THE CONSTITUTION OF

INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
1
[SOLVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
to all its citizens :
JUTICE, social, economic and
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression,
belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the 2 [unity and
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs, by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec. 2,
for “Sovereign Democratic Republic” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs, by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for Unity of the Nation” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
MD 2MD
FD CD
CD
2
B'F  B'P  FP  B'P
FP FP BP
 h'
h

B'A'  B'P
BA BP
 34
35

39  34  1365  1360  1
40 35 1400 280
sin i
sin r

1
n21
MN
OM
MN
MC
MN
MI
MN  MN
OM MC

MN  MN
MC MI
 n1 n n n
 2  2 1
OM MI MC

n1 n2 n2  n1
 
OB BI1 BC1

n2 n1 n2  n1
  
DI1 DI DC2
n1 n
 1
OB DI
 1
12

1
20
A
2
h'
h


sin i 1

sin r 2

1
 BC 
2 AE

n2
n1
  
 
1
2

2
1.22 
D m

1.22 
2tan 
;
 hc


19.89  1026 J m
(2.74 eV)

25
1.989  10 Jm


1.989  1025 J m
390  109 m
5.10  1019 J
1.6  1019 J/eV

25
1.989  10 Jm
9
550  10 m

25
1.989  10 Jm
9
760  10 m
 h h
p m

h c
p 
h
p
 1 p2
2 2m
2mK 2 m eV

h h h
p 2mK 2 m eV

1.227
V
2mK
 h
p

1.227
V
1.227
100
 1.227
V
1.227
54
1
2
h

 214
Bi
83

214
Bi
83
 1
40
 1 (2e)(Ze) 2Ze 2
40 d 4 0 d

(2)(9.0  109 Nm 2 / C2 )(1.6  1019 C) 2 (Z)

1.2  1012 J

2
1 e
40 r 2
1 e2 e2
2 80 r 4 0 r

e2 e2
80 r 4 0 r
e2
80 r

e2
80 r

e
2 (9  109 N m 2 / C2 )(1.6  1019 C) 2
80 E (2)(2.2  10
18
J)

e
4 0 mr
1


1

1


1


1


1


1

 2.2  106 m s 1
2 (5.3  1011 m)
nh
2
 e
4 0 mrn

2
1 e 1
n 4 0 (h / 2 )

4 0
2
e

h 2 0
 me2

h 2 0
 me2

me4
802 h 2 n 2

2.18  1018
n2

13.6
n2
 34 8
hc 6.625  10  3  10
E 4.9  1.6  1019
 n n
i f
n n
i f
me4
802 h 2

me4
802 h3

me4
802 h3c
 me4
802 h 2

me4
802 h 2

6.625  10
34
 3  108  ni2 0.9134 ni2
21.76  10
19
 (ni2  1) (ni2  1)
 me4
802 h 2 n 2
A
ZX
197
79 Au
 2
1H
3
1H

