limited trust of authorities.

recruiters • Have limited understanding of local norms/legal
system.
In circumstances where governments:

• Have not prioritized or funded oversight in high risk
industries.
And employers and recruiters:
• Have given migration control higher priority than
• Operate outside of the law, such as in the informal human rights protections.
economy, beyond sight.
• Have provided limited or no funding for migrant
• Know there is low risk of recourse from law support or outreach services.
enforcement.
• Have not made it safe or timely for migrants to
• Are able to leverage family relationships, friendships access recourse for wage theft.
or diaspora connections.
• Make it illegal for migrant workers to organize or join
• Have financial power through owning jobs, networks, unions.
accommodation.
• And state services...
• Are given control through visa conditions.
• Are simply overwhelmed and cannot support the
• Have political connections/corruption. demand for registration, case management, benefits
• Can leverage local resentment or discrimination and/or protective care.
against minority groups.
• Rationalize behavior as “helping” and that workers
are “better off” than at home.
Figure 6.3: Which migrants are vulnerable once at their

destination or during prolonged stays in transit countries?
ON RETURN Migrants remain vulnerable if their experience

resulted in:
• Trauma/shame/humiliation/feeling of failure.
• Deepened financial crisis as debt not paid.
• No recourse for wage theft.
Migrants • Skills and education developed overseas not being
acknowledged.
• A desire to give impression of wealth acquisition
during migration journey that is addressed by taking
out loans.
In circumstances where the government back

home:
Recruiters or Governments • Is covering the cost of repatriation with limited funds.
Agents • Has limited or no services to assist with recovery of
wage theft overseas.
• Faces genuine jurisdictional limitations in helping
with overseas abuse.
And recruiters or agents are: • Is relying on remittances as key to local economy.

• Is ambivalent about returnees or quietly approves of
• Able to benefit from removal of another witness to out-migration as a means to relieve population and
their crimes or potential claimant for unpaid wages. financial pressures.
• Subject to no or low risk of recourse.
Figure 6.4: Which migrants are vulnerable even after

they return to their country of origin?
06 Recommendations
ADDRESSING THE INTERSECTIONS f. Eliminate gaps in labour protections for

OF RISK workers in informal sectors.
While there are myriad factors that contribute g. In destination and transit countries where
to vulnerability of certain migrants to human children are on the move, ensure that local
trafficking, forced labour and modern slavery, as child protection systems are strengthened
Figures 6.1 to 6.4 show, it is possible to identify and supported to provide protection to
salient patterns of risk. These are the areas migrant children.
where our prevention efforts should focus:
h. Provide access to reasonable livelihoods
1. Increasing protections for victims and for migrant parents and inclusive education
vulnerable migrants. support for all children regardless of
migrant parents’ status.
2. Reducing the capacity and opportunity for
potential offenders. i. Recognize and address the inherent
potential for exploitation of children in
3. Increasing capacity and focus of guardians crisis situations and take steps to ensure
and first responders.
that children are safe even while fostered
4. Focusing research efforts on filling critical or being cared for through other informal
gaps in knowledge. societal childcare practices.
RECOMMENDATION 1: RECOMMENDATION 2:
INCREASE PROTECTIONS FOR VICTIMS REDUCE CAPACITY AND OPPORTUNITY
AND VULNERABLE MIGRANTS FOR POTENTIAL OFFENDERS
Prevention efforts should focus on strategies to Prevention efforts should focus on strategies to
increase the safety of migrants in the locations reduce capacity and opportunity for offending:
and situations where high vulnerability
coincides with opportunity for offending: a. Redress the power imbalance between
employers and employees by prohibiting
a. Ensure protection is provided universally recruitment fees, prohibiting restrictions
for migrants escaping repressive states on mobility and withholding of identify
that subject their own citizens to forced documents, and promoting labour rights,
labour. inspections and protections. This is
b. Increase migrants’ access to information particularly urgent in high-risk sectors
about the migration and recruitment such as the manufacturing, domestic work,
processes. construction and fishery sectors.
c. Increase migrants’ access to legitimate b. Reduce perpetrators’ control of

sources of work and/or finance along recruitment processes through more
migration pathways and in destination transparent regulation and system design
countries. while fostering innovative use of information
technology and increased availability of
d. Reduce the financial power imbalance free or low-cost information.
between particularly vulnerable migrants
and their exploiters by ensuring that c. Focus on the structures, policies and
financial interventions and access to work societal norms that enable discrimination to
are part of responses to displacement. be perpetuated against migrants and other
marginal populations.
e. Address the threat of detention and/or
deportation that hangs over many migrant
workers by creating systems and structures
that enable temporary and even irregular
migrants to access basic labour rights and
justice, particularly around wage theft in
both formal and informal sectors.
06 Recommendations
RECOMMENDATION 3: j. Encourage transparency of efforts

INCREASE CAPACITY AND FOCUS OF through support for research and
GUARDIANS AND FIRST RESPONDERS reporting on the operation and
effectiveness of existing responses.
Prevention efforts should focus on
strategies to increase the capacity and k. Focus on rehabilitation that includes a
focus of guardians such as law enforcement, financial or livelihoods components to
labour inspectors and other potential first prevent re-victimization of people who
responders: have exited exploitative situations.
a. Close gaps in criminal laws by
criminalizing forced marriage, all forms of
human trafficking and forced labour, the RECOMMENDATION 4:
use of child soldiers, and the buying and FOCUS RESEARCH EFFORTS ON FILLING
selling of children for sex.
CRITICAL GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE
b. Close gaps in protective responses Effective responses to modern slavery
and ensure all victims of these crimes, depend on the availability of relevant, reliable
including migrants, men, women and data to help understand the problem and its
children, are included in services and are solutions. Research is needed to fill gaps in
able to access them. knowledge, particularly on:
c. Ensure that all migrant workers are a. Offenders, most notably the methods,
protected by labour laws, including the backgrounds and motivations of
right to collective bargaining. modern slavery’s perpetrators and the
development of a better typology of
d. Review immigration laws and policies to perpetrators in various types of modern
ensure they reflect the realities of labour
market and migration pressures, but also slavery.
to ensure a humane balance is struck b. Age and gender and their impacts on
between competing policy priorities, such vulnerability to modern slavery.
as security and human rights of migrants.
c. Understudied topics, such as forced
e. Strengthen migration governance marriage and its connections to migration,
systems. as well as recruitment of child soldiers
from migrant and displaced populations.
f. Ensure that corruption is investigated,
exposed and prosecuted. d. Understudied regions and countries,
where high prevalence is indicated
g. In crisis situations, anticipate the risk
but there is limited research on the
of human trafficking, forced labour and
modern slavery. Bolster the capacity of connection to migration and vulnerability
governments, humanitarian workers and to modern slavery specifically, such as the
partners in these situations. Actively Caribbean, Oceania (notably the Pacific
develop protective systems to identify Island Nations), Southern Africa, Middle
and assist at-risk populations both during Africa, Eastern Asia, Russian Federation,
conflict and in protracted or post-conflict Central Asian Republics, Islamic Republic
settings, including in neighbouring of Iran, Somalia, Burundi and Mauritania.
countries and areas of return. e. Protective factors, such as how cultural
norms and diasporas can be better
h. Fund rapid response task-forces and leveraged to provide protection for
providing them with the flexibility to
respond to emerging threats. migrants and counter the misinformation
and exploitative networks that benefit
i. Provide training and support to first offenders.
responders, including creating specialized
law enforcement capabilities, and pursue
labour inspections in the informal sector
to detect instances of modern slavery.
06 Recommendations
A migrant Indian labourer

stacks bricks by balancing
them onto his head at a brick
factory in Lalitpur, Nepal
January, 2018. Credit: Narayan
Maharjan/NurPhoto via Getty
Images
ATTACHMENT A:
RESEARCH
PROTOCOL
LITERATURE REVIEW – RESEARCH PROTOCOL
Rationale and objective:
This protocol details the process that the research team will take to systematically identify and
collate quality secondary sources on the vulnerability of migrants to modern-day slavery.
The purpose of this literature review is to inform future actions by the Alliance 8.7 Migration
Action Group and thereby mitigate the vulnerability of migrant populations and enhance their
resilience to exploitation.
Guiding principles:
• All “searches” for relevant literature will be undertaken systematically, using an agreed data
collection protocol;
• The literature review will prioritize research-based publications;
• Sources that do not meet these criteria will be included only where necessary;
• All sources reviewed will be stored in a single database; and
• These sources will be categorized as those relating to victims of modern slavery; to those
perpetrating and benefitting from modern slavery; and to guardians’ (in)capability and (un)
willingness to interfere with modern slavery.
This review will exclude child labour, as this topic is being studied by a separate research group.
Attachment A: Research Protocol
Framework:
Modern slavery is an umbrella term, which encompasses the following:
Form of Definition International
modern slavery Convention
Human Defined in the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol Palermo Protocol
Trafficking (Palermo Protocol 2000) as involving three steps: 2000, European
1. Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or Trafficking
receipt of persons; Convention
2. By means of threat or use of force or other forms of
coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the
abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or of the
giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the
consent of a person having control over another person;
3. With the intent of exploiting that person through:
prostitution of others, sexual exploitation, forced labour,
slavery (or similar practices), servitude and removal
of organs. The recruitment, transportation, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of
exploitation shall be considered “trafficking in persons”
even if this does not involve threat, use of force or
coercion.
Slavery and Defined in The Slavery Convention (1926) as the status or The Slavery
Slavery-like condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers Convention
Practices attaching to the right of ownership are exercised. In a later (1926) and
treaty, States agreed that there are also certain “slavery-like Supplementary
practices”: debt bondage, forced or servile marriage, sale Slavery Convention
or exploitation of children (including in armed conflict), and (1956)
descent-based slavery.
Forced Labour Defined in the International Labour Organization (ILO) ILO Forced Labour
Forced Labour Convention as “all work or service which is Convention,
exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty 1930 (No. 29)
and for which the said person has not offered himself and Convention
voluntarily.” This excludes compulsory military service, Concerning the
normal civil obligations, penalties imposed by a court, action Abolition of Forced
taken in an emergency, and minor communal services. Labour, 1957 (No.
105)
Forced Defined as practices “similar to slavery” in the 1956 Slavery United Nations
Marriage Convention. Any institution or practice whereby: Supplementary
• A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given Convention on
in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in the Abolition
kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or of Slavery, the
group; or Slave Trade and
• The husband of a woman, his family or his clan, has the Institutions and
right to transfer her to another person for value received Practices Similar to
or otherwise; or Slavery, 1956
• A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be
inherited by another person. This term may also cover
more recent definitions: notably, the 2006 statement
of the United-Nations Secretary-General that “a forced
marriage is one lacking the free and valid consent of
at least one of the parties.” Walk Free defines forced
marriage as “any situations in which persons, regardless
of their age, have been forced to marry without their
consent.”
Form of Definition International

modern slavery Convention
Recruitment of Drawing on the International Labour Organization Worst International
Children during Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182), the term Labour
Armed Conflict “worst forms of child labour” includes forced or compulsory Organization
recruitment of children for use in armed conflict. Worst Forms of
Child Labour
Convention, 1999
(No. 182) Optional
Protocol to the
Convention on the
Rights of the Child
on the Involvement
of Children in
Armed Conflict
Child Drawing on the International Labour Organization Worst International
Prostitution Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182), the term Labour
“worst forms of child labour” includes the use, procuring Organization
or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of Worst Forms of
pornography, or for pornographic performances. Child Labour
Convention, 1999
(No. 182) Optional
Protocol to the
Convention on the
Rights of the Child
on the Involvement
of Children in
Armed Conflict
Migration is defined as: 2. Researchers will save the reference

