Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction
I have been assigned to TELECOM CONSTRUCTION for field study by company named
PROJEXON CONSTRUCTION. This project has been assigned by the JIO telecom
company.

Figure 1.1 Fiber bundles

1.2. Company Overview
PROJEXON Construction works with Telecom operators, Vendors, and other businesses in
UP West to expertly obtain the environmental and planning approvals needed to move
projects from the conceptual stage to physical, benefit-generating reality in an efficient and
cost-effective manner. It provides services like Cable Laying Underground, All Type Cable
Laying Building Wiring (5,10 & 20 Pair), DP’s Installation, Joint’s and Termination of all
type. Projexon achievements are, it got Award for best project achiever at JIO UP West,
rolled out 500 ODSC sites in UP West, 100 WI-FI Sites including all major Hotels in UP
West (Radisson Hotels, Trident Hotel etc.) and 150 Indoor Small Cell Sites including all
major Colleges and University of UP West & Uttarakhand.

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 Figure 1.2 Laying Area for fiber
1.3. About Project “Telecom Construction”
1.3.1. Trenching and Ducting
Trench specifications are normally defined by local authorities and could be specified for
each operator in countries with multiple operators. The trenching process needs careful
control to make sure the trench floor does not have any kinks and is uniform, and trenches
do not have major bends. Ducts are placed in the trenches and fiber is then blown through
the ducts with specialized fiber blowers, using water or air. In Air Assisted Fiber Blowing,
the blowers use compressed air to push fiber through ducts. It is standard practice to lay
conduits, then draw inner ducts through the conduits and finally blow the fibers through the
ducts. A common conduit size is 4 inches (100mm), but 6-inch (150mm) conduits are also
available. The size of the inner duct is normally 1.25 inches. It should be noted that fiber
cables should never use more than 70% of the available duct space. When 1-inch fiber cables
are used, they occupy 64% of a 1.25-inch duct. Ducts are manufactured from High Density
Polyethylene (HDPE). High Density Polyethylene is hard, can withstand temperatures up to
120°C and have excellent resistance to alcohols, concentrated acids and bases.

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 Figure 1.3 Trenching and Ducting
Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
For this type of installation, a drilling rig that is launched from the surface is used to create
a shallow arc along a predefined path. The impact on surrounding areas using this method
is minimal and it is therefore preferred when excavating or trenching is not practical. It can
be used for numerous soil conditions and jobs including landscape, road and river crossings.
Some cities will only issue Right-of-Way (ROW) permissions for HDD based cable laying.
The process is multi staged and the first step involves creating an entrance pit with a
receiving hole. A pilot hole is then drilled through the designed path, after which the hole is
enlarged (reamed) with a larger cutting tool known as the back reamer. The diameter of the
reamer is determined by the size of the pipe to be pulled back through the hole. In the next
stage, a casing pipe is placed in the enlarged hole by using the drill stem. A fully automatic
gyro-based drilling mechanism is used by advanced Horizontal Directional Drilling
machines.

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 Figure 1.4 Horizonal directional drilling machine
1.3.2. Duct Integration Test
After backfilling ducts shall be tested for integrity (air tightness and kink-free shape). Air
tightness test is done by pressurizing 2 km duct stretches at a time. One end of duct will be
closed and compressed air at 5-6kg/cm2 is sent from the other end. At about 5kg/cm2
pressure the inlet of compressed air will be closed. Fall in pressure should not be more than
50% in 1(one) hour. To check that duct has not collapsed or kinked a wooden cylindrical
piece (shuttle) is blown into the duct with far end fitted with Flexible wire grip/stocking.
The wooden shuttle should pass through duct at far end without any obstruction and within
approx. 10 minutes or less. All fibers of cables will be terminated on Fiber Management
System (FMS) at each regenerator (REG) or ADM (add drop multiplexer) location.
Installation of Fiber Management System is done according to the manufacturer's
specification. End to End testing can be carried out from the Fiber Management System to
Fiber Management System using the connectors who are mounted on the Fiber Management
System.
1..3.3. Manhole
Dimension and Mechanical Resistance: as to allow easily splice box installation and cable
coils with respect of maximum bending radii, the dimensions of the manhole will not be less
than: 1.20m, internal width: 0.50m, internal depth: 0.60m. The grading up of ducts to enter
into manholes due to the internal depth of the manhole should be minimized. Lateral walls

4
and covers will be resistant to a minimum of: 400KiloNewton for manholes under roadways
250KiloNewton for manholes buried in verges or sideways position: it is expected that the
manhole should be placed at the end of each set of inner duct reels and at no greater than:
3km on the long-distance network. If the installer proposes a distance greater than this upper
bound then they should provide the reasoning and also explain how maintenance factors
will not be compromised. 500m (subject to design) in urban areas. Where bridges, streams
or other obstacles require crossing, chamber should place on either side of the obstruction.
These methods are therefore employed to give protection to the fiber infrastructure at this
joint.

Figure 1.5 Manhole

1..3.4. Splicing
Splicing of optical fibers is a technique used to join two optical fibers. This technique is
used in optical fiber communication, in order to form long optical links for better as well as
long-distance optical signal transmission. Splicers are basically couplers that form a
connection between two fibers or fiber bundles. At the time of splicing two optical fibers,
the geometry of the fibers, their proper alignment and mechanical strength must be taken
into consideration.

5
 Figure 1.6 Splicing
Fusion splicing
Splicing is done using a good quality splicing machine. Splice loss per joint will be
minimum and would not be more than 0.07dB. In no case average splice loss per link will
be more than 0.06 dB x No. of splices. At least 0.6 m to 0.8m fiber would be stored in cable
tray. Fiber would be neatly coiled without kinks. Minimum bending radius of 80mm would
be ensured, Joint closure would be sealed properly before it is taken out of the controlled
environment free from dust particles and air-conditioned splicing van.
1.3.5. Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
The Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is useful for testing the integrity of
fiber optic cables. It can verify splice loss, measure length and find faults. The OTDR is also
commonly used to create a "picture" of fiber optic cable when it is newly installed.

6
 Figure 1.7 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
1.3.6. LASER Source Power Meter
An optical light source is an apparatus that uses a diode laser or LED such as a stabilized
light emitter. It is used with another instrument (power meter) that measures the power
received, determining the attenuation of the optical fiber segment. Considering the limited
size and the battery power it is mainly used on-site.
Optical Light Source: Operating wavelength 1310/1550 nm, up to four wavelengths.
Power Meter: Available with receiving sensitivity of 800 ÷ 1625 nm.

Figure 1.8 LASER source power meter

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 Chapter 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF OPTICAL FIBER

3.1 Total internal reflection

The fundamental principle that makes optical fibers possible is total internal reflection.
This is described using the ray model of light as shown in figure 1.

Figure 2.1 Total Internal Reflection

From Snell’s Law we find that refraction (as shown by the dashed line) can only occur when
the angle theta1 is large enough. This implies that as the angle is reduced, there must be a
point when the light ray is reflected, where theta 1 = theta 2.
The angle where this happens is known as the critical angle and is
θc=(90· - θ1)
3.2. Acceptance angle
When light enters the fiber we must also consider refraction at the interface of the air and
the fiber core. The difference in refractive index causes refraction of the ray as it enters the
fiber, allowing rays to enter the fiber at an angle greater than the angle allowed within the
fiber as shown in the figure 3. This acceptance angle, theta, is a crucial parameter for fiber
and system designers.

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 Figure 2.2 Acceptance Angle
3.3. Acceptance Cone
In Fiber optics, the cone within which Optical Power may be coupled into the bound Modes
of an optical fiber. Note: The acceptance cone is derived by rotating the Acceptance Angle
about the fiber axis.