3 3
1H 2 He
198
80 Hg
197
79 Au
4
3
Øâ
ÀØ

16
8O
16
8O
16
8O
16
8O

16
8O

16
8O

1.4924  1010
1.602  1019

16
8
 4
2 He

N
t

dN
dt
 dN
N

N
N0
ln 2

0.693


ln 2


238 238
92 U 92 U
 238
92 U
1
238

238
92 U
234
90Th
238 234 4
92 U 90Th 2 He

A A4
ZX Z  2Y
A A4 4
ZX Z  2Y 2 He

234 4 238
90Th 2 He 92 U
238 4
92 U 2 He
234 1
90Th 1H
237
91 Pa

238
92 U
238
92 U

238
92 U

238
92 U

238
92 U

v
 v

60
27
Co

60
28
Ni

60
27 Co
60
28 Ni
1
2
235
92 U

235
92 U

238
92 U

238 239 239

92 U 92 U 93 Np v
239 239
93 Np 94 Pu
v

235
92 U
1 4
1H 2 He
1 4
1H 2 He
4
2 He
A
ZX
ln 2


235
92 U
v

e v
 4
2 He
6 7
3 Li 3 Li

10 11
5B 5B

10 11
5B 5B
20 21 22
10 Ne , 10 Ne 10 Ne

14 14
7N 7N

56 209
26 Fe 83 Bi
56 209
26 Fe 83 Bi

63
29 Cu

226 242
88 Ra 94 Pu

32 210
15 P 83 Bi

11 97
6C 43Tc
120
54 Xe

12
6C
14
6C
 14
6C

14
6C

60
27 Co
60
27 Co
90
38 Sr
197 107
79 Au 47 Ag

226 220
88 Ra 86 Rn

226 222
88 Ra 86 Rn
220 216
86 Rn 84 Po

11 11
6C 5B

23
10 Ne

23
10 Ne
23
11 Na

2
1H
 3
1H
12
6C
20
10 Ne
56 28
26 Fe 13 Al

56 28
26 Fe 13 Al
239 235
94 Pu 92 U
239
94 Pu

235
92 U
235
92 U

A A
ZY  Z 1Y
 24 25 26
12 Mg 12 Mg 12 Mg
24
12 Mg

41 27
20 Ca 13 Al

40
20 Ca

41
20 Ca

26
13 Al

27
13 Al

32 33
15 P 15 P
33
15 P

238
92 U

140 99
58 Ce 44 Ru

238
92 U

140
58 Ce

99
44 Ru
 2
1H
3
1H

198
79 Au

198
80 Hg

235
92 U

235
92 U
V
I
 25
2.5
25
11
 112  20
92

;
;
1 1
9 10
 6.25 / 1

1 1 1
2.5u u 10
 25
5
30
6
1 1 1
5u0 u0 1.25

h
140
 2
1.2  10  0.28  103
4  1.4

;
o
A

c '


sin i
sin r
 ;

;
 5  2  104 m 2
1020 m 2

o
A

h h
m
p 2mK

(1 / 1838.6)
 (h / 3 m k T )

34
h 6.63  10 Js
 15
10 m

h
3mk T
 d dE d p
d(1/ ) dp dp m

4 0 (h / 2 ) 2
me e 2

( h / 2 ) 2
a0G
Gm p me2
 4
me4 me (2n  1)
(4 ) 0 (h / 2 )3
3 2
(4 )3 02 (h / 2 )3 n 2 (n  1) 2
me4
32 302 (h / 2 )3 n3
n( h / 2 ) 4 0 (h / 2 ) 2
mr me2
n( h / 2 ) me4
2 mr 2 32 302 (h / 2 )3 n3

4 0 (h / 2 ) 2
me2

nh Ze 2
2 2
4 0 r
2
1 Ze 2 4 0 h
2 80 r Ze 2 m
 re me 10
0.53  10
m 207
E e m
me

226 222 4 242 238 4

88 Ra 86 Rn 2 He 94 Pu 92 U 2 He
32 32 210 210
15 P 16 S
v 83 B 84 Po v
11 11 97 97
6C 5B 43Tc 42 Mo
120 120
54 Xe 53 I

11 11
6C 5B
11 11
6C 5B

11
6C
11
5B
11 11
6C 5B

23 23 23 23
10 Ne 11 Na v 10 Ne 11 Na

23 23
10 Ne 11 Na
 56 28
26 Fe 13 Al

13
235 6  1023  200  1.6  10
92 U 235
235
92 U

235
92 U

A A
ZX Z 1Y
A A
ZX Z 1Y
A A
ZX Z 1Y
A A
ZX Z 1Y
A A
ZX Z 1Y
A A A A
ZX Z 1Y ZX Z 1Y

25 26
12 Mg 12 Mg
A
ZX
A 1 A
ZX ZX
41 27
20 Ca 13 Al

14
6C
223 209 14
88 Ra 82 Pb 6C
223 209 14
88 Ra 82 Pb 6C
4 223 219 4
2 He 88 Ra 86 Rn 2 He
238 140 99
92 U 58 Ce 44 Ru
 2 3 4
1H 1H 2 He


7.68  10 14

3  1.381  10 23

1 2

1 4
1H 2 He

235
92 U

n i2
1
2