The International Organization for Migration information of the source and a copy of the
(IOM) defines a migrant as: “any person publication (e.g. ILO report) to the EndNote
who is moving or has moved across an reference library.
international border or within a State away 3. In the database, the following information
from his/her habitual place of residence, will be recorded:
regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; – Year of publication
(2) whether the movement is voluntary or – Type of publication
involuntary; (3) what the causes for the
– Author/organization
movement are; or (4) what the length of the
stay is”(derived from http://www.iom.int/who- – Type(s) of modern slavery (as defined
is-a-migrant [accessed 06/08/2018]). by the definitions above)
– URL (in the case of online sources)
Vulnerability is defined as: – Country(ies) or area addressed
IOM defines vulnerability as the susceptibility – Economic sector addressed
to harm of certain people, relative to others,
– Site of vulnerability addressed (i.e.
as the result of exposure to a certain type
location/ space in which abuse is
of risk.
initiated or perpetrated)
– Criminological focus area addressed
Workflow (i.e. victims/ perpetrators/ guardians)
To review the literature on migrant
– Stage of migration addressed
vulnerability to modern slavery, it is
(recruitment/ pre-departure issues/
necessary to first compile a database of
grievance mechanisms/ redress, etc.)
relevant secondary sources. To achieve this,
the following workflow will be established:
1. Researchers will conduct searches of
successive information sources in the
order set out below (see “Identifying and
Collecting Sources”).
Homeless and hungry Notes will be added to annotate issues with the Identifying and collecting sources
men, many of them methodology and any obvious biases. When Sources will be identified and analysed in the
deportees from the allocating literature to country or area of focus,
United States, gather following order:
outside of a church that researchers judged a country was addressed 1. Peer-reviewed publications, i.e. monographs,
serves meals to those where data was collected, or from which articles within published collections and
in need, January, 2019 migrants originated, relying on researcher
in Tijuana, Mexico. articles from journals identified through
Restrictive immigration discretion in cases where insufficient data database searches;
policies are noted as a was presented or collection methods were
cause of vulnerability 2. Reports of international organizations,
unclear. For literature which drew from multiple
to modern slavery, e.g. the ILO, IOM, ICMPD;
especially when they are countries or a designated region, such as the
combined with strong EU, or global works, these were recorded. 3. Reports of international NGOs, e.g. Human
economic incentives Rights Watch;
for low-wage migration. 4. In the “Research Notes” section, 4. Reports of regional/local/national NGOs.
Credit: Spencer Platt/ researchers will summarize the research
Getty Images In all cases, works published between 2013 and
process, data sources and key findings of
the relevant work regarding factors leading 2018 (i.e. since the start of the major increase
to migrant vulnerability. The researchers will in migration due to conflicts in the Syrian
make a judgment as to the work’s reliability Arab Republic and sub-Saharan Africa) will be
and record conclusions in EndNote. prioritized. However, exceptions may be made
for general or theoretical works, with priority
5. Conclusions recorded in EndNote will be given to more recent works in these cases.
collated and analysed in the draft of the
literature review. The following sources will be searched to
identify all sources that are relevant to a study
This workflow is intended to be fluid and be of migrants’ vulnerability to modern slavery.
adjusted as and when necessary. These sources will be examined sequentially
due to the relatively short examination period.
In the case of unforeseen circumstances, this
will prioritize the review of the most reliable
information.
1) PEER-REVIEWED LITERATURE
A review of peer-reviewed literature will be conducted using the following sources and
databases:
1. University of Chicago (UoC), University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Northwestern University
and School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) library catalogues. While not copyright
libraries, these four libraries have extensive collections, comparable in scale and scope to a
copyright library.
2. EBSCO Discovery database cross-search (includes ISI Web of Science, JSTOR, HeinOnline,
ScienceDirect, DOAJ, etc.)
The search terms to be used are as follows:
Migration Vulnerability Form of modern slavery
Migration AND Vulnerability AND
Refugee AND Slavery
Internally displaced person AND “modern slavery”
Conflict displacement AND “forced lab*r”
Natural disaster displacement “domestic servitude”
AND
People smuggling AND “debt bondage”
Human smuggling AND “forced marriage”
“servile marriage”
“human trafficking”
“trafficking in persons”
“worst forms of child lab*r”
Abuse
Exploitation
“child soldiers”
“public perception”
“decision making”
“behavi*ral change”
In all cases, these search terms are to include their semantic variations (e.g. migration/ migrant).
Results not in English will be selectively evaluated according to the skills of the researchers.
Conclusions of results in Russian, French and German will be examined. If particularly
important works in Italian or Japanese are cited, these may also be reviewed.
2) INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
ILO, Walk Free, IOM Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
(https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_575479/lang--en/index.htm).
United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Modern Slavery, including its
causes and consequences
(https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/slavery/srslavery/pages/srslaveryindex.aspx).
Areas of particular utility include country reports and the 2017 report to the 72nd United
Nations General Assembly.
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) publications (http://publications.iom.int):

Migrant Smuggling Data and Research (2018)
World Migration Report (2018)
Migration in the 2030 Agenda (2017)
Migration Research Leaders’ Syndicate (2017)
Fatal Journeys Vol. 3 (2017)
Migrant Vulnerability to Human Trafficking and Exploitation (2017)
Harrowing Journeys (2017)
Migrant Smuggling to Canada (2018)
Impact of Livelihood Recovery Initiatives on Reducing Vulnerability to Human Trafficking and
Illegal Recruitment (2015)
The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers against Exploitation in the Middle East
and North Africa (2015)
Egyptian Unaccompanied Migrant Children (2016)
Migrants from Myanmar and Risks Faced Abroad (2016)
UNODC publications (https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/publications.html):
Preventing Trafficking in Persons by Addressing Demand (2014)
Global Report on Trafficking in Persons (2016)
International Centre for Migration Policy Development (http://www.icmpd.org/publications/
publications/):
Trafficking along Migration Routes to Europe (2018)
Resilience in the Face of Adversity (2018)
Demand-Side Interventions against Trafficking in Human Beings (2017)
Targeting Vulnerabilities (2015)
Lost in Categorisation (2018)
Lists of publications cited here are non-exclusive; other publications may be found through use of
the search terms listed above.
3) INTERNATIONAL NGOs
Human Rights Watch https://www.hrw.org
Reports on migrants and labour exploitation: https://www.hrw.org/topic/trudovye-migranty/
exploitation-forced-labor-trafficking
Especially:
‘Claiming Rights. Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labour Reform’ (2013)
‘I Already Bought You’ (2014)
International Justice Mission https://www.ijm.org/studies
Anti-Slavery International https://www.antislavery.org/
Global Alliance against Traffic in Women http://www.gaatw.org/resources/publications
Protection Project http://www.protectionproject.org
RAND Corporation https://www.rand.org/topics/migration.html
Walk Free https://www.minderoo.com.au/walk-free
Including:
Global Slavery Index (2018)
What Works: Promising Practices (2017)
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery (2017)
The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against Abuse in the Middle East and
North Africa
Modern Slavery in Nepal (2014)
4) R
EGIONAL INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS, NGOs
AND MAJOR INITIATIVES
EUROPE
Council of Europe (COE) and GRETA http://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-human-trafficking/home
OSCE http://www.osce.org/combating-human-trafficking
European Commission http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/
La Strada International http://lastradainternational.org/
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) http://www.osce.org/
Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) http://www.cbss.org/safe-secure-region/tfthb/
ASIA-PACIFIC
HAGAR https://www.hagarinternational.org/australia/
Asian Research Centre for Migration http://www.arcmthailand.com/index.php
UN-ACT www.un-act.org
RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND EURASIA
CBSS http://www.cbss.org/safe-secure-region/tfthb/
Al’ternativa https://protivrabstva.ru/
MENA
Gulf Cooperation Council
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
African Union https://www.au.int/en/search/node/trafficking
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) https://www.ecowas.
int/?s=trafficking
East African Community (EAC) http://www.eac.int/
Economic Community of Central African
States (ECCAS)
South African Development Community
(SADC)
AMERICAS
Polaris Project https://polarisproject.org/
Puebla process http://www.iom.int/puebla-process
Organization of American States (OAS)
Regional Conference on Migration (RCM)
This is a non-exclusive list of sources; in particular, non-English language sources that may
emerge from the reading are not listed here.
Inclusion Criteria for Literature Review

1. Does the report, monograph or article address the vulnerability of migrants to forms of
modern slavery, including public perceptions of migration and decision-making processes
among migrants or exploiters?
For definitions of vulnerability, migrant and modern slavery, see above.
In all these cases, the definitions of these terms will be non-exclusive: related terms include
refugees, exploitation, etc.
YES – Go to Q2
NO – Exclude from EndNote
2. Does the report solely reference child labour, with no mention of other forms of modern
slavery, e.g. human trafficking?
YES – Exclude from EndNote
NO – Go to Q3
3. Is the report supported by primary source data?

A report may be considered to be supported by primary source data when it contains an explicit or
implicit research question, a method, a dataset and a conclusion based on analysis of the above.
YES – Include in EndNote
NO – Go to Q4
4. Is a research-based report available for this area, corridor, sector or issue?
YES – Exclude from EndNote.
NO – Consider inclusion in EndNote.
Literature Review category rationale