Figure 2.3 Acceptance cone

3.4. Numerical aperture
The acceptance angle for an optical fiber was defined in the preceding section. However, it
is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relationship between the
acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved, namely the core,
cladding and air. This leads to the definition of a more generally used term, the numerical
aperture of the fiber. It must be noted that within this analysis, as with the preceding
discussion of acceptance angle, we are concerned with meridional rays within the fiber.
Figure 3 shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θ1 to the fiber axis which is
less than the acceptance angle for the fiber θa. The ray enters the fiber from a medium (air)
of refractive index n0 ,and the fiber core has a refractive index n1, which is slightly greater

9
than the cladding refractive index n2 .Assuming the entrance face at the fiber core to be
normal to the axis, then considering the refraction at the air–core interface and using Snell’s
law.

Figure 2.4 The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in air at
an
input angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = √(𝑛02 − 𝑛12 )

𝜃𝑐 = Acceptance Angle,
𝑛 0 = Exterior Refractive Index
𝑛 1 = Cladding Refractive Index
3.5. Propagation of light in fibers
The propagation of light is as shown in figure 5. When light ray enters the core with an angle
θa strikes the surface of cladding whose refractive index is less than that of core. As the
incidence angle on surface of the cladding is greater than or equal to critical angle total
internal reflection takes place. Hence the ray is reflected back into the core in the forward
direction. This process continues until it reaches other end of the cable.

Figure 2.5 Propagation of light in fibers

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3.6. Refraction of light
When light from a medium with high refractive index goes to a medium with a low
refractive index, it moves away from the normal at the point of crossover. Take a look at
the image below. The red line runs away from the normal as it enters the cladding, which
has a lower refractive index.

Figure 2.6 Refraction of light

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 Chapter 3
STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBERS

In fibers, there are two significant sections – the core and the cladding. The core is part
where the light rays travel and the cladding is a similar material of slightly lower refractive
index to cause total internal reflection. Usually both sections are fabricated from
silica(glass). The light with in the fiber is then continuously totally internally reflected along
the waveguide.

Figure 3.1 Structure of Fiber

3.1. The core of the optical fiber
The core is the innermost part that is made out of glass or transparent plastic. It is extremely
thin, flexible and has a cylindrical shape. Its sole purpose is to keep all the light within itself
and guide the light in a direction parallel to its axis. Since it is the main carrier and guide of
the light waves, it can be called an optical waveguide. By the same token, its structure has
an effect on the transmission of the light. Hence, all the data that is being transferred will
have its transmission parameters or properties based on the structure of this segment of the
fiber optic.
3.2. The cladding of the optical fiber
The cladding is the second layer on top of the core. It is also made of glass or transparent
plastic. But with a different material, so the refractive index of the cladding is lower than
that of the core. To understand the need for a secondary layer made out of a different
material, we will revisit a basic concept of light propagation, refraction.
3.3. The jacket of the optical fiber

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The jacket exists purely for protecting the core and the cladding. It is made up of flexible
and abrasion resistant varieties of plastic. Usually, the jacket has another layer beneath it
called buffer. The buffer and the jacket together protect the optical fiber from environmental
and physical damage.
3.4. Optical Fiber Cables
When optical fibers are to be installed in a working environment their mechanical properties
are of prime importance. In this respect the unprotected optical fiber has several
disadvantages with regard to its strength and durability. Bare glass fibers are little and have
small cross-sectional areas which make them very susceptible to damage when employing
normal transmission line handling procedures. It is therefore necessary to cover the fibers
to improve their tensile strength and to protect them against external influences. The
functions of the optical cable may be summarized into four main areas.
These are as follows: -
 Fiber protection- The major function of the optical cable is to protect against fiber
damage and breakage both during installation and throughout the life of the fiber.
 Stability of the fiber transmission characteristics- The cabled fiber must have good
stable transmission characteristics which are comparable with the uncabled fiber.
Increases in optical attenuation due to cabling are quite usual and must be minimized
within the cable design.
 Cable strength- Optical cables must have similar mechanical properties to electrical
transmission cables in order that they may be handled in the same manner. These
mechanical properties include tension, torsion, compression, bending, squeezing and
vibration. Hence the cable strength may be improved by incorporating a suitable
strength member and by giving the cable a properly designed thick outer sheath.
 Identification and jointing of the fibers within the cable -This is especially
important for cables including a large number of optical fibers. If the fibers are
arranged in a suitable geometry it may be possible to use multiple jointing techniques
rather than jointing each fiber individually.
4.5. Electric-Field with in the Fiber Cladding
One other significant point should be noted from the electromagnetic field model. The
model predicts that the EM field does not suddenly drop to zero at the core-cladding
boundary – it instead decays as negative exponential within the cladding as shown in the
figure 6. This is crucial for various technologies relating to fibers.

13
 Figure 3.2 The electric field with in the fiber cladding
This method of signal transmission has benefits in terms of security – for the signal to be
‘tapped’ the fiber must be broken (since effectively no energy escapes from the fiber) and
this can easily be detected (when no signal reaches the other end of the fiber!). This is one
of the many advantages of the medium. But mainly two factors, attenuation and dispersion
of light, have to be considered while transmitting the light over large distances. We use
repeaters and regenerators to reduce the attenuation and dispersion.

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 Chapter 4
CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Optical fibers are classified into three types based on the material used, number of modes
and refractive index.
4.1. Based on the materials used
4.1.1. Glass fibers
They have a glass core and glass cladding. The glass used in the fiber is ultra-pure, ultra
transparent silicon dioxide (SiO2) or fused quartz. Impurities are purposely added to pure
glass to achieve the desired refractive index.

Figure 4.1 Glass fiber

4.1.2. Plastic clad silica
This fiber has a glass core and plastic cladding. This performance though not as good as all
glass fibers, is quite respectable.

Figure 4.2 Plastic clad silica

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4.1.3. Plastic fibers
They have a plastic core and plastic cladding. These fibers are attractive in applications
where high bandwidth and low loss are not a concern.

Figure 4.3 Plastic fiber

4.2. Based on the number of modes
4.2.1. Single mode fiber
When a fiber wave-guide can support only the HE11 mode, it is referred to as a single mode
waveguide. In a step index structure this occurs when the wave-guide is operating at v<2.4
where v is dimensionless number which relates the propagating in the cladding. These single
mode fibers have small size and low dopant level (typically 0.3% to 0.4% index elevation
over the lading index.) In high silica fibers the wave-guide and the material dispersion are
often of opposite signs. This fact can be used conveniently to achieve a single mode fiber of
extremely large bandwidth. Reduced dopant level results in lower attenuation than in
multimode fibres. As ingle mode wave guide with its large and fully definable bandwidth
characteristics is an obvious candidate for long distance, high capacity transmission
application.

Figure 4.4 Single mode fiber

4.2.2. Multimode fiber
It is a fiber in which more than one mode is propagating at the system operating wavelength
Multimode fiber system does not have the information carrying capacity of single mode

16
fibers. However, they offer several advantages for specific systems. The larger core
diameters result in easier splicing of fibers. Given the larger cores, higher numerical
apertures, and typically shorter link distances, multimode systems can use less expensive
light sources such as LEDs.
Multimode fibers have numerical apertures that typically range from 0.2 to 0.29 and have
core size that range from 35 to100 micro-meters.

Figure 4.5 Multimode fiber

Specification Single mode fiber Multimode fiber

Cost of fiber Less expensive Expensive

Transmission equipment More expensive (laser Basic and Low Cost

diode) (LED)

Attenuation low High

Transmission wavelength 1260nm to 1640nm 850 nm to 1300 nm

Application of use connections are more Larger core, easier to

complex handle

Distance Access/medium/long local networks (< 2 Km)

haul networks (> 200
Km)

bandwidth Nearly infinite Limited Bandwidth (10

bandwidth Gb/s over short distances)
(>1 Tb/s for DWDM)
Provides higher The fiber is more costly,
Advantages/Disadvantages performance, but but the network
building the network is deployment is relatively
expensive. inexpensive.
Table 4.1 Difference between single and multimode fiber

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4.3. Based on the refractive index
4.3.1. Step index fiber
The step index (SI) fiber consists of a central core whose refractive index is n1, surrounded
by a cladding whose refractive index is n2, lower than that of core. Because of an abrupt
index change at the core cladding interface such fibers are called step index fibers.

