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FLOW THROUGH VENTURIMETER

Objective:
To determine the coefficient of discharge of a venturimeter.
Introduction:
A venturimeter is commonly used to measure discharge in closed conduits
having pipe flow. It consists of a conversing cone, a throat section and a diverging
cone. An expression for the discharge is derived by applying the Bernoulli equation to
the inlet and throat and using the continuity equation. The discharge

A 1 A2 √2gH
√A 1 - A21
2
Q =

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, A 1 and A2 are the area of cross – section at
the inlet and throat, respectively, H is the difference of the piezometric heads
expresses as the height of the liquid column.

The converging cone has an angle of convergence about 20 0. The flow in the
converging cone is accelerating and the loss of head is relatively small. The
coefficient Cd takes into account this loss of head. The value of Cd is usually
between 0.97 and 0.99.
In the diverging cone, the flow is decelerating. To avoid excessive head loss, it is
essential to keep the angle of divergence small, usually 5 0 ..

In the diverging cone, the flow is decelerating. To avoid excessive head loss, it is
essential to keep angle to diverging small, usually 5 0 to 70.

Generally, the diameter at the throat D2 is between 1/4 to 3/4 times the inlet
diameters D1. The smaller the D2/D1 ratio, the more is the pressure difference,
however, the pressure at the throat should not be allowed to drop the vapor pressure
to prevent cavitations.
For accurate results, the venturimeter should be proceeded by a straight and
uniform length of aboard 30D1,
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Experimental set-up:
The set-up consists of a pipe connected to a constant head supply tank. A
horizontal venturimeter is fitted to the pipe at a distance of at least 30 times diameter.
A regulating valve is provided at the exit. to vary the discharge.
A measuring tank is provided to determine the discharge. The difference of
pressure between the inlet and the throat is measured with a U-tube
manometer/pressure gauge in this case .
Theory:
The expression for the discharge can be written as

A 1 A2 √2g h
√A21 - A22
Qth = Cd

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s 2) and h is the deflection of the
manometer liquid./gauge reading
The value of Cd can be obtained if the discharge Q and the deflection h are
measured.
The value of Cd depends upon the Reynolds number (N r). The expression for the
Reynolds number can be written as.

Qth = Cd
A 1 A2
√A21 - A22

The value of Cd can be obtained if the discharge Q and the deflection h are
measured. The value of Cd depends upon the Reynolds number (Ng). The
expression for the Reynolds number can be written as.

p VDd = VD (Q /A2) D2 / V
NR =
µ v

Where, V = kinematics viscosity

Procedure:
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1) Measure the inlet and throat diameters of the venturimeter. Also measure the
length and width of the measuring tank.
2) Note the room temperature and record the kinematics viscosity of water at that
temperature.
3) Gradually open the exit valve and regulate the flow till it is steady.
4) Measure the pressure P1 and pressure P2 in digital indicator by operating
toggle switch
5) Note down the water flow in flow indicator
6) Repeat steps 3 to 5 for different discharge
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Specimen calculation for manual measurement

 Dimensions of the measuring tank Area A = 0.35x.35= i.22 mtrs²
 Room temperature = 0
C

 Inlet Pipe diameter D1 = 0.025

 Area of inlet pipe A1= ∏ / 4x ( D1) ²
∏ / 4x (.025) ² = 0.00049

 Diameter of throat D2 = .001 mtr

 Area of Throat A2= ∏ / 4x ( D2) ²

o = ∏ / 4x ( .001) ²

o A2 = 0.000113

 Volume of water collected 0.09x.0.1= 0.009 m ³/KGS

 Actual discharge Q Act = flowo meter reading or rise in water for 10cc /
time taken

 Theoretical discharge

A1 A2 √2g (hl)
√A21 - A22
QTH = Cd

 h= pressure in mm of water guage

 ie 1 kgs/ sq cm = 10000 mm of water gauge

 Cdexp = Qact/ Qth

Observations
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Dimensions of the measuring tank Area A = 0.30x.30= 0.09 mtrs²
0
Room temperature = C
Kinematics viscosity, V =
Specific gravity of the manometer liquid, S2 =13.6

Pipe diameter D1 = 0.025

Throat diameter D2 = 0.01mtrs

Tabular columns

SLNO Head H (m) Diff in pressure H Rise in level q actual

(m)(p1-p2)*10000 Time taken m³ /sec Q th Cd,
initial final 10cm of rise in m³ /sec
P1 P2 level

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICEMETER

Objective:
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To determine the coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter,

Introduction:
An orifice meter consists of a thin circular plate with a central hole. The plate is
inserted in a pipe for the measurement of discharge. The orifice plate is clamped
between flanges of the pipe. The beveled edge of the orifice is kept on the
downstream side. As the fluid flows through the orifice. There is a pressure between
an upstream section and the venacontracta. The venacontract forms at a distance of
about D1 /2 from the plane of the orifice, where D1 is the diameter of the pipe. The
pressure difference between the upstream section and the venacontracta is used for
the measurement of discharge.