The following is the rationale for the categories used in the “research notes” section of the
annotated bibliography entries.
The annotated bibliography entries are divided into six sections. The purpose of this division is
to capture the spatial dimension of migration and the fact that exploitation is not a certainty or a
black-and-white situation. Rather, exploitation is a risk that migrants take, which may become more
or less likely depending on their location, background and their own and others’ actions.
Firstly, the methodology of the source in question is set out.
Secondly, the sites of vulnerability mentioned in the source are analysed. “Sites of vulnerability”
are places where migrants are in particular danger of falling into a situation of exploitation. These
are defined as places where migrants’ ability to escape exploitative situations is constrained.
They may be physical locations in which the migrants are living or working – for example, refugee
camps – or places where they are confronted with choices which, once made, place them in an
exploitative situation – for example, signing a fraudulent contract in a recruitment agency. The
purpose of recording these sites of vulnerability is to identify physical locations at which anti-
modern slavery interventions can be targeted.
Thirdly, the notes list structural vulnerabilities related to the migrants themselves. These are
factors related to the lives and actions of migrants themselves that make them more vulnerable
to exploitation. These vulnerabilities are further subdivided, as per IOM’s draft methodology,
into individual factors (e.g. ethnicity, gender, attitudes and visa status), household and family
factors (e.g. family situation, socio-economic status and education), community factors (e.g. local
community attitudes and customs and the natural environment), and structural factors (e.g. long-
standing historical contexts and national and regional policy and legal frameworks).
Fourthly, the notes list structural vulnerabilities related to the actions of exploiters. This section
summarizes the ways that exploiters gain leverage over migrants and make them more likely to fall
victim to modern slavery.
Fifthly, the notes detail structural vulnerabilities related to the actions of guardians. This section
details how guardians – those who should rightfully prevent modern slavery, such as police,
legal officials and researchers – fail to do so. It is differentiated from structural vulnerabilities of
migrants themselves in that it describes specific (in)actions of guardians. For example, the act of a
policeman taking a bribe would be categorized in this section, whereas a law or legal climate which
made it easier for him or her to do so would be categorized as a structural vulnerability of migrants.
Finally, the notes section details the researchers’ comments on the reliability of the source.
ATTACHMENT B:
LIST OF COUNTRIES
OR PLACES AND
NUMBER OF
STUDIES FOUND
Attachment B: List of countries or places and number of
studies found
List of the number of studies found for each country or place using the above research protocol,
or suggested as supplementary references by workshop participants. Researcher discretion
was used to allocate countries of focus from presented data, which in some cases were unclear,
therefore numbers are indicative of the general level of research focus applied to any given nation.
List of countries or places and number of studies found
Number Number
Country or Place Country or Place
of studies of studies
Afghanistan 9 Eritrea 8
Albania 3 Ethiopia 8
Algeria 1 European Union (all) 11
Argentina 5 Fiji 2
Armenia 1 Finland 2
Australia 3 France 3
Austria 3 The Gambia 1
Bahrain 3 Georgia 1
Bangladesh 16 Germany 5
Belgium 4 Ghana 2
Belize 1 Global 31
Bhutan 1 Greece 9
Bolivia (the Plurinational State of) 3 Guatemala 4
Brazil 4 Guinea 1
Bulgaria 6 Haiti 1
Burkina Faso 2 Honduras 3
Burundi 1 Hungary 3
Cambodia 19 India 24
Cameroon 2 Indonesia 18
Canada 6 Iraq (the Republic of) 5
Central African Republic 1 Ireland 2
Chad 2 Israel 6
China 16 Italy 8
China, Hong Kong SAR 5 Japan 1
China, Taiwan Province of the Jordan 4
3
People’s Republic of China
Kazakhstan 3
Colombia 1
Kenya 5
Congo (Democratic Republic of) 2
Korea (Democratic People’s
2
Croatia 2 Republic of)
Cyprus 2 Korea (Republic of) 7
Czechia 3 Kuwait 4
Denmark 2 Kyrgyzstan 5
Ecuador 1 Lao People’s Democratic
7
Republic
Egypt 7
Latvia 1
El Salvador 2
studies found
Number Number
Country or Place Country or Place
of studies of studies
Lebanon 4 Singapore 1
Lesotho 1 Slovakia 3
Liberia 4 Slovenia 3
Libya 4 Somalia 1
Lithuania 1 South Africa 6
Malaysia 9 South Sudan 1
Mali 2 Spain 6
Mauritania 1 Sri Lanka 2
Mexico 10 Sudan 9
Moldova (Republic of) 3 Sweden 2
Morocco 2 Switzerland 2
Myanmar 17 Syrian Arab Republic 7
Nepal 13 Tajikistan 6
Netherlands 3 Tanzania (United Republic of) 3
New Zealand 3 Thailand 28
Nicaragua 1 Timor-Leste 1
Niger 2 Tonga 1
Nigeria 8 Tunisia 3
North Macedonia 3 Turkey 10
Norway 3 Turkmenistan 2
Oman 3 Uganda 3
Pakistan 5 Ukraine 5
Palau 1 United Arab Emirates 10
Palestinian Territories 2 United Kingdom of Great Britain
25
and Northern Ireland
Peru 2
United States 20
Philippines 16
Uzbekistan 5
Portugal 2
Viet Nam 16
Qatar 9
West Africa (ECOWAS) 3
Romania 5
Yemen 2
Russian Federation 13
Zambia 1
Saudi Arabia 4
Zimbabwe 1
Serbia 6
Kosovo 1 1
Sierra Leone 1
1
References to Kosovo are to be understood to be
in the context of United Nations Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999).
studies found
Many workers in Thailand’s

fishing industry are
undocumented migrants from
Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia.
The industry is at a high-risk
of exploitation due to the
physical isolation of workers
aboard ships and in general,
the less the ship docks in port,
the more dangerous it is for its
crew. Credit: Thomas De Cian/
NurPhoto via Getty Images
ATTACHMENT C:
LIST OF COUNTRIES
OR PLACES WITH
NO STUDIES
LOCATED
Attachment C: List of countries or places with no studies located
List of countries or places for which no studies were returned from the search using the above
research protocol or suggested as supplementary references by workshop participants.
Researcher discretion was used to allocate countries of focus from presented data, which in
some cases were unclear, therefore this list is indicative of countries or places that are relatively
understudied or published in languages other than English.
List of countries or places with no studies located
American Samoa French Guiana New Caledonia
Andorra French Polynesia Niue
Angola Gabon Northern Mariana Islands
Anguilla Gibraltar Panama
Antigua and Barbuda Greenland Papua New Guinea
Aruba Grenada Paraguay
Azerbaijan Guadeloupe Poland
Bahamas Guam Puerto Rico
Barbados Guinea-Bissau Réunion
Belarus Guyana Rwanda
Benin Iceland Saint Helena
Bermuda Iraq Saint Kitts and Nevis
Bosnia and Herzegovina Isle of Man Saint Lucia
Botswana Jamaica Saint Martin (French)
British Virgin Islands Kiribati Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Brunei Darussalam Liechtenstein Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines
Cabo Verde Luxembourg Samoa
Cayman Islands Macau, China San Marino
Channel Islands Madagascar Sao Tome and Principe
Chile Malawi Senegal
Comoros Maldives Seychelles
Congo Malta Sint Maarten (Dutch)
Cook Islands Marshall Islands Solomon Islands
Costa Rica Martinique Suriname
Côte d’Ivoire Mauritius Togo
Cuba Mayotte Trinidad and Tobago
Curaçao Micronesia, Federated States of Turks and Caicos Island
Djibouti Monaco Tuvalu
Dominica Mongolia United States Virgin Islands
Dominican Republic Montenegro Uruguay
Equatorial Guinea Montserrat Vanuatu
Estonia Mozambique Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic
of
Eswatini Namibia
Faeroe Islands Nauru
Falkland Islands (Malvinas) Netherlands Antilles
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The issue of gender is