Figure 4.6 Step index fiber

4.3.2. graded index fiber
The refractive index of the core in graded index fiber is not constant, but decreases gradually
from its maximum value n1 to its minimum value n2 at the core-cladding interface. The ray
velocity changes along the path because of variations in the refractive index. The ray
propagating along the fiber axis takes the shortest path but travels most slowly, as the index
is largest along this path in medium of lower refractive index where they travel faster. It is
therefore possible for all rays to arrive together at the fiber output by a suitable choice of
refractive index profile.

Figure 4.7 Graded index fiber

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 Chapter 5
REPEATERS AND REGENRATORS

Optical Repeaters are purely optical devices that are used simply to combat attenuation in
their; typically spans of 80km upwards are now possible. The recent introduction of soliton
transmission methods has increased the allowed distance between repeaters and systems
spanning 130km without a repeater are now possible. Regenerators are devices consisting
of both electronic and optical components to provide ‘3R’ regeneration – Retiming,
Reshaping, Regeneration. Retiming and reshaping detect the digital signal that will be
distorted and noisy (partly due to the optical repeaters), and recreate it as a clean signal as
shown in figure6 This clean signal is then regenerated (optically amplified) to be sent on. It
should be noted that repeaters are purely optical devices whereas regenerators require
optical-to-electrical(O/E) conversion and electrical-to-optical (E/O) conversion. The
ultimate aim of many fiber system researchers is to create a purely optical network without
electronics, which would maximize efficiency and performance Many aspects of such a
system are in place, but some still require the O/E and E/O Conversion.

Figure 5.1 A digital signal before (noisy and attenuated) and after regeneration.
The most common optical amplifier currently in use is the EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber
Amplifier). These consist of a coil of fiber doped with the rare earth metal erbium. A laser
diode pumps the erbium atoms to a high-energy state; when the signal reaches the doped
fiber the energy of the erbium atoms is transferred to the signal, thus amplifying it.

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 Chapter 6
OPTICAL SOURCES AND DETECTORS

Two types of optical source are used with fibers, LEDs and Laser Diodes. LEDs can operate
in the near infrared (the main wavelengths used in fibers are 1300nm and 1550nm, along
with850nm for some applications); they can emit light at 850nm and 1300nm. They also
have the advantages of long lifetimes and being cheap. Unfortunately, they are large
compared to the cross-section of a fiber and so a large amount of light is lost in the coupling
of an LED with fiber. This also reduces the amount of modal control designers have over
incident light. Laser diodes can be made to emit light at either 1300nm or 1550 nm, and also
over a small spectral width (unlike LEDs), which reduces chromatic dispersion. Their
emitting areas are extremely small and so the angle of incidence of light on a fiber can be
accurately controlled such that<5% of the possible modes within a multimode fiber will be
initially used. They are more efficient than LEDs in terms of coupling of light into the fiber,
although they have shorter lifetimes than and are more expensive than LEDs. One crucial
advantage of lasers over LEDs in today’s world of digital communications is their high
switching speed and small rise times, leading to increased bandwidth.
6.1. Population Inversion
Under the conditions of thermal equilibrium given by the Boltzmann distribution the lower
energy level E1 of the two-level atomic system contains more atoms than the upper energy
level E2. This situation, which is normal for structures at room temperature, is illustrated in
Figure 6.2(a). However, to achieve optical amplification it is necessary to a nonequilibrium
distribution of atoms such that the population of the upper energy level is greater than that
of the lower energy level (i.e. N2>N1). This condition, which is known as population
inversion, is illustrated in Figure 6.2(b). In order to achieve population inversion, it is
necessary to excite atoms into the upper energy level E2 and hence obtain a nonequilibrium
distribution. This process is achieved using an external energy source and is referred to as
‘pumping’. A common method used for pumping involves the application of intense
radiation (e.g. from an optical flash tube or high-frequency radio field). In the former case
atoms are excited into the higher energy state through stimulated absorption. However, the
two-level system discussed above does not lend itself to suitable population inversion.
Referring to Eq. (6.9), when the two levels

20
are equally degenerate (or not degenerate), then B12=B21. Thus, the probabilities of
absorption and stimulated emission are equal, providing at best equal populations in the two
levels. Population inversion, however, may be obtained in systems with three or four energy
levels. The energy-level diagrams for two such systems, which correspond to two non-
semiconductor lasers, are illustrated in Figure. To aid attainment of population inversion
both systems display a central metastable state in which the atoms spend an unusually long
time. It is from this metastable level that the stimulated emission or lasing takes place. The
three-level system (Figure consists of a ground level E0, a metastable level E1 and a third
level above the metastable level E2. Initially, the atomic distribution.

Figure 6.1 Population inversion

6.2. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Light emitting diode is just a forward biased p-n junction. There is a recombination requires
energy of holes and electrons. This recombination requires energy possessed is the unbound
free electrons is transferred to another state.in all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this
energy will be given off as heat and some in the form of photons. In silicon and germanium
greater percentage is given up in the form of heat the emitted light is insufficient. In other
material, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)or gallium phosphide (GaP), the
number of photons of light energy emitted is sufficient to create a very visible light source.
The process of giving off light applying an electrical source of energy is called
electroluminescence.
Heterojunctions
Heterojunction means that a P-N junction is formed by a single crystal such that the material
on one side of the junction differs from that on the other side of the junction. In the modern
Gas diode lasers heterojunction is formed between GaAs and GaAlAs. This type of P-N

21
junction diode Laser or LED is used at 800 m wavelength. At longer wavelengths, InP-
InGaAsP heterojunction diodes are used. Generally, heterojunction LEDs have minimum
threshold current density (10A/ mm2), higher output power (10 mW) even with low
operating current (<500 mA) high coherence and high monochromaticity, high stability and
longer life.

Figure 6.2 Heterojunction

Characteristics of LED
 Low cost.
 Low power.
 Relatively wide spectrum produced.
 Incoherent light.
 Digital modulation.
 Analogue modulation.
Spontaneous emission of radiation in the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum from
a forward-biased P–N junction. The normally empty conduction band of the semiconductor
is populated by electrons injected into it by the forward current through the junction, and
light is generated when these electrons recombine with holes in the valence band to emit a
photon. This is the mechanism by which light is emitted from an LED, but stimulated
emission is not encouraged, as it is in the injection laser, by the addition of an optical cavity
and mirror facets to provide feedback of photons. The LED can therefore operate at lower
current densities than the injection laser, but the emitted photons have random phases and
the device is an incoherent optical source. Also, the energy of the emitted photons is only
roughly equal to the bandgap energy of the semiconductor material, which gives a much

22
wider spectral linewidth (possibly by a factor of 100) than the injection laser. The linewidth
for an LED corresponds to a range of photon energy between 1 and 3.5KT, where Ki s
Boltzmann’s constant and Tis the absolute temperature. This gives linewidths of 30 to 40nm
for GaAs-based devices operating at room temperature. Thus, the LED supports many
optical modes within its structure and is therefore often used as a multimode source,
although the coupling of LEDs to single-mode fibers has been pursued with success,
particularly when advanced structures are employed. Also, LEDs have several further
drawbacks in comparison with injection lasers.
These include:
 generally lower optical power coupled into a fiber (microwatts).
 usually lower modulation bandwidth.
 harmonic distortion.
6.3. Operation in Light Emitting Diodes
The wavelength of light emitted by the LED is inversely proportional to the band gap
energy. The higher the energy the shorter the wavelength.