Experimental set-up:
The set-up consists of a long horizontal pipe connected to a constant head
tank. An orifice plate is inserted between the flanges of the pipe. A valve is provided
at the exit end of the pipe for regulation of discharge. A measuring tank and digital
f;low indicator is provided for the determination of discharge.

Two pressure tapping points are provided one at a distance of D1 on the upstream of
the plate and one at distance of D1 / D2 on the downstream of the plate. these
tapings points for the measurement of the pressure difference By digital pressure
indicator

Digital flow indicator: Digital flow indicator is provided to measure the flow rate
In cubic centimeter /sec

Digital pressure indicator:

Pressure indicator is provided to measure the pressure in Kgs/Sq cm across

the two points

Theory:
By applying the Bernaoullies equation to the upstream section and the
venacontracta, an expression for the discharge is obtained.

Q = Cd a √2gH Where
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
A = Area of cross section of the orifice
h = the pressure difference

The pressure difference H is determined from the deflection of the manometer liquid
(h), or pressure gauge difference.

Qth = Cda √2gh

Where h = (pressure gauge reading on left side p1 - pressure gauge p2) x 10,000

Qth = Cda √2gh

Or Cd = Q actual / a√2gh
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The value of Cd depends upon d /D1 ratio and the Reynolds number (N R) shows a
typical plot (d1 = D1).
The value of Cd usually varies between 0.60 and 0.75.

Procedure:
 Note the diameter of the office (d) and pipe Note the atmospheric temperature
and find the corresponding kinematics viscosity of water.
 Gradually open the exit valve and regular it till the flow becomes steady.
 Note down the flow in flow rate in flow indicator in cc/sec
 Note the deflection or pressure P1 and P2 from digital indicator by operating
toggle switch.
 Vary the discharge by regulating the exit valve and repeat steps 2 to 4.

Specimen calculation:
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Area of measuring tank 0.3x.3 = 0.09 sq mtr

Volume of water collected 0.09x.0.1= 0.009

Actual discharge Qact = rise in water level /time taken cum metr /sec

Theoretical discharge Qth = Cd x ax √2g h

 h= ( pressure P1 - pressure P2 ) x 10000

 ie 1 kgs/ sq cm = 10000 mm of water gauge

 Cd exp = Qact/ Qth

Cd exp = Qact/ Qth

SLNO Head h (m) Diff in pressure h q actual

(m)(p1-p2)*10000 m³ /sec Q th m³ Cd,
initial final /sec
P1 P2

Precautions:
1. Take the observations after flow becomes steady.
2. Make sure that the discharge in the flow indicator remains constant.
3. Take pressure indicator reading accurately

FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES

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Objective:
To determine the coefficient of discharge of a V-notch.
Introduction
A V-notch is commonly used for the measurement of small discharges in an
open channel. A V-notch is of the shape of a triangle with its apex down and base at
top. A V-notch usually consists of a metal plate with a sharp crest having a bevel
edge on the downstream so that the liquid spring off the notch with only a line
contact. The stream of liquid is called the nape. The nape should be fully ventilated
so that the pressure below it is atmospheric.
Experimental Set-up:
The set-up consists of a large tank erected on a raised platform. The water is
supplied to the tank from a constant-head supply taken by a pipe with a regulating
valve. Baffle walls are installed in the tank to stabilize flow and to reduce the velocity
of approach. The baffle walls thus calm the flow and reduce eddies.
A sharp–edged notch plate is fitted at the downstream end of the tank. A hook
gauge is used to measure the head over the crest of the notch. The hook gauge is
installed in a gauge well connected to the tank by a pipe. The gauge well is located
well upstream of the notch to reduce error. Thus static head over the crest is
recorded by the hook gauge.
A large measuring tank is used to collect water for the measurement of
discharge.
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Theory:

An expression for the discharge can be derived by considering a strop of width b and
of small thickness dh at a depth of h below the free surface. The discharge through
the strip is obtained by applying the orifice formula as.
dQ = Cd (b dh) √2gh
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, the discharge Q over the entire V-
notch is obtained by integration as
Qth =  Cd b dh √2gH
or Qth = 8 / 15 Cd √2g tan  /2 H5/2