relevant to vulnerability to
modern slavery, with male
victims disproportionately
subject to forced labour and
exploitation in the construction,
manufacturing and agriculture
sectors. Credit: tdub303
ENDNOTES
Endnotes
1
2
United Nations, ‘Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration’ (2018). Available from: https://
refugeesmigrants.un.org/sites/default/files/180711_final_draft_0.pdf [22 November 2018].
3
UN Department of Social and Economic Affairs, ‘International Migration Report 2017’, (2017).
4
International Organization of Migration (n.d.), ‘Key Migration Terms’, Available from: https://www.iom.int/key-
migration-terms [20 November 2018].
5
Walk Free Foundation, ‘Global Slavery Index (4th Edition)’, (Walk Free Foundation, 2018).
6
United Nations, ‘Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration’ (2018). Available from: https://
refugeesmigrants.un.org/sites/default/files/180711_final_draft_0.pdf [22 November 2018].
7
International Organization for Migration, ‘IOM Handbook on Protection and Assistance for Migrants Vulnerable to
Violence, Exploitation and Abuse [Content under Embargo]’, (2018).
8
UNODC, ‘Abuse of a Position of Vulnerability and Other ‘Means’ within the Definition of Trafficking in Persons’,
(UNODC, 2013).
9
The Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative publishes de-identified and harmonised data from counter-trafficking
organizations around the world. IOM and Polaris are the founding partners and first contributors to the CTDC,
and Liberty Asia is among the first contributors. Launched in November 2017, the goal of CTDC is to break down
information-sharing barriers and equip the counter-trafficking community with up to date, reliable data on human
trafficking. The website can be accessed at https://www.ctdatacollaborative.org/. Please note that the figures cited in
this report and the figures shown on the website may differ, as the website’s visualizations are regularly updated with
new data.
10
The relevant studies are: Jiyoung Song, ‘Complex Human Security in North Korean Irregular Migration’, in Irregular
Migration and Human Security in East Asia, ed. by Jiyoung Song and Alistair D. B. Cook, (Abingdon, Oxon ; New York:
Routledge, 2014); Elena Shih, ‘Health and Rights at the Margins: Human Trafficking and HIV/AIDS among Jingpo Ethnic
Communities in Ruili City, China’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 2, (2013); UNIAP, ‘Report on an Exploratory Research [Sic]
About Migration and Human Trafficking to China in Luang Namtha and Phongsaly, Lao PRR’, (2013); UN-ACT, ‘Human
Trafficking Vulnerabilities in Asia: A Study on Forced Marriage between Cambodia and China’, (2016).
11
Walk Free Foundation, ‘Global Slavery Index (4th Edition)’, (2018).
12
Classifications to regions were made according to the United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
Population Division (2017). Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2017 revision (United Nations database, POP/
DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2017).
13
Ronald Clarke, “Protecting Immigrants from Victimization: The Scope for Situational Crime Prevention”, in Migration,
Culture Conflict and Crime, 103-119.
14
John Round and Irina Kuznetsova, ‘Necropolitics and the Migrant as a Political Subject of Disgust: The Precarious
Everyday of Russia’s Labour Migrants’, Critical Sociology, 42, (2016); Walk Free Foundation, ‘Global Slavery Index (4th
Edition)’, (2018); see also Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, (Stanford, CA: Stanford
15
Denise Brennan, ‘Subjectivity of Coercion: Workers’ Experiences with Trafficking in the United States’, in Revisiting
the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, ed. by Prabha Kotiswaran, (Cambridge,
United Kingdom ; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
16
Jenny Moss, ‘Migrant Domestic Workers, the National Minimum Wage, and the ‘Family Worker’ Concept’, in Au Pairs’
Lives in Global Context : Sisters or Servants?, ed. by Rosie Cox, (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
17
International Labour Organization, ‘ILO global estimates on migrant workers; Results and methodology’, (International
Labour Office, 2015).
18
Radhika Kanchana, ‘Are India’s Policies Increasing the Vulnerability of Its Female Migrants in the Arab Gulf
Countries?’, in India Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed. by S. Irudaya Rajan, (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2017).
19
Walk Free Foundation, ‘Global Slavery Index (4th Edition)’, (Walk Free Foundation, 2018).
20
Guri Tyldum, ‘Dependence and Human Trafficking in the Context of Transnational Marriage’, International Migration,
51 4, (2013).
21
Jeronimo Montero Bressan and Eliana Ferradas Abalo, ‘Sweatshop Workers in Buenos Aires: The Political Economy of
Human Trafficking in a Peripheral Country’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised
Economy, ed. by Louise Waite, et al., (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
22
Montero Bressan and Abalo, ‘Sweatshop Workers in Buenos Aires: The Political Economy of Human Trafficking in a
Peripheral Country’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. By Waite,
et al., (2015).
23
Janie A. Chuang, ‘Contemporary Debt Bondage, ‘Self-Exploitation’, and the Limits of the Trafficking Definition’, in
Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery ed. By Prabha Kotiswaran,
(Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
24
Hasina Kharbhih, ‘Human Trafficking Scenario in Northeast India’, in Human Trafficking : The Stakeholders’
Perspective, ed. By Veerendra Mishra (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2013).
25
Hannah Lewis and Louise Waite, ‘Asylum, Immigration Restrictions and Exploitation: Hyper-Precarity as a Lens for
Understanding and Tackling Forced Labour’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 5 (2015).
Endnotes
26
Anti-Slavery International, ‘Slavery in India’s Brick Kilns and the Payment System: Way Forward in the Fight for
Fair Wages, Decent Work and Eradication of Slavery’, (2017).
27
Kirsten Anderson, Kara Apland, and Elizabeth Yarrow, ‘Unaccompanied and Unprotected: The Systemic
Vulnerability of Unaccompanied Migrant Children in South Africa’, in The United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child : Taking Stock after 25 Years and Looking Ahead, ed. By Ton Liefaard and Julia Sloth-Nielsen, (Leiden;
Boston: Brill/Nijhoff, 2016); Mirjam van Reisen, Meron Estefanos, and Lena Reim, ‘Human Trafficking in the Sinai:
Mapping the Routes and Facilitators’, in Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era : The Ongoing Tragedy
of the Trade in Refugees from Eritrea, ed. By Mirjam van Reisen and Munyaradzi Mawere, (Bamenda, North West
Region, Cameroon: Langaa Research & Publishing Common Initiative Group, 2017); Gabriella E. Sanchez, Human
Smuggling and Border Crossings, First issued in paperback. Edn, (New York, NY: Routledge, 2014).
28
Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative, ‘Type of Border Crossings Victims of trafficking Make’ (n.d.). Available
from: https://www.ctdatacollaborative.org/story/victims-trafficking-road [20 November 2018].
29
S. M. Goldenberg and others, ‘”Right Here Is the Gateway”: Mobility, Sex Work Entry and HIV Risk Along the
Mexico-US Border’, International Migration, 52, (2014).
30
Kharbhih, ‘Human Trafficking Scenario in Northeast India’, in Human Trafficking : The Stakeholders’ Perspective,
ed. By Mishra, (2013); Veerendra Mishra, ‘Combating Human Trafficking: Gaps in Law Enforcement’, in Human
Trafficking : The Stakeholders’ Perspective, ed. By Veerendra Mishra, (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2013).
31
32
Abebaw, ‘Re-Conceptualizating the Operations of Trafficking in Persons in Ethiopia to Inform Policy and Practice’,
in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer,
(2018).
33
34
International Centre for Migration Policy Development, ‘Targeting Vulnerabilities: The Impact of the Syrian War
and Refugee Situation on Trafficking in Persons. A Study of Syria, Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq’, (2015).
35
J. Leman and S. Janssens, Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Europe and Russia : Learning
Criminal Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture, (Houndmills, Basingstoke Hampshire ; New York, NY: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2015).
36
Reisen, Estefanos, and Reim, ‘Human Trafficking in the Sinai: Mapping the Routes and Facilitators’, in Human
Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era : The Ongoing Tragedy of the Trade in Refugees from Eritrea, ed. By
Reisen and Mawere, (2017).
37
Laurie Lijnders and Sara Robinson, ‘From the Horn of Africa to the Middle East: Human Trafficking of Eritreans
across Borders’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 2, (2013).
38
International Centre for Migration Policy Development, ‘Trafficking Along Migration Routes to Europe: Bridging
the Gap between Migration, Asylum and Anti-Trafficking’, (2018).
39
Mirjam van Reisen and Meron Estefanos, ‘The Exodus from Eritrea and Who Is Benefiting ‘, in Human Trafficking
and Trauma in the Digital Era : The Ongoing Tragedy of the Trade in Refugees from Eritrea, ed. By Mirjam van
Reisen and Munyaradzi Mawere (Bamenda, North West Region, Cameroon: Langaa Research & Publishing
Common Initiative Group, 2017); Song, ‘Complex Human Security in North Korean Irregular Migration’, in Irregular
Migration and Human Security in East Asia ed. By Song and Cook, (2014).
40
Luigi Achilli, ‘Smuggling and Trafficking in Human Beings at the Time of the Syrian Conflict’, in Human Trafficking
and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Belachew Gebrewold-Tochalo, Andreas Th Müller, and Johanna
Kostenzer, (Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, 2018); Sanchez,
Human Smuggling and Border Crossings, (2014); Bryce Clayton Newell, Ricardo Gomez, and Verónica E.
Guajardo, ‘Information Seeking, Technology Use, and Vulnerability among Migrants at the United States–Mexico
Border’, Information Society, 32/3, (2016).
41
Zhang and others ‘Estimating Labor Trafficking among Unauthorized Migrant Workers in San Diego’, The Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653, (2014).
42
Human Rights Watch, ‘The Power These Men Have over Us: Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by African Union
Forces in Somalia’, (2014); Siddharth Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (New York: Columbia University
Press, 2017); Jennifer Schlecht, Elizabeth Rowley, and Juliet Babirye, ‘Feature: Early Relationships and Marriage in
Conflict and Post-Conflict Settings: Vulnerability of Youth in Uganda’, Reproductive Health Matters, 21, (2013).
43
International Centre for Migration Policy Development, ‘Trafficking Along Migration Routes to Europe: Bridging
the Gap between Migration, Asylum and Anti-Trafficking’, (2018).
44
Anderson, Apland, and Yarrow, ‘Unaccompanied and Unprotected: The Systemic Vulnerability of Unaccompanied
Migrant Children in South Africa’, in The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child : Taking Stock after
25 Years and Looking Ahead, ed. By Liefaard and Sloth-Nielsen, (2016); Reisen, Estefanos, and Reim, ‘Human
Trafficking in the Sinai: Mapping the Routes and Facilitators’, in Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era :
The Ongoing Tragedy of the Trade in Refugees from Eritrea, ed. By Reisen and Mawere, (2017).
45
46
Shamima Akhter and Kyoko Kusakabe, ‘Gender-Based Violence among Documented Rohingya Refugees in
Bangladesh’, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 21 2, (2014).
47
Walk Free, ‘Global Slavery Index (4th Edition)’, (2018).
48
Endnotes
49
Goldenberg and others ‘’Right Here Is the Gateway’: Mobility, Sex Work Entry and HIV Risk Along the Mexico-Us
Border’, International Migration, 52, (2014).
50
Eliza Galos and others, ‘Migrant Vulnerability to Human Trafficking and Exploitation: Evidence from the Central and
Eastern Mediterranean Migration Routes’, (IOM 2017).
51
Kimberly Mehlman-Orozco, Hidden in Plain Sight : America’s Slaves of the New Millennium, (Santa Barbara: Praeger,
2017); Human Rights Watch, ‘The Power These Men Have over Us: Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by African Union
Forces in Somalia’, (2014); Human Rights Watch, ‘’They Said We Are Their Slaves’: Sexual Violence by Armed Groups
in the Central African Republic’, (2017); UNHCR, ‘Children on the Run’, (2014).
52
and Refugee Situation on Trafficking in Persons. A Study of Syria, Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq’, (2015); Hagar
International, ‘Forgotten No More: Male Child Trafficking in Afghanistan’, (2013); UN Office on Drugs and Crime,
‘Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016’, (2016).
53
Laurie Lijnders and Sara Robinson, ‘From the Horn of Africa to the Middle East: Human Trafficking of Eritreans across
Borders’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 2, (2013).
54
Human Rights Watch, ‘’They Said We Are Their Slaves’: Sexual Violence by Armed Groups in the Central African
Republic’, (2017).
55
Klaffenboeck, Todorova, and Macchiavello, ‘Protecting Populations at Risk of Human Trafficking and Exploitation in
Crisis Situations. Case Studies of Post-Earthquake Nepal and the Western Balkans in Light of the EU/ Mediterranean
Migration Crisis’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and
Kostenzer, (2018); Grossman-Thompson, ‘Protection and Paternalism: Narratives of Nepali Women Migrants and the
Gender Politics of Discriminatory Labour Migration Policy’, Refuge, 32/3, (2016).
56
Salima Sarwar and Uzzal Kumar Karmaker, ‘Challenges Faced by Trafficked Survivors in Bangladesh’, in Human
Trafficking : The Stakeholders’ Perspective, ed. By Veerendra Mishra, (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2013).
57
Melissa Marschke and Peter Vandergeest, ‘Slavery Scandals: Unpacking Labour Challenges and Policy Responses
within the Off-Shore Fisheries Sector’, Marine Policy, 68 (2016), Walk Free, “Spotlight on Fisheries”, Global Slavery
Index 2018.
58
International Justice Mission, ‘Labour Trafficking in the Thai Fishing Industry: Prevalence and Criminal Justice
Response’, (2018); Walk Free, ‘Global Slavery Index (4th Edition)’, (2018).
59
Rekha Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with a Special Focus on India, (Delhi: Kalpaz, 2016).
60
Verité, ‘Risk Analysis of Labor Violations among Farmworkers in the Guatemalan Sugar Sector: A Report on Findings
from Rapid Appraisal Research’, (2017). Available from: https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Verite_
Guatemala_Sugar_Report_July_2017.pdf [27 April 2019].
61
Verité, ‘Labor and Human Rights Risk Analysis of Ecuador’s Palm Oil Sector’, (2016). Available from: https://www.
verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Risk-Analysis-of-Ecuador-Palm-Oil-Sector-Final.pdf [27 April 2019].
62
Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick, What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (New
York: Columbia University Press, 2017).
63
Letizia Palumbo and Alessandria Sciurba, ‘Vulnerability to Forced Labour and Trafficking: The Case of Romanian
Women in the Agricultural Sector in Sicily’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 5 (2015); Verité, ‘Risk Analysis of Labor Violations
among Farmworkers in the Guatemalan Sugar Sector: A Report on Findings from Rapid Appraisal Research’, (2017)
Available from: https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Verite_Guatemala_Sugar_Report_July_2017.pdf
[27 April 2019]; Verité, ‘Labor and Human Rights Risk Analysis of Ecuador’s Palm Oil Sector’, (2016) Available from:
https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Risk-Analysis-of-Ecuador-Palm-Oil-Sector-Final.pdf [27 April
2019].
64
The Polaris Project, ‘The Typology of Modern Slavery: Defining Sex and Labor Trafficking in the United States’,
(Polaris, 2017).
65
Kanchana, ‘Are India’s Policies Increasing the Vulnerability of Its Female Migrants in the Arab Gulf Countries?’, in India
Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed. By Rajan, (2017); Biljana Meshkovska and others, ‘Female Sex Trafficking:
Conceptual Issues, Current Debates, and Future Directions’, Journal of Sex Research, 52 4, (2015).
66
Leman and Janssens, Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Europe and Russia : Learning Criminal
Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture, (2015).
67
Polaris Project, ‘The Typology of Modern Slavery: Defining Sex and Labour Trafficking in the United States’, (2017).
68
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on
Anti-Human Trafficking: Country Assessment 2013’, (2013).
69
Global Alliance Against Trafficking in Women, ‘Sex Workers Organizing for Change: Self-Representation, Community
Organization and Working Conditions’, (2018); Chenda Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia, (Abingdon: Routledge,
2014); Meshkovska and others ‘Female Sex Trafficking: Conceptual Issues, Current Debates, and Future Directions’,
Journal of Sex Research, 52 4, (2015).
70
Cathy Zimmerman, Alys McAlpine, and Ligia Kiss, ‘Safer Labour Migration and Community-Based Prevention of
Exploitation: The State of the Evidence for Programming’, (Freedom Fund/London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine 2016).
71
Eliza Galos and others, ‘Migrant Vulnerability to Human Trafficking and Exploitation: Evidence from the Central and
Eastern Mediterranean Migration Routes’, (IOM 2017).
72
International Labour Organization and Walk Free, ‘Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced
Marriage’, (2017).
Endnotes
73
International Labour Organization and Walk Free, ‘Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced
Marriage’, (2017).
74
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Global Report on Trafficking in Persons’ (2018) Available from: https://
www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/GLOTiP_2018_BOOK_web_small.pdf [15 April 2019].
75
Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative, ‘Age of Victims: Children and Adults’ (n.d.). Available from: https://www.
ctdatacollaborative.org/story/age-victims-children-and-adults [21 November 2018].
76
UNICEF, ‘Uprooted: The growing crisis for refugee and migrant children’, (2016). Available from: https://www.
unicef.org/publications/files/Uprooted_growing_crisis_for_refugee_and_migrant_children.pdf [21 November
2018].
77
2018].
78
2018].
79
2018].
80
2018].
81
2018].
82
UNICEF and the International Organization for Migration, ‘Harrowing Journeys: Children and Youth on the Move
across the Mediterranean Sea, at Risk of Trafficking and Exploitation’, (2017). Available from: https://www.unicef.
org/publications/files/Harrowing_Journeys_Children_and_youth_on_the_move_across_the_Mediterranean.
pdf [27 April 2019]; UNICEF, ‘A Deadly Journey for Children: The Central Mediterranean Migration Route’, (2017).
Available from: https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/EN_UNICEF_Central_Mediterranean_Migration.pdf [27
April 2019].
83
UNICEF, ‘A Deadly Journey for Children: The Central Mediterranean Migration Route’, (2017). Available from:
https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/EN_UNICEF_Central_Mediterranean_Migration.pdf [27 April 2019].
84
United Nations University, ‘Cradled by Conflict: Child Involvement with Armed Groups in Contemporary Conflict’,
ed. By Siobhan O’Neil and Kato van Broeckhoven (New York: United Nations University, 2018); see also Care
International UK, ‘To Protect Her Honour’ Child marriage in emergencies – the fatal confusion between protecting
girls and sexual violence, (Care International, 2015) Available from: http://insights.careinternational.org.uk/
media/k2/attachments/CARE_Child-marriage-in-emergencies_2015.pdf [26 February 2018]; Laura Lungarotti,
Sarah Craggs, and Agnes Tillinac, ‘Trafficking in persons in times of crises – a neglected protection concern: the
case of Iraq,’ (Humanitarian Policy Group of the Overseas Development Institute, 2015). Available from: https://
odihpn.org/magazine/human-trafficking-in-crises-a-neglected-protection-concern/. [3 April 2018]; UNICEF, ‘A
study on early marriage in Jordan’, (UNICEF, 2014). Available from: https://www.unicef.org/mena/UNICEFJordan_
EarlyMarriageStudy2014.pdf [26 February 2018].
85
2018]; Jennifer Schlecht, Elizabeth Rowley, and Juliet Babirye, ‘Feature: Early Relationships and Marriage in
Conflict and Post-Conflict Settings: Vulnerability of Youth in Uganda’, Reproductive Health Matters, 21 (2013),
234-42.
86
UNICEF and the International Organization for Migration, ‘Harrowing Journeys: Children and Youth on the Move
across the Mediterranean Sea, at Risk of Trafficking and Exploitation’, (2017). Available from: https://www.unicef.
org/publications/files/Harrowing_Journeys_Children_and_youth_on_the_move_across_the_Mediterranean.pdf
[27 April 2019].
87
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016’, (2016); Katie Klaffenboeck, Irina
Todorova, and Michela Macchiavello, ‘Protecting Populations at Risk of Human Trafficking and Exploitation
in Crisis Situations. Case Studies of Post-Earthquake Nepal and the Western Balkans in Light of the EU/
Mediterranean Migration Crisis’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Belachew
Gebrewold-Tochalo, Andreas Th Müller, and Johanna Kostenzer (Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, an
imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, 2018); International Labour Organization and Walk Free, ‘Global Estimates
of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage’, (2017).
88
Benjamin Harkins and Meri Åhlberg, ‘Access to Justice for Migrant Workers in South-East Asia’, (Bangkok:
International Labour Organization, 2017).
89
Eliza Galos and others, ‘Migrant Vulnerability to Human Trafficking and Exploitation: Evidence from the Central
and Eastern Mediterranean Migration Routes’, (IOM 2017); Klaffenboeck, Todorova, and Macchiavello, ‘Protecting
Populations at Risk of Human Trafficking and Exploitation in Crisis Situations. Case Studies of Post-Earthquake
Nepal and the Western Balkans in Light of the EU/ Mediterranean Migration Crisis’, in Human Trafficking and
Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer, (2018).
90
Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative, ‘Human Trafficking and Gender: Differences, Similarities and Trends,
(n.d.). Available from: https://www.ctdatacollaborative.org/story/human-trafficking-and-gender-differences-
similarities-and-trends [22 November 2018].
Endnotes
91
Verité and The Freedom Fund, ‘An Exploratory Study on the Role of Corruption in International Labor Migration’,
(2016). Available from: https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Verite-Report-Intl-Labour-Recruitment.
pdf [27 April 2019].
92
Kanchana, ‘Are India’s Policies Increasing the Vulnerability of Its Female Migrants in the Arab Gulf Countries?’, in India
Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed. By Rajan, (2017).
93
Domenica Urzi, ‘Global Citizenship: The Need for Dignity and Respect for Migrants’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and
Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. By Louise Waite, et al., (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2015).
94
Goldenberg and others ‘”Right Here Is the Gateway”: Mobility, Sex Work Entry and HIV Risk Along the Mexico-US
Border’, International Migration, 52, (2014).
95
Verité, ‘Recruitment Practices and Migrant Labor Conditions in Nestlé’s Thai Shrimp Supply Chain: An Examination
of Forced Labor and Other Human Rights Risks Endemic to the Thai Seafood Sector’, (2015). Available from: https://
www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/NestleReport-ThaiShrimp_prepared-by-Verite.pdf [27 April 2019].
96
(Polaris, 2017).
97
Fudge and Strauss, ‘Migrants, Unfree Labour, and the Legal Construction of Domestic Servitude: Migrant Domestic
Workers in the UK’, in Migrants at Work : Immigration and Vulnerability in Labour Law, ed. By Costello and Freedland,
(2014); S. Irudaya Rajan and Arya Suresh, ‘Institutional Strengthening of the Offices of Labour Attaches of India in Gulf
[Sic]: Field Experiences from the United Arab Emirates and Qatar’, in India Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed.
By S. Irudaya Rajan (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2017); Polaris Project, ‘The Typology of Modern Slavery: Defining Sex
and Labour Trafficking in the United States’, (2017); Kalayaan, ‘Britain’s Forgotten Slaves; Migrant Domestic Workers
in the UK Three Years after the Introduction of the Tied Overseas Domestic Worker Visa’, (2015). Available from:
http://www.kalayaan.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Kalayaan-3-year-briefing.pdf [27 April 2019].
98
Daniele Belanger, ‘Labor Migration and Trafficking among Vietnamese Migrants in Asia’, The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, 653, (2014); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social Determinants Affect Human
Trafficking in Southeast Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’, Health and Human Rights, 15 2,
(2013).
99
Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (2017); Chuang, ‘Contemporary Debt Bondage, ‘Self-Exploitation’, and
the Limits of the Trafficking Definition’, in Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern
Slavery, ed. By Kotiswaran, (2017); Abebaw, ‘Re-Conceptualizating the Operations of Trafficking in Persons in Ethiopia
to Inform Policy and Practice’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-
Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer, (2018).
100
World Vision, ‘The Vulnerability Report: Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region’, (2014).
101
Newell, Gomez, and Guajardo, ‘Information Seeking, Technology Use, and Vulnerability among Migrants at the United
States–Mexico Border’, Information Society, 32/3, (2016).
102
Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa, and Cathy Zimmerman, ‘Labour Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health:
Multi-Country Findings on the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked Workers’, (International
Organization for Migration and London School of Hygiene and & Tropical Medicine, 2015).
103
Buller, Stoklosa and Zimmerman, ‘Labour Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings on the
Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked Workers’, (2015).
104
Phil Marshall and Susu Thaton, ‘Miles away: The trouble with prevention in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region’, in
Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New perspectives on migration, sex work and Human Rights, ed. By
Kamala Kempadoo with Jyoti Sanghera and Bandana Pattanaik (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016).
105
Dita Vogel and Norbert Cyrus, European Policy Brief: How successful are campaigns addressing the demand-side of
human trafficking? (Demand-Side Measures Against Trafficking (Demand AT): European Commission, 2017).
106
Kamala Kempadoo with Jyoti Sanghera and Bandana Pattanaik (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016).
107
Dita Vogel and Norbert Cyrus, European Policy Brief: How successful are campaigns addressing the demand-side
of human trafficking? (Demand-Side Measures Against Trafficking (Demand AT): European Commission, 2017);
Kamala Kempadoo with Jyoti Sanghera and Bandana Pattanaik (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016); Buller, Stoklosa, and
Zimmerman, ‘Labour Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings on the Health Risks and
Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked Workers’, (2015).
108
Achilli, ‘Smuggling and Trafficking in Human Beings at the Time of the Syrian Conflict’, in Human Trafficking and
Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer, (2018); Perry and McEwing,
‘How Do Social Determinants Affect Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A
Systematic Review’, Health and Human Rights, 15 2, (2013).
109
International Centre for Migration Policy Development, ‘Trafficking Along Migration Routes to Europe: Bridging the
Gap between Migration, Asylum and Anti-Trafficking’, (2018).
110
Jenny Pennington, and Brhmie Balaram, ‘Homecoming: Return and Reintegration of Irregular Migrants from Nigeria’,
(London: Institute for Public Policy Research, 2013).
111
Crisis Situations. Case Studies of Post-Earthquake Nepal and the Western Balkans in Light of the EU/Mediterranean
Migration Crisis’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and
Kostenzer, (2018).
Endnotes
112
Eliza Galos and others, ‘Migrant Vulnerability to Human Trafficking and Exploitation: Evidence from the Central
and Eastern Mediterranean Migration Routes’, (IOM 2017).
113
and Refugee Situation on Trafficking in Persons. A Study of Syria, Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq’, (2015);
Polaris Project, ‘The Typology of Modern Slavery: Defining Sex and Labour Trafficking in the United States’,
(2017).
114
115
Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative, ‘Human Trafficking and Gender: Differences, Similarities and Trends,
(n.d.). Available from: https://www.ctdatacollaborative.org/story/human-trafficking-and-gender-differences-
similarities-and-trends [22 November 2018].
116
Matej Blazek, ‘Labour Exploitation of Non-EU Migrants in Slovakia: Patterns, Implications and Structural Violence’,
in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. By Louise Waite, et al.,
(Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015); Fudge and Strauss, ‘Migrants, Unfree Labour, and the Legal
Construction of Domestic Servitude: Migrant Domestic Workers in the UK’, in Migrants at Work : Immigration and
Vulnerability in Labour Law, ed. By Costello and Freedland, (2014); Phalla Chea, ‘Migration and Human Security of
Cambodian Workers in Thailand’, in Irregular Migration and Human Security in East Asia, ed. By Jiyoung Song and
Alistair D. B. Cook, (Abingdon, Oxon ; New York: Routledge, 2014).
117
118
Daniel-Wrabetz and Penedo, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Time and Space. A Socioecological Perspective’,
in The Illegal Business of Human Trafficking, ed. By Guia, (2015); Leman and Janssens, Human Trafficking and
Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Europe and Russia : Learning Criminal Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture,
(2015); Anna Maternick and Melissa Hope Ditmore, ‘Sex, Violence and the Border: Trafficking for Sex Work from
Mexico to the US’, in Global Human Trafficking : Critical Issues and Contexts, ed. By Molly Dragiewicz, (Abingdon,
Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2015).
119
Ibrahim Abubakar, Robert W Aldridge, Delan Devakumar, Miriam Orcutt, Rachel Burns, Mauricio L Barreto,
Poonam Dhavan, Fouad M Fouad, Nora Groce, Yan Guo, Sally Hargreaves, Michael Knipper, J Jaime Miranda,
Nyovani Madise, Bernadette Kumar, Davide Mosca, Terry McGovern, Leonard Rubenstein, Peter Sammonds,
Susan M Sawyer, Kabir Sheikh, Stephen Tollman, Paul Spiegel, Cathy Zimmerman, ‘The UCL–Lancet Commission
on Migration and Health: the health of a world on the move’, The Lancet Commissions, (2018).
120
Daniel-Wrabetz and Penedo, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Time and Space. A Socioecological Perspective’, in