Material Formula Wavelength Bandgap energy

range Wg(eW)
Indium phosphide InP 0.92 1.35

Indium arsenide InAs 3.6 0.34

Gallium phosphide GaP 0.55 2.24

Gallium arsenide GaAs 0.87 1.42

Aluminium arsenide AlAs 0.59 2.09

Gallium indium GaInP 0.64-0.66 1.82-1.94

phosphide
Aluminium gallium AlGaAs 0.8-0.9 1.4-1.55
arsenide

Indium gallium arsenide InGaAs 1.0-1.3 0.95-1.24

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 Indium gallium arsenide InGaAsP 0.9-1.7 0.73-1.35
phosphide

Table 6.1 Bandgap energies and Wavelength ranges in various materials

The formula relating electron energy to wavelength is given below.
hc 1.24
λ=𝑐 =𝐸
𝑝ℎ 𝑝ℎ (𝑒𝑉)

where, λ = wavelenght in microns

ℎ= planks constant, 6.63×10-34 , 4.14×10-15 eV.s
𝑐 = speed of light, 3×108 metres.sec
𝑐𝑝ℎ = photon energy in eV
The materials of which the LED is made determine the wavelength of light emitted. The
following table shows energies and wavelengths for commonly used materials is
semiconductor LEDs and Lasers.
6.4. LASER diodes
Laser is an acronym for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”. Lasers
produce power and away the best kind of light for optical communication. Ideal laser light
is single wavelength only. This is related to the molecular characteristics of the material
being used in the laser. It is formed in parallel beams and is in a single phase that is it is
coherent.
● Laser can be modulated controlled very precisely the record is a pulse length of 0.5
femtoseconds.
● Lasers can produce relatively high power. Indeed, some types of laser can produce
kilowatts of power. In communication applications, semiconductor lasers of power up
to 20 Milli watts are available. This is many times greater power than LEDs can
generate. Other semiconductor laser (such as those used in pumps for optical
amplifiers) have output of up to 250 Milli watts.
● Because laser light is produced in parallel beams, a high percentage (50% to 80%) can
be transferred into the fiber.
6.5. Fundamentals of the laser
An electron within an atom (or a molecule or an ion) starts in a low energy stable state often
called the “ground” state. Energy supplied from outside and is absorbed by the atomic
structure where upon the electron enters and excited (higher energy) state. A photon arrives
with energy close to the same amount of energy as the electron needs to give up reaching a

24
stable state. (This is just another way of saying that the wavelength of the arriving Photon
is very close to the wavelength at which the excited electron will emit its own Photon.) The
arriving Photon triggers a resonance with excited atom. As a result, excited electron leaves
its excited state and transitions to the more stable state giving up the energy difference in
the form of a photon. The critical characteristic here is that when a new Photon is emitted it
has identical wavelength phase and direction characteristics as the exciting Photon. Note:
The photon that triggered (stimulate) the emission itself is not absorbed and continuous
along its original path accompanied by the newly emitted Photon.
6.5.1 Absorption
The process of absorbing energy from photons is called absorption of radiation. It is well
known that there are different energy levels in an atom. The electrons that are very close to
the nucleus have lowest energy level. These electrons are also known as ground state
electrons. Let us consider that the energy level of ground state electrons or lower energy
state electrons is E1 and the next higher energy level or higher energy state is E2. When
ground state electrons or lower energy state electrons (E1) absorbs sufficient energy from
photons, they jump into the next higher energy level or higher energy state (E2). In other
words, when the ground state electrons absorb energy which is equal to the energy difference
between the two energy states (E2 – E1), the electrons jump from ground state (E1) to the
excited state or higher energy level (E2). The electrons in the higher energy level are called
excited electrons.
The light or photons energy applied to excite the electrons can be mathematically written as
hv = E2 – E1
Where h = Planck’s constant
V = Frequency of photon
E1 = Lower energy level electrons or ground state electrons
E2 = Higher energy level electrons or excited state electrons
Absorption occurs only if the energy of photon exactly matches the difference in energy
between the two electron shells or orbits.

25
 Figure 6.3 Absorption

6.5.2. Spontaneous emission

The process by which excited electrons emit photons while falling to the ground level or
lower energy level is called spontaneous emission. Electrons in the atom absorb energy from
various sources such as heat, electric field, or light. When the electrons in the ground state
or lower energy state (E1) absorb sufficient energy from photons, they jump to the excited
state or next higher energy state (E2). The electrons in the excited state do not stay for a
long period because the lifetime of electrons in the higher energy state or excited state is
very small, of the order of 10-8 sec. Hence, after a short period, they fall back to the ground
state by releasing energy in the form of photons or light. The energy of the emitted photon
is directed proportional to the energy gap of the material. The materials with large energy
gap will emit high-energy photons or high-intensity light whereas the materials with small
energy gap will emit low energy photons or low-intensity light. The energy of released
photon is equal to the difference in energies between the two electron shells or orbits. The
energy of the excited electrons can also be released in other forms such as heat. If the excited
state electrons release energy in the form of photons or light while falling to the ground
state, the process is called spontaneous emission. In spontaneous emission, the electrons
changing from one state (higher energy state) to another state (lower energy state) occurs
naturally. So the photon emission also occurs naturally or spontaneously. The photons
emitted due to spontaneous emission do not flow exactly in the same direction of incident
photons. They flow in the random direction.

26
 Figure 6.4 Stimulated emission

6.5.3. Stimulated emission

The process by which electrons in the excited state are stimulated to emit photons while
falling to the ground state or lower energy state is called stimulated emission. Unlike the
spontaneous emission, in this process, the light energy or photon energy is supplied to the
excited electrons instead of supplying energy to the ground state electrons. The stimulated
emission is not a natural process it is an artificial process. In stimulated emission, the
electrons in the excited state need not wait for natural spontaneous emission to occur. An
alternative method is used to stimulate excited electron to emit photons and fall back to
ground state. The incident photon stimulates or forces the excited electron to emit a photon
and fall into a lower state or ground state. The energy of a stimulating or incident photon
must be equal to the energy difference between the two electron shells. In this process, the
excited electron releases an additional photon of same energy (same frequency, same phase,
and in the same direction) while falling into the lower energy state. Thus, two photons of
same energy are released while electrons falling into the ground state. In stimulated emission
process, each incident photon generates two photons. The photons emitted in the stimulated
emission process will travel in the same direction of the incident photon. Many ways exist
to produce light, but the stimulated emission is the only method known to produce coherent
light (beam of photons with the same frequency). All the photons in the stimulated emission
have the same frequency and travel in the same direction.

27
 Figure 6.5 Stimulated emission

6.6. Optical Detectors

The function of an optical detector is to convert the optical signal in an electrical signal,
which can then be further processed. The predominant types of light detector used in
communications system rely on the principle of ionization in a semiconductor material.
When discussing photo detectors there are four important parameters.
Detector responsivity- This is the ratio of output current to input optical power. Hence this
is the efficiency of the device.
Spectral response range - This is the range of wavelengths over which the device will
operate.
Response time - This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond to variations in
the input light intensity.
Noise characteristics.
Optical receivers and transmitters are of essential importance for the overall performance of
optical communication systems. The function of an optical detector is to convert the optical
signal in an electrical signal, which can then be further processed. The improvement on
optical receiver and transmitter side is of major interest to network operators, because less
repeaters are needed and the spacing between repeaters can be increased. The following
performance criteria of optical detectors are of major important for applications in optical
communication systems:

28
 • Sensitivity has to be matched to the emission spectra of the optical transmitter.
• Linearity (Linear relationship between the intensity and the electrical signal).
• High quantum efficiency / high spectral sensitivity.
• Fast response time.
• Stability of performance (temperature sensitivity).
• Reliability and Robustness.
• Low Noise.
• Lost Cost.
6.7. Optical Detectors Working Principle
The conversion of an optical into an electrical signal requires the absorption of the incident
light. The absorption leads to an excitation of an electron from the valence to the conduction
band. What is left in the valence band is a vacancy, which we call a “hole”. Therefore, we
speak about the photo-generation of electron-hole pairs, because the absorption always leads
to the generation of a hole and an electron. (That does not necessary mean that both carriers
contribute to the electronic transport, but the generation creates both species.) If now a
photon gets absorbed in the material the electron-hole pairs have to be separated by an
electric field. The energy of the photon has to be sufficiently high to excite an electron from
the valence to the conduction band.

