Lesson 1: Logic – Introduction

Definition of logic

Logic is the study of reasoning - the nature of good (correct) reasoning and of bad (incorrect)
reasoning. Its distinction from psychology is in its matter, i.e., logic concerns itself solely
with the validity of thought, psychology with the nature of thought and its relationship with
other vital processes. Logicians study and analyze arguments, premises, inferences,
conditional statements, and symbolic forms.

Founder

Aristotle was the founder of logic; and later investigation has not superseded his work but
extended the field. From the beginning it has been recognized that in all thinking there are
certain presuppositions, three of which have been known as the laws of thought. They are
the law of identity: whatever is, is (A is A); the law of contradiction: a thing cannot both be
and not be (A cannot be B and not-B); the law of the excluded middle: a thing must either be
or not be (A is either B or not-B). Deductive thinking is largely reducible to a form such as:
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man, therefore Socrates is mortal (all S is P, M is S,
therefore M is P); or more exactly: If all men are mortal, and if Socrates is a man, Socrates
must then be mortal. Such a form is known as a syllogism. The investigation of deduction and
the elaboration of the syllogism are the work of Aristotle, and the Aristotelian logic has been
the logic of schools and men in general; this has been certainly assisted by its application in
the Euclidean geometry and in the scholastic philosophy. Aristotle’s logical writings comprise
six works, known collectively as the Organon (“Tool”). The significance of the name is that
logic, for Aristotle, was not one of the theoretical sciences. These were physics, mathematics,
and metaphysics. Instead, logic was a tool used by all the sciences.

Historical development of logic

In the 19th century arose a new logical field which has had wide attention and cultivation. It
is called logistic or symbolic logic and owes much to the work of George Boole and Augustus
de Morgan. Its characteristic form is the application of mathematical symbols to logic, and its
substance is analysis of relation. The fundamental inadequacy of Aristotelian logic, according
to the logicians, arises in the use of language rather than symbols. An example of how
language can fail the logician is the alleged ambiguity of the copula, e.g., in the statements "A
is B" and "All A are B" the "is" and "are" seem to express different relations. The application
of mathematical symbols to logic not only removes any such possible ambiguity but also
greatly simplifies logical processes and admits of extending their application far beyond the
province of the Aristotelian logic. The development of symbolic logic in the hands of A.N.
Whitehead and Bertrand Russell has made it cover the same ground in its extension as the
higher mathematics.

Reasons to study logic

To sharpen the mind in a world saturated by streams of propaganda and advertising. To know
when a pitchman is conning you, when some "expert" or pundit is propounding a dubious
doctrine, when someone is making an apocryphal claim about miracles or divinity or the
afterlife. To chasten one's own thinking, to develop an appreciation for tenable arguments and
a respect for good reasoning. To become more adept at solving problems, whether they're
encountered in business, science, politics, or the law.

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Lesson 1

Questions:

1. When was logic created and who was the founder?

2. Which philosophers have contributed to the development of logic in the last two
centuries? How?
3. Explain the form of the syllogism and give an example (new one).
4. Aristotle’s main work “Organon” was “ a tool” for:
 Everyday life
 Correct reasoning in all sciences
 How to be a successful politician
5. Why do we study logic?