The Illegal Business of Human Trafficking, ed. By Guia, (2015); Goldenberg and others ‘’Right Here Is the Gateway’:
Mobility, Sex Work Entry and HIV Risk Along the Mexico-US Border’, International Migration, 52, (2014).
121
Katy Robiant and Cornelius Katona, ‘Global Perspectives Trauma Informed Practice with Survivors of Human
Trafficking’ (2016).
122
Katy Robiant and Cornelius Katona, ‘Global Perspectives Trauma Informed Practice with Survivors of Human
Trafficking’ (2016).
123
See for example: Cathy Zimmerman, Katherine Yun, Charlotte Watts, Inna Shvab, Luca Trappolin, Mariangela
Treppete, Franca Bimbi, Sae-tang Jiraporn, Ledia Beci, Marcia Albrecht, Julie Bindel, Linda Regan, ‘The Health
Risks and Consequences of Trafficking in Women and Adolescents: Findings from a European Study’ (2003); Alys
McAlpine, Mazeda Hossain and Cathy Zimmerman, ‘Sex trafficking and sexual exploitation in settings affected
by armed conflicts in Africa, Asia and the Middle East: systematic review’, BMC international health and human
rights, 16 (2016).
124
Buller, Stoklosa and Zimmerman, ‘Labour Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings on
the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked Workers’, (2015).
125
Buller, Stoklosa and Zimmerman, ‘Labour Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings on
the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked Workers’, (2015).
126
Claire Ross, Stoyanka Dimitrova, Louise M Howard, Michael Dewey, Cathy Zimmerman, Siân Oram, Human
trafficking and health: a cross-sectional survey of NHS professionals’ contact with victims of human trafficking,
BMJ Open, 5 8 (2015).
127
Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with a Special Focus on India, (2016); Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global
Perspective, (2017); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social Determinants Affect Human Trafficking in Southeast
Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’, Health and Human Rights, 15 2, (2013).
128
Women and Law in Southern Africa Research and Education Trust 2014, ‘‘Seeing the Gold Not The Trap’:
Trafficking of Persons in Lesotho’, (2014); Maternick and Ditmore, ‘Sex, Violence and the Border: Trafficking for
Sex Work from Mexico to the US’, in Global Human Trafficking : Critical Issues and Contexts, ed. By Dragiewicz,
(2015); Abebaw, ‘Re-Conceptualizating the Operations of Trafficking in Persons in Ethiopia to Inform Policy and
Practice’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and
Kostenzer, (2018).
129
Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (2017); International Organization for Migration, ‘IOM Handbook
on Protection and Assistance for Migrants Vulnerable to Violence, Exploitation and Abuse’ (2018); UNICEF,
‘In Search of Opportunities: Voices of Children on the Move in West and Central Africa’, (2017); Anti-Slavery
International, ‘Trafficking for Forced Criminal Activities and Begging in Europe: Exploratory Study and Good
Practice Examples’, (2014).
130
Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia, (2014); Chigozie Nnebedum, Human Trafficking as a Quintessence of
21st Century Slavery: The Vulnerability of Nigerians in Austria, (New York: Peter Lang, 2017); Lawthom and
others ‘Experiences of Forced Labour among UK-Based Chinese Migrant Workers: Exploring Vulnerability
and Protection in Times of Empire’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised
Endnotes
Economy, ed. By Waite, et al., (2015); Marschke and Vandergeest, ‘Slavery Scandals: Unpacking Labour Challenges
and Policy Responses within the Off-Shore Fisheries Sector’, Marine Policy, 68, (2016).
131
Vijeyarasa, Sex, Slavery and the Trafficked Woman : Myths and Misconceptions About Trafficking and Its Victims,
(2015); Daniel-Wrabetz and Penedo, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Time and Space. A Socioecological Perspective’,
in The Illegal Business of Human Trafficking, ed. By Guia, (2015); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social Determinants
Affect Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’, Health and Human
Rights, 15 2, (2013).
132
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery, 2017, 31.
133
For example, Daniel-Wrabetz and Penedo, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Time and Space. A Socioecological
Perspective’, in The Illegal Business of Human Trafficking, ed. By Guia, (2015); Timothy Williams and others, ‘Sex
Trafficking, Health Care, and the Health System in Mumbai and Kolkata’, in Human Trafficking: The Stakeholders’
Perspective, ed. By Veerendra Mishra, (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2013); Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with
a Special Focus on India, (2016).
134
Choi-Fitzpatrick,What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017).
135
Rebecca Surtees, ‘At Sea: The Trafficking of Seafarers and Fishers from Ukraine’, in Global Human Trafficking :
Critical Issues and Contexts, ed. By Molly Dragiewicz, (Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2015); Round and Kuznetsova, ‘Necropolitics and the Migrant as a Political Subject of Disgust: The Precarious
Everyday of Russia’s Labour Migrants’, Critical Sociology, 42, (2016).
136
Vijeyarasa,Sex, Slavery and the Trafficked Woman : Myths and Misconceptions About Trafficking and Its Victims,
(2015); UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in
India on Anti-Human Trafficking: Country Assessment 2013’, (2013).
137
Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative, ‘The Global Dataset at a Glance’, (n.d.), Available from: https://www.
ctdatacollaborative.org/global-dataset-glance [22 November 2018].
138
in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer,
(2018); Blazek, ‘Labour Exploitation of Non-EU Migrants in Slovakia: Patterns, Implications and Structural Violence’, in
Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. By Waite, et al., (2015); Brennan,
‘Subjectivity of Coercion: Workers’ Experiences with Trafficking in the United States’, in Revisiting the Law and
Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, ed. By Kotiswaran, (2017).
139
Maria João Guia and Jorge Malheiros, ‘Forced Sex, Chosen Sex: Risk, Trafficking and Prostitution in Portugal’, in
The Illegal Business of Human Trafficking, (Cham: Springer, 2015); UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The Role of
Recruitment Fees and Abusive and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of Recruitment Agencies in Trafficking in
Persons’, (2017); Leman and Janssens,Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Europe and Russia :
Learning Criminal Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture, (2015).
140
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016’, (2016); Lauren A McCarthy,
‘Transaction Costs: Prosecuting Child Trafficking for Illegal Adoption in Russia’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 6, (2016).
141
Meshkovska and others ‘Female Sex Trafficking: Conceptual Issues, Current Debates, and Future Directions’, Journal
of Sex Research, 52 4, (2015); Williams and others ‘Sex Trafficking, Health Care, and the Health System in Mumbai and
Kolkata’, in Human Trafficking: The Stakeholders’ Perspective d. By Mishra, (2013); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social
Determinants Affect Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’,
Health and Human Rights, 15 2, (2013).
142
(Polaris, 2017).
143
Christine Cooper, Olivia Hesketh, Nicola Ellis, and Adam Fair, ‘A Typology of Modern Slavery Offences in the UK:
Research Report 93’, (Home Office, 2017).
144
Daniel-Wrabetz and Penedo, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Time and Space. A Socioecological Perspective’, in The
Illegal Business of Human Trafficking, ed. By Guia, (2015); The Passage, ‘Understanding and Responding to Modern
Slavery within the Homeless Sector’, (2017).
145
United Nations University, ‘Cradled by Conflict: Child Involvement with Armed Groups in Contemporary Conflict’, ed.
By Siobhan O’Neil and Kato van Broeckhoven (New York: United Nations University, 2018).
146
Hagar International, ‘Forgotten No More: Male Child Trafficking in Afghanistan’, (2013).
147
Reisen and Estefanos, ‘Human Trafficking Connecting to Terrorism and Organ Trafficking: Libya and Egypt’, in Human
Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era : The Ongoing Tragedy of the Trade in Refugees from Eritrea, ed. By Reisen
and Mawere, (2017).
148
Niveen Elmagboul, Shadia Dauod, and Samhal Tawaldi, ‘Exploitation and Violence against Ethiopian Female Irregular
Migrant Domestic Workers in Khartoum State’, Ahfad Journal, 34/2, (2017).
149
Barbara Grossman-Thompson, ‘Protection and Paternalism: Narratives of Nepali Women Migrants and the Gender
Politics of Discriminatory Labour Migration Policy’, Refuge, 32/3, (2016).
150
Maternick and Ditmore, ‘Sex, Violence and the Border: Trafficking for Sex Work from Mexico to the Us’, in Global
Human Trafficking : Critical Issues and Contexts, ed. By Dragiewicz, (2015).
151
Priyanka Mishra, ‘Trafficking of Women in the Land of the Sleeping Crocodile’, in Human Trafficking: The
Stakeholders’ Perspective, ed. By Veerendra Mishra, (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2013).
152
Endnotes
153
Choi-Fitzpatrick,What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017); UN
Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The Role of Recruitment Fees and Abusive and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of
154
Brennan, ‘Subjectivity of Coercion: Workers’ Experiences with Trafficking in the United States’, in Revisiting the
Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, ed. By Kotiswaran (2017).
155
in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. By Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer
(2018); Montero Bressan and Abalo, ‘Sweatshop Workers in Buenos Aires: The Political Economy of Human
Trafficking in a Peripheral Country’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised
Economy, ed. By Waite, et al., (2015); Grossman-Thompson, ‘Protection and Paternalism: Narratives of Nepali
Women Migrants and the Gender Politics of Discriminatory Labour Migration Policy’, Refuge, 32/3 (2016);
Nnebedum, Human Trafficking as a Quintessence of 21st Century Slavery: The Vulnerability of Nigerians in
Austria, (2017).
156
Williams and others ‘Sex Trafficking, Health Care, and the Health System in Mumbai and Kolkata’, in Human
Trafficking: The Stakeholders’ Perspective, ed. By Mishra, (2013); Vijeyarasa, Sex, Slavery and the Trafficked
Woman : Myths and Misconceptions About Trafficking and Its Victims, (2015).
157
Belanger, ‘Labor Migration and Trafficking among Vietnamese Migrants in Asia’, The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, 653, (2014).
158
Elmagboul, Dauod, and Tawaldi, ‘Exploitation and Violence against Ethiopian Female Irregular Migrant Domestic
Workers in Khartoum State’, Ahfad Journal, 34/2, (2017); Palumbo and Sciurba, ‘Vulnerability to Forced Labour
and Trafficking: The Case of Romanian Women in the Agricultural Sector in Sicily’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 5,
(2015).
159
160
Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with a Special Focus on India, (2016); Singh and Pandey, ‘Women Trafficking
in India: A Case Study of Women Sex Workers of Uttar Pradhesh’, in Human Trafficking : The Stakeholders’
Perspective, ed. By Mishra, (2013).
161
Walk Free, ‘India Country Study’, Online annex to ‘Global Slavery Index (4th Edition)’, (Walk Free, 2018).
162
Choi-Fitzpatrick, What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017).
163
Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (2017).
164
Grossman-Thompson, ‘Protection and Paternalism: Narratives of Nepali Women Migrants and the Gender Politics
of Discriminatory Labour Migration Policy’, Refuge, 32/3, (2016).
165
M. Shafiqur Rahman Khan, ‘Bride Trafficking within India’, in Human Trafficking: The Stakeholders’ Perspective,
ed. By Veerendra Mishra, (New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2013).
166
Williams and others ‘Sex Trafficking, Health Care, and the Health System in Mumbai and Kolkata’, in Human
Trafficking: The Stakeholders’ Perspective, ed. By Mishra, (2013); Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with a
Special Focus on India, (2016); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social Determinants Affect Human Trafficking in
Southeast Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’, Health and Human Rights, 15/2, (2013).
167
Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick, ‘Letting Go: How Elites Manage Challenges to Contemporary Slavery’, in Contemporary
Slavery : Popular Rhetoric and Political Practice, ed. By Annie Bunting and Joel Quirk, (Vancouver: UBCPress,
2017).
168
Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (2017); Chigozie Nnebedum, Human Trafficking as a Quintessence
of 21st Century Slavery: The Vulnerability of Nigerians in Austria, (New York: Peter Lang, 2017); Pande, Sex
Trafficking in South Asia with a Special Focus on India, (2016); Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia, (2014).
169
Austria, (2017); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social Determinants Affect Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia,
and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’, Health and Human Rights, 15/2, (2013).
170
International Justice Mission, ‘Labour Trafficking in the Thai Fishing Industry: Prevalence and Criminal Justice
Response’, (2018).
171
Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia, (2014); Montero Bressan and Abalo, ‘Sweatshop Workers in Buenos Aires:
The Political Economy of Human Trafficking in a Peripheral Country’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants :
Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. by Waite, et al., (2015).
172
Genevieve LeBaron, ‘Reconceptualizing Debt Bondage: Debt as a Class-Based Form of Labour Discipline’,
Critical Sociology, 40 (2014); Tom Vickers, ‘The Contribution of UK Asylum Policy 1997-2010 to Conditions for
the Exploitation of Migrant Labour’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised
Economy, ed. by Louise Waite, et al., (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).
173
Chea, ‘Migration and Human Security of Cambodian Workers in Thailand’, in Irregular Migration and Human
Security in East Asia, ed. by Song and Cook, (2014); Yoon Jin Shin, A Transnational Human Rights Approach to
Human Trafficking : Empowering the Powerless, (Leiden ; Boston: Brill/Nijhoff, 2018).
174
Shin, A Transnational Human Rights Approach to Human Trafficking : Empowering the Powerless, (2018).
175
Round and Kuznetsova, ‘Necropolitics and the Migrant as a Political Subject of Disgust: The Precarious Everyday
of Russia’s Labour Migrants’, Critical Sociology, 42, (2016).
176
Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, and Hana Abul Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting
Migrant Workers against Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, Walk Free and International
Organization for Migration, (2015).
Endnotes
177
(Polaris, 2017).
178
Christine Cooper, Olivia Hesketh, Nicola Ellis, and Adam Fair, ‘A Typology of Modern Slavery Offences in the UK:
Research Report 93’, (Home Office, 2017).
179
Frances Simmons, Brynn O’Brien, Fiona David, and Laura Beacroft, ‘Human Trafficking and Slavery Offenders in
Australia’, Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice, 464 (2013).
180
Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia, (2014); Choi-Fitzpatrick, ‘Letting Go: How Elites Manage Challenges to
Contemporary Slavery’, in Contemporary Slavery : Popular Rhetoric and Political Practice, ed. by Bunting and Quirk,