Figure 6.6 Photogeneration of an electron hole pair

29
6.8. Photoconductor
Photoconductors are the simplest conceivable optical detector. The device consists of a
piece of (doped) semiconductor material with electrical contacts attached. A voltage is
applied across the contacts when a photon arrives in the semiconductor it is absorbed and
an electron/hole pair is created. Under the influence of the electric field between the two
contacts electron and hole each migrate towards one of the contacts. Wavelength depends
on amount of light falling. P-N and P-I-N diodes have a clear disadvantage which is the
transient response. The transient response is limited by the capacitance of the diode or the
transient time of the charges. One way to overcome the limits set by the capacitance of the
diode could be a photoconductor structure. The photoconductor is clearly the simplest
available detector structure. In the case of a photoconductor the resistivity of the device is
changed as a function of the intensity (not a photocurrent). Therefore, we have to apply a
voltage to the detector to measure the change in the current flow (Photodiodes can be
operated under short circuit conditions). The photoconductive detector is formed by two
adjacent finger contact which are placed on a semiconducting material. Due to the fact that
the capacitance of the device is extremely low it should be possible to build very fast optical
detectors. The transient time of detectors is limited by the drift velocity (velocity of the
carriers caused by the applied electric field) of the carriers. For the manufacturing it is
important to form good ohmic contacts with the semiconductor. Otherwise Schottky barriers
are formed which will limit the current flow. The photoconductive detector is a unipolar
device, which means that the current flow is either completely dominated by electrons or by
holes. Diodes are bipolar devices, because electrons and hole contribute to the current
transport.

30
Figure 6.7 Photoconductive detector structure which operates in the medium and the
long wave band.
6.9. Photodiodes
Photodiodes convert light directly to electric current. Ideal (p-i-n) diode can convert one
Photon to one electron of current.
6.9.1. P-n diode
The principle involved in a PIN diode is simply the principle of LED in reverse. That is,
light is observed at a P-N junction rather than emitted. The big problem here is that the
depletion zone in a P-N junction is extremely thin. But current produced is insufficient and
devices are not fast enough for current communication.
6.9.2. P-i-n diode
The answer to the problem created by the extreme thinness of a P-N junction is to make it
thicker. The junction is extended by the addition of a very lightly doped layer called the
intrinsic zone between the p and n doped zones. Thus, the device is called a p-i-n diode
rather than a P-N diode. The wide intrinsic (i) layer has only a very small amount of dopant
and acts as a very wide depletion layer. There are number of improvements here:
● It increases the chances of an entering Photon being observed because the volume of
absorbent material is significantly increased.
● Because it makes the junction wider it reduces the capacitance across the junction. The
lower the capacitance of the junction the faster the device response. Increasing the
width of the depletion layer favours current carriage by the drift process which is faster

31
 than the diffusion process. The result is that the addition of the “i” layer increases the
responsivity and decreases the response time of the detector to around a few tens of
picoseconds.

Figure 6.8 Typical silicon P-i-N diode

6.9.3. Schottky diode
During this lecture we concentrate on the device aspect of optical detectors. The sensitivity
of the detector has to be matched with the optical spectrum of incident light. Hence, different
materials have to be applied for different optical communication bands (short, medium or
long wave bdn). However, sometimes itis not possible to realized P-N diodes for a given
wavelength band and/or the performance of the diodes is not sufficient to be applied as a
detector in an optical communication system. One alternative to overcome this limitation
could be a Schottky Barrier Diode. A thin metal layer replaces either the p- or the n-region
of the diode. Depending on the semiconductor and the metal being involved a barrier is
formed at the interface of the two materials. This barrier leads to a bending of the bands.
Due to the applied voltage the bands can be bended more or less. In the region other band
bending electron hole pairs can be separated.

Figure 6.9 Silicon Schottky barrier diode

32
6.9.4. Avalanche photodiode
Avalanche photodiode amplify the signal during the detection process. They use a similar
principle to that of photomultiplier tubes used in nuclear radiation detection.

Figure 6.10 Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)

Methodology of conduction in avalanche photodiode:
● A single Photon acting on the device releases a single electron.
● This electron is accelerated through an electric field until it is strikes target material.
● This collision with the target causes impact ionization which releases multiple
electrons.
● These electrons are then themselves accelerated through the field until they strike
another target.
● This releases more electrons and the process is repeated until the electrons finally hit
a collector element. Avalanche photodiode develop of very high electric field in the
intrinsic region as well as to impart more energy to photoelectrons to produce new
electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. This impact ionization leads to avalanche
breakdown in the reverse biased diode. So, the avalanche photodiode has high
sensitivity and high responsivity over p-i-n diodes due to the avalanche multiplication.

33
 Chapter 7
DISPERSION AND ATTENUATION

Dispersion is the spreading out of a light pulse in time as it propagates down the fiber.
Dispersion in optical fiber includes Intermodal dispersion, material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion. Each type is discussed in detail below.
7.1. Modal dispersion in multimode fiber (intermodal dispersion)
Multimode fibers can guide many different light modes since they have much larger core
size. This is shown as the 1st illustration in the picture above. Each mode enters the fiber at
a different angle and thus travels at different paths in the fiber. Since each mode ray travels
a different distance as it propagates, the ray arrives at different times at the fiber output. So,
the light pulse spreads out in time which can cause signal overlapping so seriously that you
cannot distinguish them anymore. Model dispersion is not a problem in single mode fibers
since there is only one mode that can travel in the fiber.

Figure 7.1 modal dispersion in multimode fiber

7.2. Material dispersion (chromatic dispersion)
Material dispersion is the result of the finite linewidth of the light source and the dependence
of refractive index of the material on wavelength. Material dispersion is a type of chromatic
dispersion. Chromatic dispersion is the pulse spreading that arises because the velocity of
light through a fiber depends on its wavelength.

34
 Figure 7.2 Material dispersion
7.3. Waveguide dispersion
The waveguiding of the fiber may also create chromatic dispersion. This results from the
variation in group velocity with wavelength for a particular mode. Considering the ray
theory approach, it is equivalent to the angle between the ray and the fiber axis varying with
wavelength which subsequently leads to a variation in the transmission times for the rays,
and hence dispersion. For a single mode whose propagation constant is β, the fiber exhibits
waveguide dispersion when d 2β/dλ2≠0. Multimode fibers, where the majority of modes
propagate far from cut off, are almost free of waveguide dispersion and it is generally
negligible compared with material dispersion (≈0.1 to 0.2 ns km-1). However, with single-
mode fibers where the effects of the different dispersion mechanisms are not easy to
separate, waveguide dispersion may be significant.

Figure 7.3 Waveguide dispersion

7.4. Attenuation
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of
the light beam with respect to distance travelled through a transmission medium.
Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due
to relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media.
Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses.
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal attenuation is
defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po). optical input

35
power is injected into the fiber from an optical source. Optical output power received at the
fiber end or optical detector.
Attenuation=(10/L)log10(Pi/Po)
Each mechanism of loss is influenced by fiber-material properties and fiber structure.
However, loss is also present at fiber connections i.e. connector, splice, and couple losses.
7.4.1. Absorption losses
Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
 Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material.
 The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties.
 The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties.
Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing
molecules or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen
molecules into the glass fiber.
7.4.2. Intrinsic absorption
Intrinsic absorption is caused by fiber-material properties. If an optical fiber-material
property.
If an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfection or impurities, then all
absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.
7.4.3. Extrinsic absorption
Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber material. Trace metal
impurities, such as iron, nickel and chromium, OH ions are introduced into the fiber during
fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these metal ions
from one energy level to another.
7.4.4. Light scattering
Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations
within a fibre. Density changes are produced when optical fibres are manufactured. During
manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average
density of the fibre are created. Light travelling through the fibre interacts with the density
areas as shown in light is then partially scattered in all direction.
In commercial fibres operating between 700nm and 1600nm wavelength, the main source
of loss is called Rayleigh scattering as a wavelength increases the loss caused by area
Rayleigh scattering decreases. if the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the
wavelength of light, the scattering mechanisms is called Mie scattering.