Where H is the head over the crest, and  is the apex angle. Generally, a right-
angled notch is used. Thus  = 900 and
Q = 8 / 15 Cd √2g tan  /2 H5/2
The value of Cd for a right-angled notch generally varies between 0.60 and 0.
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Procedure
1. Measure the apex angle of the V-notch.
2. Open the supply valve. Record the hook gauge reading when the water
just starts spilling over the crest.
3. Regulate the supply valve till the flow becomes steady and the head over
the crest becomes constant. Take the hook gauge reading.
4. Take the reading of the water level for a suitable time period t.
5. Increase the discharge by regulating the supply valve and repeat steps 3
and 4 for different discharges.

Precautions
1. Take the hook gauge reading when the flow becomes calm and steady and
the water level in the gauge well becomes constant.
2. For taking the hook gauge reading, raise it very slowly, and note the
reading when there is a splash at the water surface
3. The water should be collected for a long period for accurate determination
of the discharge.
4. The overhead tank should be kept full.
(Note the water can be supplied to the tank by a pump, if a suitable
overhead tank is not available)

Specimen calculation:
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Area of measuring tank .3x.3 = .09 sq mtr
Volume of water collected .09x.0.1= .009

Actual discharge Qact = .009 * .01/time

= .009/ 106 = .000084

Theoretical discharge Qth = 8 / 15 Cd √2g tan  /2 H5/2

= 8 / 15 Cd √2x9.81 tan 90 /2 ..(.016)5/2
Theoretical discharge Qth = 0.00075 m³ /sec

Cdexp = Qact/ Qth

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Observations and Calculations

Apex angle of the V-notch,  =90

Dimensions of the measuring tank;
L = 0.30 mtrs B= 0.30 mtrs Area =.09 sq mtrs

Area of measuring tank .3x.3 = .09 sq mtr

Volume of water collected .09x.0.1= .009

Actual discharge Qact = .009/time

Theoretical discharge Qth = 8 / 15 Cd √2g tan  /2 H5/2

SLNO Head H (m) DischargeQ in (m³ /sec)

initial final H Rise in Time taken m³ /sec Cth Cd,
(m) levell m³ /sec

\
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FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES (rectangular notch.)

Objective
To determine the coefficient of discharge of a rectangular notch.

Introduction
A rectangular notch consists of a thin metallic plate placed across a channel
so that water flows over it with a free surface. A rectangular notch is used for the
measurement of discharge in an open channel. The discharge Q is computed from
the head H over the crest, as there is a unique relationship between the discharge Q
and the head H.

The crest of the notch is sharp-edge with a bevel edge on the downstream
surface so that the sheet of water (nappe) has only a line contact with the cresat
ventilation holes are usually provided on the side walls on the downstream of the
crest so that the nappe has atmospheric pressure below it.

Experimental set-up

The set-up consists of a large, shallow tank erected on a raised platform. The
water is supplied to the tank from a constant – head supply tank by a pipe with a
regulating valve. Baffle walls are installed in the tank of stabilize the flow and to
reduce the velocity of approach. The baffle walls thus calm the flow and reduce
eddies.

A sharp-edged notch plate is fitted at the downstream end of the tank. A hook
gauge is used to measure the head over the crest of the notch. The hook gauge is
installed in a gauge well connected to the tank by a pipe. The gauge well is located
well upstream of the notch to reduce error due to drawdown. Thus static head over
the crest is recorded by the hook gauge.
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Theory
The discharge Q over a sharp-crested rectangular notch discharging free is
given by

Q= 2/3 Cd 2g (L – 0.1 nH) H3/2

Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
L = Length of crest
n = Number of end contractions (= 2 in this case)
H = Head over crest
For a suppressed weir, having the length equal to the width of the channel,
n=0 Thus.
Q = 2 / 3 Cd  2g LH 3/2
The value of Cd depends upon the height of the weir above the base of tank
and the head over the crest. It also depends upon the ratio of the length of the notch
to the width of the channel. Generally, Cd varies between 0.58 and 0.70.

Procedure
1. Measure the length of the notch.
2. Open the supply valve. When the water level just starts overflowing the
crest, note the crest level using the hook gauge
3 Increase the discharge by regulating the supply valve. When the
discharge becomes steady, measure the head over the crest.
4Take the initial water level of the measuring tank and start the stop watch.
Record the rise in water level for a suitable time period.
5Further increase the discharge and repeat steps 3 and 4.