(2017).
181
For example, Keo argues that judging by his own research, perpetrators are relatively rarely involved with organized
crime. However, this may itself be a generalization, as it appears that other human trafficking networks, notably in
Western Europe, are deeply entwined with organized crime. See Leman and Janssens, Human Trafficking and Migrant
Smuggling in Southeast Europe and Russia : Learning Criminal Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture, (2015).
182
Mehlman-Orozco, Hidden in Plain Sight : America’s Slaves of the New Millennium, (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2017).
183
Choi-Fitzpatrick, What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017); Kara,
Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (2017).
184
Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture, (2015).
185
Meshkovska and others ‘Female Sex Trafficking: Conceptual Issues, Current Debates, and Future Directions’, Journal
of Sex Research, 52/4, (2015).
186
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Evidential Issues in Trafficking in Persons Cases’, (2017); International Labour
Organization and Walk Free, ‘Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage’, (2017).
187
Rajan and Suresh, ‘Institutional Strengthening of the Offices of Labour Attaches of India in Gulf [Sic]: Field Experiences
from the United Arab Emirates and Qatar’, in India Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed. by Rajan, (2017).
188
Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with a Special Focus on India, (2016).
189
Kara, Modern Slavery : A Global Perspective, (2017).
190
For further information on this approach, see Paul Eckblom and Nick Tilley, ‘Going Equipped: Criminology, Situational
Crime Prevention and the Resourceful Offender’, British Journal of Criminology 40/3, (2000), 376-398. Eckblom
& Tilley’s methodology is primarily oriented towards the commission and prevention of low-level crimes that are of
short duration, particularly theft and burglary, and consequently emphasizes the denial of physical access to crime
locations. As such, their methodology has not been directly adopted, but rather adapted to reflect the different
resources available to perpetrators of modern slavery and the longer-term nature of most modern slavery offences.
191
Scope and Characteristics’, (2014). Available from: https://verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/
VeriteForcedLaborMalaysianElectronics2014.pdf [27 April 2019].
192
Mi Zhou, ‘Fair Share? International Recruitment in the Philippines / International Labour Organization’, (Geneva:
193
194
Hong Kong Federation of Asian Domestic Workers Unions, ‘Agents of Change’, (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Federation of
Asian Domestic Workers Unions, 2018).
195
Chea, ‘Migration and Human Security of Cambodian Workers in Thailand’, in Irregular Migration and Human Security
in East Asia, ed. by Song and Cook, (2014); UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The Role of Recruitment Fees and Abusive
and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of Recruitment Agencies in Trafficking in Persons’, (2017); UN Office on
Drugs and Crime, ‘Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on Anti-Human
Trafficking: Country Assessment 2013’, (2013); Chuang, ‘Contemporary Debt Bondage, ‘Self-Exploitation’, and the
Limits of the Trafficking Definition’, in Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern
Slavery ed. by Kotiswaran, (2017); Anti-Slavery International, ‘Slavery in India’s Brick Kilns and the Payment System:
Way Forward in the Fight for Fair Wages, Decent Work and Eradication of Slavery’, (2017).
196
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The Role of Recruitment Fees and Abusive and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of
197
Hila Shamir, ‘’The Paradox of ‘Legality’: Temporary Migrant Worker Programs and Vulnerability to Trafficking’, in
Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, ed. by Prabha Kotiswaran,
198
199
International Organization for Migration, ‘Migration Research Leaders’ Syndicate: Ideas to Inform International
Cooperation on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration’, (2017).
200
Belanger, ‘Labor Migration and Trafficking among Vietnamese Migrants in Asia’, The Annals of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science, 653, (2014).
201
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The Role of Recruitment Fees and Abusive and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of
Endnotes
202
Palumbo and Sciurba, ‘Vulnerability to Forced Labour and Trafficking: The Case of Romanian Women in the
Agricultural Sector in Sicily’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 5 (2015); Perry and McEwing, ‘How Do Social Determinants
Affect Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia, and What Can We Do About It? A Systematic Review’, Health and
Human Rights, 15 2, (2013).
203
Choi-Fitzpatrick,What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017);
Meshkovska and others ‘Female Sex Trafficking: Conceptual Issues, Current Debates, and Future Directions’,
Journal of Sex Research, 52/4 (2015); Mishra, ‘Trafficking of Women in the Land of the Sleeping Crocodile’, in
Human Trafficking : The Stakeholders’ Perspective, ed. by Mishra, (2013).
204
Verité, ‘Recruitment Practices and Migrant Labor Conditions in Nestlé’s Thai Shrimp Supply Chain: An
Examination of Forced Labor and Other Human Rights Risks Endemic to the Thai Seafood Sector’, (2015).
Available from: https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/NestleReport-ThaiShrimp_prepared-by-
Verite.pdf [27 April 2019].
205
Rajan and Suresh, ‘Institutional Strengthening of the Offices of Labour Attaches of India in Gulf [Sic]: Field
Experiences from the United Arab Emirates and Qatar’, in India Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed. by
Rajan, (2017).
206
Verité, ‘Recruitment Practices and Migrant Labor Conditions in Nestlé’s Thai Shrimp Supply Chain: An
Examination of Forced Labor and Other Human Rights Risks Endemic to the Thai Seafood Sector’, (2015).
Available from: https://www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/NestleReport-ThaiShrimp_prepared-by-
Verite.pdf [27 April 2019]
207
Shin, A Transnational Human Rights Approach to Human Trafficking : Empowering the Powerless, (2018).
208
Verité, ‘Labor and Human Rights Risk Analysis of the Guatemalan Palm Oil Sector’, (2014). Available from: https://
www.verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/RiskAnalysisGuatemalanPalmOilSector_0.pdf [27 April 2019]
209
Siobhan Mullally and Cliodhna Murphy, ‘Migrant Domestic Workers in the UK: Enacting Exclusions, Exemptions
and Rights’, in Vulnerability and the Legal Organization of Work, ed. by Martha Fineman and Jonathan W. Fineman,
(London ; New York: Routledge, 2018).
210
Montero Bressan and Abalo, ‘Sweatshop Workers in Buenos Aires: The Political Economy of Human Trafficking in
a Peripheral Country’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. by
Waite, et al., (2015).
211
Urzi, ‘Global Citizenship: The Need for Dignity and Respect for Migrants’, in Vulnerability, Exploitation and
Migrants : Insecure Work in a Globalised Economy, ed. by Waite, et al., (2015).
212
213
Marschke and Vandergeest, ‘Slavery Scandals: Unpacking Labour Challenges and Policy Responses within the
Off-Shore Fisheries Sector’, Marine Policy, 68, (2016).
214
Kalayaan, ‘Britain’s Forgotten Slaves; Migrant Domestic Workers in the UK Three Years after the Introduction
of the Tied Overseas Domestic Worker Visa’, (2015). Available from: http://www.kalayaan.org.uk/wp-content/
uploads/2014/09/Kalayaan-3-year-briefing.pdf [27 April 2019].
215
Moss, ‘Migrant Domestic Workers, the National Minimum Wage, and the ‘Family Worker’ Concept’, in Au Pairs’
Lives in Global Context : Sisters or Servants?, ed. by Cox, (2015); Kanchana, ‘Are India’s Policies Increasing the
Vulnerability of Its Female Migrants in the Arab Gulf Countries?’, in India Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration,
ed. by Rajan, (2017); Vera Pavlou, ‘Where to Look for Change? A Critique of the Use of Modern Slavery and
Trafficking Frameworks in the Fight against Migrant Domestic Workers’ Vulnerability’, European Journal of Law
and Migration, 20, (2018), 83-107.
216
Siobhan Mullally and Cliodhna Murphy, ‘Migrant Domestic Workers in the UK: Enacting Exclusions, Exemptions
and Rights’, in Vulnerability and the Legal Organization of Work, ed. by Martha Fineman and Jonathan W. Fineman,
(London ; New York: Routledge, 2018).
217
Minaye Abebaw, ‘Re-Conceptualizating the Operations of Trafficking in Persons in Ethiopia to Inform Policy and
Practice’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. by Belachew Gebrewold-Tochalo,
Andreas Th Müller, and Johanna Kostenzer, (Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, an imprint of the Taylor
& Francis Group, 2018); Judy Fudge and Kendra Strauss, ‘Migrants, Unfree Labour, and the Legal Construction of
Domestic Servitude: Migrant Domestic Workers in the UK’, in Migrants at Work : Immigration and Vulnerability in
Labour Law, ed. by Cathryn Costello and M. R. Freedland (Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2014);
218
Judy Fudge and Kendra Strauss, ‘Migrants, Unfree Labour, and the Legal Construction of Domestic Servitude:
Migrant Domestic Workers in the UK’, in Migrants at Work : Immigration and Vulnerability in Labour Law, ed. by
Cathryn Costello and M. R. Freedland, (Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2014).
219
Hong Kong Federation of Asian Domestic Workers Unions, ‘Agents of Change’, (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Federation
of Asian Domestic Workers Unions, 2018).
220
Rhacel Salazar Parrenas and Rachel Silvey, ‘The Indentured Mobility of Migrant Domestic Workers: The Case
of Dubai’, in Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, ed. by Prabha
Kotiswaran, (Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2017); Shamir, ‘The
Paradox of ‘Legality’: Temporary Migrant Worker Programs and Vulnerability to Trafficking’, in Revisiting the
Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery, ed. by Kotiswaran, (2017); Amnesty
International, ‘The Ugly Side of the Beautiful Game: Exploitation of Migrant Workers on a Qatar 2022 World Cup
Site’, (2016).
Endnotes
221
S. Irudaya Rajan and Arya Suresh, ‘Institutional Strengthening of the Offices of Labour Attaches of India in Gulf [Sic]:
Field Experiences from the United Arab Emirates and Qatar’, in India Migration Report 2016 : Gulf Migration, ed. by
S. Irudaya Rajan, (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2017); Abebaw, ‘Re-Conceptualizating the Operations of Trafficking in
Persons in Ethiopia to Inform Policy and Practice’, in Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. by
Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer, (2018).
222
Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. by Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer, (2018); Maternick and Ditmore,
‘Sex, Violence and the Border: Trafficking for Sex Work from Mexico to the US’, in Global Human Trafficking : Critical
Issues and Contexts, ed. by Dragiewicz, (2015); International Centre for Migration Policy Development, ‘Targeting
Vulnerabilities: The Impact of the Syrian War and Refugee Situation on Trafficking in Persons. A Study of Syria, Turkey,
Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq’, (2015).
223
Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative, ‘Age of Victims: Children and Adults’ (n.d.). Available from: https://www.
ctdatacollaborative.org/story/age-victims-children-and-adults [21 November 2018].
224
Choi-Fitzpatrick, ‘Letting Go: How Elites Manage Challenges to Contemporary Slavery’, in Contemporary Slavery
: Popular Rhetoric and Political Practice, ed. by Bunting and Quirk, (2017); Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia,
(2014); Mishra, ‘Combating Human Trafficking: Gaps in Law Enforcement’, in Human Trafficking : The Stakeholders’
Perspective, ed. by Mishra, (2013).
225
Abebaw, ‘Re-Conceptualizating the Operations of Trafficking in Persons in Ethiopia to Inform Policy and Practice’, in
Human Trafficking and Exploitation : Lessons from Europe, ed. by Gebrewold-Tochalo, Müller, and Kostenzer, (2018).
226
Eneze Modupe-Oluwa Baye and Silke Heumann, ‘Migration, Sex Work and Exploitative Labor Conditions: Experiences
of Nigerian Women in the Sex Industry in Turin, Italy, and Counter-Trafficking Measures’, Gender, Technology &
Development, 18/1, (2014).
227
Tyldum, ‘Dependence and Human Trafficking in the Context of Transnational Marriage’, International Migration, 51/4,
(2013).
228
Entrepreneurship and Traditional Culture, (2015); UNHCR, ‘Children on the Run’, (2014).
229
Choi-Fitzpatrick, What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017).
230
Choi-Fitzpatrick, What Slaveholders Think: How Contemporary Perpetrators Rationalize What They Do, (2017); Anti-
Slavery International, ‘Slavery in India’s Brick Kilns and the Payment System: Way Forward in the Fight for Fair Wages,
Decent Work and Eradication of Slavery’, (2017).
231
Marschke and Vandergeest, ‘Slavery Scandals: Unpacking Labour Challenges and Policy Responses within the Off-
Shore Fisheries Sector’, Marine Policy, 68, (2016).
232
Fudge and Strauss, ‘Migrants, Unfree Labour, and the Legal Construction of Domestic Servitude: Migrant Domestic
Workers in the UK’, in Migrants at Work : Immigration and Vulnerability in Labour Law, ed. by Costello and Freedland,
(2014).
233
234
Newell, Gomez, and Guajardo, ‘Information Seeking, Technology Use, and Vulnerability among Migrants at the United
States–Mexico Border’, Information Society, 32/3, (2016).
235
236
237
238
239
Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, and Hana Abul Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant
Workers against Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, Walk Free and International Organization for
Migration, 2015.
240
Lene Lovdal, ‘Au Pairs in Norway: Experiences from an Outreach Project’, in Au Pairs’ Lives in Global Context :
Sisters or Servants?, ed. by Rosie Cox, (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015);
Aoife Smith, ‘Part of the Family? Experiences of Au Pairs in Ireland’, in Au Pairs’ Lives in Global Context : Sisters or
Servants?, ed. by Rosie Cox, (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015); Michelle
Buckley and others, ‘Migrant Work & Employment in the Construction Sector’, (2016).
241
Keo, Human Trafficking in Cambodia, (2014).
242
Pande, Sex Trafficking in South Asia with a Special Focus on India, (2016); Anti-Slavery International, ‘Slavery in
India’s Brick Kilns and the Payment System: Way Forward in the Fight for Fair Wages, Decent Work and Eradication of
Slavery’, (2017).
243
Lewis and Waite, ‘Asylum, Immigration Restrictions and Exploitation: Hyper-Precarity as a Lens for Understanding and
Tackling Forced Labour’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 5, (2015).
244
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261
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272
273
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274
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275
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Garment factories that
primarily employ migrants
work in coordination with
recruiters to hold workers in de
facto debt bondage, creating
a high-risk site of vulnerability
for migrant workers. Credit:
NoSystem images
MINDEROO.COM.AU/WALK-FREE
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MIGRANTS AND