36
 Figure 7.4 scattering process
7.4.5. Bending loss
As light travels along the fibre, it is reflected from the interface between the core and
cladding whenever it strays from the path straight down the centre. When the fibre is bent,
the light only stays in the fibre because of this reflection. But the reflection only works if
the angle of incidence is relatively low. If you bend the fibre too much the light escapes.
The amount of allowable bending is specific to particular cables because it depends on the
difference in refractive index, between core and cladding the bigger the difference in
refractive index, the title the allowable bend radius .There is a trade of fair because there are
many other reasons that we would like to keep this difference as small as possible. Two
types of losses are there micro bend loss or macro bend loss.
7.4.5.1. Micro bend loss
Micro bend losses are small microscopic bends of the fibre Axis that occur mainly when a
fibre is cabled. micro bend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfection in the
fibre. External forces are also source of micro bends.

Figure 7.5 micro bend loss

37
7.4.5.2. Macro bend loss
Macro bending losses occur when the fiber cable is subjected to a significant amount of
bending above a critical value of curvature. Such losses are also called as large radius losses.
Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths. This is due to the
energy in the evanescent field at the bend exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and
hence the guidance mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated from
the fiber. The part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend is required to travel faster
than that on the inside so that a wave front perpendicular to the direction of propagation is
maintain Hence, part of the mode in the cladding needs to travel faster than the velocity of
light in that medium. As this is not possible, the energy associated with this part of the mode
is lost through radiation.

Figure 7.6 macro bend loss

The lower curve shows the characteristics of a single-mode fiber made from a glass
containing about 4%of germanium dioxide (GeO2) dopant in the core. The upper curve is
for modern graded index multimode fiber. Attenuation in multimode fiber is higher than in
single-mode because higher levels of dopants are used. The peak at around 1400nm is due
to the effects of traces of water in the glass.

38
 Figure 7.7 Fiber infrared absorption spectrum
To minimize the losses following precautions are taken:
 While manufacturing the cable; a precise control of core diameter is maintained.
 A compressible jacket is fitted over the fiber, so that when the external pressure is
applied then the deformation of jacket takes place and there will not be creation of
micro bends in the core layer of fiber.
 To avoid deterioration in the optical fiber transmission characteristics resulting from
mode-coupling-induced micro bending, it is important that the fiber is free from
irregular external pressure within the cable.
 Carefully controlled coating and cabling of the fiber is therefore essential in order to
minimize the cabled fiber attenuation.
 Furthermore, the fiber cabling must be capable of maintaining this situation under all
the strain and environmental conditions envisaged in its lifetime.

39
 Chapter 8
EQUIPEMENT REQUIRED IN OPTICAL FIBER SPLICES

Optical fiber links, in common with any line communication system, have a requirement for
both jointing and termination of the transmission medium. The number of intermediate fiber
connections or joints is dependent upon the link length, the continuous length of the fiber
cable that may be produced by the preparation methods and the length of the fiber cable that
may be practically installed as a continuous section on the link. It is therefore apparent that
fiber to fiber connection with low loss and minimum distortion (i.e. modal noise) remains
an important aspect of optical fiber communication systems. Before optical fibers splicing
and joining are done certain preparations are made with fiber or fiber cables as case may be
to achieve best results at the end surface. First of all, the protective plastic that covers the
glass cladding is stripped from each fiber end, which is then cleaved with a special tool,
producing a smooth and flat end.
8.1. Fiber Splices
A permanent joint formed between two individuals optical fibers in the field or factory is
known as a fiber splice. Fiber splicing is frequently used to establish long-haul optical fiber
links where smaller fiber lengths need to be joined, and there is no requirement for repeated
connection and disconnection. Splices may be divided into two broad categories depending
upon the splicing technique utilized. These are fusion splicing or welding and mechanical
splicing. Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heating (e.g. by a flame or
an electric arc) at the interface between two butted, realigned fiber ends causing them to
soften and fuse. Mechanical splicing, in which the fibers are held in alignment by some
mechanical means, may be achieved by various methods including the use of tubes around
the fiber ends (tube splices) or V-grooves into which the butted fibers are placed (groove
splices). All these techniques seek to optimize the splice performance (i.e. reduce the
insertion loss at the joint) through both fiber end preparation and alignment of the two joint
fibers. Typical average splice insertion losses for multimode fibers are in the range 0.1
to0.2dB. which is generally a better performance than that exhibited by demountable
connections. It may be noted that the insertion losses of fiber splices are generally much less
than the possible Fresnel reflection loss at a butted fiber–fiber joint. This is because there is
no large step change in refractive index with the fusion splice as it forms a continuous fiber
connection, and some method of index matching (e.g. a fluid) tends to be utilized with

40
mechanical splices. Although fiber splicing (especially fusion splicing) can be a somewhat
difficult process to perform in a field environment, these problems have been overcome
through the development of field-usable equipment.

Figure 8.1 optical fiber end preparation

A requirement with fibers intended for splicing is that they have smooth and square end
faces. In general, this end preparation may be achieved using a suitable tool which cleaves
the fiber as illustrated in Figure. This process is often referred to as scribe and break or
score and break as it involves the scoring of the fiber surface under tension with a cutting
tool (e.g. sapphire, diamond, tungsten carbide blade). The surface scoring creates failure as
the fiber is tensioned and a clean, reasonably square fiber end can be produced. Figure
illustrates this process with the fiber tensioned around a curved mandrel. However, straight
pull, scribe and break tools are also utilized, which arguably give better results. An
alternative technique involves circumferential scoring which provides a controlled method
of lightly scoring around the fiber circumference. In this case the score can be made smooth
and uniform and large-diameter fibers may be prepared by a simple straight pull with end
angles less than 1°.
8.1.1. Fusion Splices
The fusion splicing of single fibers involves the heating of the two prepared fiber ends to
their fusing point with the application of sufficient axial pressure between the two optical
fibers. It is therefore essential that the stripped (of cabling and buffer coating) fiber ends are
adequately positioned and aligned in order to achieve good continuity of the transmission
medium at the junction point. Hence the fibers are usually positioned and clamped with the
aid of an inspection microscope. Flame heating sources such as micro plasma torches (argon
and hydrogen) and oxhydric micro burners (oxygen, hydrogen and alcohol vapor) have been
utilized with some success. However, the most widely used heating source is an electric arc.
This technique offers advantages of consistent, easily controlled heat with adaptability for

41
use under field conditions. A schematic diagram of the basic arc fusion method is given in
Figure illustrating how the two fibers are welded together. shows a development of the basic
arc fusion process which involves the rounding of the fiber ends with a low-energy discharge
before pressing the fibers together and fusing with a stronger arc. This technique, known as
prefusion, removes the requirement for fiber end preparation which has a distinct advantage
in the field environment. It has been utilized with multimode fibers giving average splice
losses of 0.09dB.

Figure 8.2 Electric arc fusion splicing, (a) fusion splicing apparatus

42
 Figure 8.2 (b) schematic illustration of the prefusion method for accurately splicing
optical fibers
Fusion splicing of single-mode fibers with typical core diameters between 5 and 10μm
presents problems of more critical fiber alignment (i.e. lateral offsets of less than 1μm are
required for low-loss joints). However, splice insertion losses below 0.3dB may be achieved
due to a self-alignment phenomenon which partially compensates for any lateral offset. Self-
alignment, illustrated in Figure], is caused by surface tension effects between the two fiber
ends during fusing. An early field trial of single-mode fiber fusion splicing over a 31.6km
link gave mean splice insertion losses of 0.18 and 0.12dB at wavelengths of 1.3 and 1.55μm
respectively. Mean splice losses of only 0.06dB have also been obtained with a fully
automatic single-mode fiber fusion splicing machine.