Precautions
1. Make sure that the flow is steady and there are no eddies when the hook
gauge reading is taken.
2. Gradually raise the hook gauge and take the reading when there is a splash at
the water surface in the gauge well.
3. The over head tank must be kept full. Alternatively, a pump can be used for
supplying water to the tank.
4. Take special care when measuring the crest level. If necessary, the level
should be rechecked.
5. Use a large measuring tank for the collection of wat
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Specimen calculation:

Length of the tank = 0.3mtrs width of the tank = 0.3 mtrsa

Area of measuring tank .3x.3 = .09 sq mtr

Volume of water collected .09x.0.1= .009 m³

Width of the notch = 004mtrs

Actual discharge Qact = .009/time taken m³ /sec

= .009/ 48 = .000187

Theoretical discharge Qth = 2 / 3 Cd  2g LH 3/2 m³ /sec

= 2 / 3 Cd  2x9.81 X 0.04X (0.018) 3/2 m³ /sec

Theoretical discharge Qth = 0.000284 m³ /sec

Cdexp = Qact/ Qth = 0.000187/0.000284

= 0.64
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Observations and Calculations

Dimensions of the measuring tank;

L = 0.30 mtrs B= 0.30 mtrs Area =.09 sq mtrs

Width of the notch = 0.04mtrs

Area of measuring tank .3x.3 = .09 sq mtr

Volume of water collected .09x.0.1= .009 m³

Width of the notch = 004mtrs

Actual discharge Qact = .009/time taken m³ /sec

Theoretical discharge Qth = 2 / 3 Cd  2g LH 3/2 m³ /sec

SLNO Head H (m) Discharge in (m³ /sec)

initial final H Rise in Time taken m³ /sec Cth Cd,
(m) level m³ /sec
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Major LOSSES IN PIPES

Objective
To determine the values of Darcy’s coefficient f for different pipes.

Introduction:
The Darcy weisbach equation commonly used for the computation of the loss
of head in pipes is given below.
Hf =f L/D V2 / 2g
For accurate determination of h f a suitable value of f should be known.
Moody’s charts are commonly used in practice for the estimation of the value of f
however, for the turbulent flow; the value of f depends upon the height of roughness
projections. It is very difficult to estimate the value of the roughness projection, as it
depends not only on the type of material but also on the age and use of the pipe.
Therefore, the value of f is sometimes determined in the laboratory for estimation of
the value of hf.

Theory
The loss of head hf is determined from the manometer deflection. Knowing the
values of L, D, and V, the value of f can be calculated.

Moody’s chart can be used for the comparison of the computed values of f. The
equivalent sand grain roughness (k) for different pipe materials can be obtained from
the following table.

1. Commercial steel or wrought iron = 0.046 mm

2. Cast iron = 0.25 mm
3. Galvanized iron = 0.15 mm
4. Brass, glass = 0.0015 mm

Knowing the values of roughness ratio (k/D) and the Reynolds no., the value of f can
be read from the chart.
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Alternatively, the Colebrook white equation can be used for the estimation of the
value of f , as given below.
1 /  f = 1 2 log 10 (k/D / 3.7 + 2.51 / Nr f)

Where Ng is the Reynolds number, k is the equivalent roughness and D is the

diameter of the pipe.
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Experimental set-up:
The set-up consists of a constant-head supply tank to which 3 pipes of
different diameters are connected through a common manifold a regulation valve is
provided near the exit of each pipe.

An U-tube manometer/pressure gauge can be connected to different pipes, one by

one, to measure the loss of head h f Water is collected in a measuring tank for the
measurement of discharge.

Procedure:

1) Measure the diameter and the length of each pipe.

2) Regulate the valve on the pipe to which the and adjust the flow rate to

required position in digital flow indicator in cc/sec

3) Note the

4) Repeat steps 3 to 5 for other pipes

Observations and Calculations:

Specific gravity of manometer fluid, S2=13.6

Dimensions of the measuring tank;

L = 0.30 mtrs B= 0.30 mtrs Area =.09 sq mtrs

Diameter of pipe =0.02mtrs

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Leangth of pipe 2.mtrs

Room temperature =

Kinematics viscosity of water =

Dimensions and materials of pipe=12.5mm, 20mm, 25mm

Sl Diameter time taken for actual Manometer tatal head hf f

no of pipe 10cm of rise Discharge reading/pressu H=( P1-P2)*10000
in level =T Q = 10 / T re gauge
mm secsec reading
P1 p2

1 20

2 25

3 12.5