Front cover image:

SITES OF VULNERABILITY IN THE MIGRATION PROCESS...................................................................................26

ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................................................................................... 64

ATTACHMENT A: RESEARCH PROTOCOL...................................................................................................................70

THERE ARE 258 MILLION

* Migrants refers to international migrants.

THIS REPORT EXAMINES:

WHERE AND WHEN

Increase protections for vulnerable migrants

Reduce capacity and opportunity for potential

Increase capacity and focus of guardians through

Focus research efforts on filling critical gaps

A woman carries a child after

About 200 migrants, mostly

WHERE ARE MIGRANTS MOST The issue of gender is relevant to

Even when protective systems do exist,

d. Understudied regions and countries,

A Yemeni refugee shows

Syrian refugees working in the

METHODOLOGY Further, a draft version of the literature review

KEY FEATURES OF THE Of those studies that recorded their sources,

Studies by Type of Exploitation

Human Trafficking 132

Forced Labour 128

Worst Forms of Child Labour 9

Recruitment of Child Soldiers 5

Figure 1.1: Thematic

GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS Other countries and regions that are

South-Eastern Asia 132

Figure 1.2: Literature identified by region of focus

ECONOMIC SECTOR OR PURPOSE OF EXPLOITATION

Studies by Economic Sector or Purpose of Exploitation

Figure 1.3: Literature identified by economic

Studies by Sites of Vulnerability

Figure 1.4: Literature on different sites

Migrants tried to march to the

As such, the migration process potentially AREAS BEYOND THE REACH OF

The following are specific types of locations PRIVATE BUSINESSES

Women sit by a shelter

IRREGULAR MIGRATION ROUTES Repressive States can act as major drivers

• Child soldiers and forced labourers may

RURAL AREAS COMMERCIAL SEX ESTABLISHMENTS

Syrians who flee the attacks of

CHILDREN AND YOUTH The vulnerabilities of children to these crime

VISA STATUS KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE

The physical isolation of

Similarly, a 2015 study by Zimmerman et al. REPEAT EXPLOITATION

LANGUAGE ABILITY For example, women and children are at

NECESSITY TO SUPPORT DEPENDENTS HOMELESSNESS OR LACK OF FAMILY

Finally, cultural norms where migration is This is reported to be reinforced by other

In some cases, market pressures create DISCRIMINATION AGAINST MIGRANTS

Migrant workers pick

TYPOLOGIES Foreign nationals make up the vast majority

Research in the United Kingdom looked OFFENDER MOTIVATIONS

Muslim maids from the

Tailored advice and the solution-focused While international migration is greatly

Financial resources For example, on palm oil plantations in

Migrant domestic workers can be particularly Familial relationship, friendship

Political influence Access to technology

Migrant garment workers in

GAPS IN RESPONSES GAPS IN LEGISLATION

GAPS IN SOCIAL PROTECTIONS Hila Shamir further suggests the specific

One form of immigration restriction is a BARRIERS TO COLLECTIVE BARGAINING