Figure 8.3 Self-alignment phenomenon which takes place during fusion splicing:
(a) before fusion; (b) during fusion; (c) after fusion
A possible drawback with fusion splicing is that the heat necessary to fuse the fibers may
weaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice. It has been found that even with careful
handling, the tensile strength of the fused fiber may be as low as 30% of that of the uncoated

43
fiber before fusion. The fiber fracture generally occurs in the heat affected zone adjacent to
the fused joint. The reduced tensile strength is attributed to the combined effects of surface
damage caused by handling, surface defect growth during heating and induced residential
stresses due to changes in chemical composition. It is therefore necessary that the completed
splice is packaged so as to reduce tensile loading upon the fiber in the vicinity of the splice.
8.2. Mechanical Splices
A number of mechanical techniques for splicing individual optical fibers have been
developed. A common method involves the use of an accurately produced rigid alignment
tube into which the prepared fiber ends are permanently bonded. This snug tube splice is
illustrated in Figure and may utilize a glass or ceramic capillary with an inner diameter just
large enough to accept the optical fibers. Transparent adhesive (e.g. epoxy resin) is injected
through a transverse bore in the capillary to give mechanical sealing and index matching of
the splice. Average insertion losses as low as 0.1dB have been obtained with multimode
graded index and single-mode fibers using ceramic capillaries. However, in general, snug
tube splices exhibit problems with capillary tolerance requirements. Hence as a commercial
product they may exhibit losses of up to 0.5dB.

Figure 8.4 Techniques for tube splicing of optical fibers: (a) snug tube splice.
(b) loose tube splice utilizing square cross-section capillary
8.2.1. V-grooves splice
Other common mechanical splicing techniques involve the use of grooves to secure the
fibers to be jointed. A simple method utilizes a V-groove into which the two prepared fiber
ends are pressed. The V-groove splice which is illustrated in Figure gives alignment of the
prepared fiber ends through insertion in the groove. The splice is made permanent by
securing the fibers in the V-groove with epoxy resin. Jigs for producing V-groove splices
have proved quite successful, giving joint insertion losses of around 0.1dB. V-groove splices

44
formed by sandwiching the butted fiber ends between a V-groove glass substrate and a flat
glass retainer plate, as shown in Figure 5.9(b), have also proved very successful in the
laboratory. Splice insertion losses of less than 0.01dB when coupling single-mode fibers
have been reported using this technique. However, reservations are expressed regarding the
field implementation of these splices with respect to manufactured fiber geometry, and
housing of the splice in order to avoid additional losses due to local fiber bending.

Figure 8.5 V-groove splice

8.2.2. Spring groove splice
A slightly more complex groove splice known as the Spring groove splice utilized a bracket
containing two cylindrical pins which serve as an alignment guide for the two prepared fiber
ends. The cylindrical pin diameter was chosen to allow the fibers to protrude above the
cylinders, as shown in Figure. An elastic element (a spring) was used to press the fibers into
a groove and maintain the fiber end alignment, as illustrated in Figure 5.11(b). The complete
assembly was secured using a drop of epoxy resin. Mean splice insertion losses of 0.05dB
were obtained using multimode graded index fibers with the Spring groove splice. This
device found practical use in Italy. The aforementioned mechanical splicing methods
employ alignment of the bare fibers, whereas subsequently alignment of secondary elements
around the bare fibers is a technique which has gained favour. Secondary alignment

45
generally gives increased ruggedness and provides a structure that can be ground and
polished for fiber end preparation. Furthermore, with a good design the fiber coating can be
terminated within the secondary element leaving only the fiber end face exposed. Hence
when the fiber end face is polished flat to the secondary element, a very rugged termination
is produced. This technique is particularly advantageous for use in fiber remountable
connectors. However, possible drawbacks with this method include the time taken to make
the termination and the often-increased splice losses.

Figure 8.6 spring groove splice

8.2.3. Mechanical splice for multimode fiber
This device uses precision glass capillary tubes called ferrules as the secondary elements
with an alignment sleeve of metal or plastic into which the glass tubed fibers are inserted.
Normal assembly of the splice using 50μm core diameter fiber yields an average loss of
around 0.2dB.

46
 Figure 8.7 Multimode fiber mechanical splice using glass capillary tubes
8.2.4. Rotatory splice for single mode fiber
Finally, the secondary alignment technique has been employed in the realization of a low-
loss, single-mode fiber mechanical splice which has been used in several large installations
in the United States. This device, known as a single-mode rotary splice, is shown in Figure.
The fibers to be spliced are initially terminated in precision glass capillary tubes which are
designed to make use of the small eccentricity that is present, as illustrated in Figure (a). An
ultraviolet curable adhesive is used to cement the fibers. In the glass tubes and the fiber
terminations are prepared with a simple grinding and polishing operation. Alignment
accuracies of the order of 0.05μm are obtained using the three-glass rod alignment sleeve
shown in Figure 5.13(b). Such alignment accuracies are necessary to obtain low losses as
the mode-field diameter for single-mode fiber is generally in the range 8 to 10μm. The sleeve
has a built-in offset such that when each ferrule is rotated within it, the two circular paths of
the centre of each fiber core cross each other. Excellent alignment is obtained utilizing a
simple algorithm, and strong metal springs provide positive alignment retention. Using
index-matching gel such splices have demonstrated mean losses of 0.03dB with a standard
deviation of 0.018dB. The glass tubes and the fiber terminations are prepared with a simple
grinding and polishing operation. Alignment accuracies of the order of 0.05μm are obtained
using the three-glass rod alignment sleeve shown in Figure 5.13(b). Such alignment
accuracies are necessary to obtain low losses as the mode-field diameter for single-mode
fiber is generally in the range 8 to 10μm. The sleeve has a built-in offset such that when

47
each ferrule is rotated within it, the two circular paths of the centre of each fiber core cross
each other. Excellent alignment is obtained utilizing a simple algorithm, and strong metal
springs provide positive alignment retention. Using index-matching gel such splices have
demonstrated mean losses of 0.03dB with a standard deviation of 0.018dB

Figure 8.8 Rotary splice for single-mode fibers, (a) alignment technique
using glass ferrules, (b) glass rod alignment sleeve

8.3. Multiple Splices

Multiple simultaneous fusion splicing of an array of fibers in a ribbon cable has been
demonstrated for both multimode and single-mode fibers. In both cases a 12-fiber ribbon
was prepared by scoring and breaking prior to pressing the fiber ends onto a contact plate to
avoid difficulties with varying gaps between the fibers to be fused. An electric is fusing
device was then employed to provide simultaneous fusion. Such a device is now
commercially available to allow the splicing of 12 fibers simultaneously in a time of around
6 minutes, which requires only 30 seconds per splice. Splice losses using this device with
multimode graded index fiber range from an average of 0.04dB to a maximum of 0.12dB,
whereas for single-mode fiber the average loss is 0.04dB with a 0.4dB maximum. A simple
technique employed for multiple simultaneous splicing involves mechanical splicing of an
array of fibers, usually in a ribbon cable. The V-groove multiple-splice secondary element
comprising etched silicon chips has been used extensively in the United States for splicing
multimode fibers. In this technique a 12-fiber splice is prepared by stripping the ribbon and
coating material from the fibers.

48
 Figure 8.9 Multiple-fiber splicing using a silicon chip array
Then the 12 fibers are laid into the trapezoidal grooves of a silicon chip using a comb
structure, as shown in Figure 5.14. The top silicon chip is then positioned prior to applying
epoxy to the chip–ribbon interface. Finally, after curing, the front-end face is ground and
polished. The process is normally carried out in the factory and the arrays are clipped
together in the field, putting index-matching silica gel between the fiber ends. The average
splice loss obtained with this technique in the field is 0.12dB, with the majority of the loss
resulting from intrinsic fiber mismatch. Major advantages of this method are the substantial
reduction in splicing time (by more than a factor of 10) per fiber and the increased robustness
of the final connection. Although early array splicing investigations using silicon chips
demonstrated the feasibility of connecting 12 ×12 fiber arrays, in practice only single 12-
fiber ribbons have been spliced at one time due to concerns in relation to splice tolerance
and the large number of telecommunication channels which would be present in the two-
dimensional array. An alternative V-groove flat chip moulded from a glass-filled polymer
resin has been employed in France. Moreover, direct mass splicing of 12-fiber ribbons has
also been accomplished. In this technique simultaneous end preparation of all 24 fibers was
achieved using a ribbon grinding and polishing procedure. The ribbons were then laid in
guides and all 12 fibers were positioned in grooves in the glass-filled plastic substrate shown
in Figure 5.15. A vacuum technique was used to hold the fibers in position while the cover
plate was applied, and spring clips were used to hold the assembly together. Index-matching

49
gel was applied through a hole in the cover plate giving average splice losses of 0.18dB with
multimode fiber.

Figure 8.10 Splicing of V-groove polymer resin ribbon fiber

8.4. Equipment Required for Fiber Splices

1. Optical fiber fusion splicer specification (splicer machine)
 AC input – 100 to 240v, frequency – 50/60Hz.
 DC input 12v/aA.
2. Fiber cutter
 It converts irregular shaped fiber end into smooth & flat end.
3. Chemicals used in OFC joint
 HAXENE: To remove jelly from the fiber.
 ACETONE: For cleaning the OFC.
 ISO PROPENOT: For smoothness of optical glass.
4. Sleeve: - To enclose fiber joint.
5. Tool kit.
6. Joint kit.

50
  Joint enclosure.
 Buffer.
 Adhesive tape.
7. Generator/12V Battery.
8. Cotton clothes for fiber cleaning.

51
 Chapter 9
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

9.1. Applications
We know that optical fibre are thin strands of glass and the core uses of optical fibre includes
transmission of information in the form of light. The use of optical fibres has genuinely
proved to be beneficial compared to the traditional use of metallic wires.
The application and uses of optical fibre can be seen in:
Medical Industry
Communication
Defence
Industries
Broadcasting
Lighting and Decorations
Mechanical Inspections
The application of optical fibres in various fields are given below:
Optical Fibres uses in Medical industry
Because of the extremely thin and flexible nature, it used in various instruments to view
internal body parts by inserting into hollow spaces in the body. It is used as lasers during
surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy and biomedical research.
Optical Fibres used in Communication
In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of optical fibre cables for
transmitting and receiving purposes. It is used in various networking fields and even
increases the speed and accuracy of the transmission data. Compared to copper wires, fibre
optics cables are lighter, more flexible and carry more data.
Optical Fibres used in Defence Purpose
Fibre optics are used for data transmission in high level data security fields of military and
aerospace applications. These are used in wirings in aircrafts, hydrophones for SONARs
and Seismic applications.
Optical Fibres are used in Industries
These fibres are used for imaging in hard to reach places such as they are used for safety
measures and lighting purposes in automobiles both in the interior and exterior. They

52
transmit information in lightning speed and are used in airbags and traction control. They
are also used for research and testing purposes in industries.
Optical Fibres used for Broadcasting
These cables are used to transmit high definition television signals which has a greater
bandwidth and speed. Optical Fibre is cheaper compared to same quantity of copper wires.
Broadcasting companies use optical fibres for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-on demand and
many applications.
Uses of Optical Fibre for Lightening and Decorations
By now, we got a fair idea of what is optical fibre and it also gives an attractive, economical
and easy way to illuminate the area and that is why, it is widely used in decorations and
Christmas trees.
Optical Fibres used in Mechanical Inspections
On-site inspection engineers use optical fibres to detect damages and faults which are at
hard to reach places. Even plumbers use optical fibres for inspection of pipes.
9.2. Limitations of Optical Fiber
1. Optical Fiber cables have limited bend radius (about 30 mm). So, if they are bent more,
it might lead to some signal loss. But recently, bend resistant fibers have been introduced
which have higher tolerance to bending.
2. Copper UTP cables can carry data as well as power. Some POE enabled IP devices like
IP Phones, Wireless Access Points etc are powered directly using the UTP Cables/ POE
switches. This, is not supported by the optical fiber cables as they carry only data.
3. Unlike Copper UTP cables which have standard Rj-45 Jacks and connectors (mostly),
optical fiber cables have many types of connectors and this lack of standardization adds
confusion.
4. By bending the normal optical fiber cables, some leakage of signal could be induced and
that can be used for hacking the information in them. So, even though doing that might be
difficult, they are not totally tamper proof.
4. Single mode cables and their associated optics (active components) are very expensive.
Even though multi-mode cables/ optics are less expensive, they are not even close to the
costs of copper UTP cables/ ports. Moreover, multi-mode cables have restrictions in
distance for supporting higher bandwidth (like 1 Gbps and 10 Gbps).
5. There are outdoor fiber cables but they need to be shielded well. This shielding makes
them less agile/ flexible to run in all the places and it increases the cost of cables as well.

53
6. Fiber cables cannot be directly terminated on to the network/ optical switches. They need
a whole array of active/ passive components like SFP Modules, Fiber Patch Cords,
appropriate connectors, Fiber Patch Panel (LIU), Pigtails and Couplers. All these
components add the cost of fiber network implementation at each location.
7. Each Core of the Optical Fiber cable needs to be spliced in order to complete the
connection to the network/optical switch. Both the splicing equipment and the cost of
installation (for splicing) per core is quite high.
8.Fiber splicing is a complicated procedure and requires skilled manpower to achieve. If it
is not done properly, there will be performance degradation.
9. An outdoor shielded fiber cable cannot just be laid in a trench. It requires, at minimum,
external HDPE pipe surrounding it over the entire length, bricks/ concrete slabs over the
fiber cable/ HDPE pipe also extending the entire length through which they are laid,
outdoors. This, no need to mention, further increases the cost.
9.3. Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication
1. Optical Fiber Cables can run massive distances like 40 KM or much more (Single Mode
Fiber Cables) without having to repeat the signal anywhere in-between.
2. Normally, the Optical Fiber Cables do not have speed limits or bandwidth limitations.
They can support any speed/ bandwidth depending only on the type of optics (active
components) used at either end. But the distance over which they can support such speeds
varies for each fiber material.
3. Its normally enough to replace the optics (active components) at either end in order to
upgrade the fiber communication to support higher bandwidths. There is no need to change
all the underlying cabling.
4.Optical Fiber Cables support duplex communications (simultaneous upstream and
downstream), but they use two cores for doing so. One core is used for Transmission (Tx)
and the other core is used for Reception (Rx).
5.Optical Fiber Cables are flexible and can be laid both within the buildings (Indoor Fiber
Cables) and outside the buildings (Shielded Fiber Cables). In most of the cases, they are
buried under the ground (with a depth of minimum 3 feet) using a Trench and protective
materials.
6.Multiple cores are built into each optical fiber cable (like 6/12/24 cores) and hence each
optical cable can support multiple individual connections (3/6/12).
7.Optical Fiber Cables are not affected by EMI – Electromagnetic Interference as they carry
light, and hence can be used even for the most demanding industrial applications.

54
8.They can also be used in lightning prone areas as they do not carry the electrical signals
as such to affect switch ports, etc during a lightning.
9. The danger of ignition during a fire is much less with optical fiber cables.
10.There are optical taps that can be inserted in-between long running optical cables. There
are two types of taps – Passive optical taps that do not require electrical power and are used
for simple monitoring of OFC networks & Active optical taps that require electrical power
and are used for manipulation or boosting of signals sent to the monitoring port.
11. The low cost 850 nm Laser optimized 50/125 micro meter Multi-Mode Fiber (OM3
type) gives 10 GE performance for up to 300 meters. The optics associated with it are also
moderately priced. So, these fibers can be used in the enterprise LAN segment for short
distances, where the single mode optics might turn out more expensive. OM4 Laser
Optimized Multi-Mode Fiber supports even higher bandwidths like 40/100 Gbps.
12. Even if many fibers run alongside each other, the chances of cross talk (and hence signal
loss) is very less, unlike Copper UTP Cables.
13.Wiretapping with Optical Fiber Cables is more difficult.
14. Optical Fiber Cables (Especially Passive Optical Networks) are used for providing high
speed broadband to homes, these days (FTTH).
15. Trouble shooting an Optical Fiber Network is possible with equipment’s like the OTDR
Tester (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer). Using this, one could measure the optical
power loss and locate the faults caused due to fiber breaks, connectors or splicing.

55
 Chapter 10
CONCLUSION

The age of optical communications is a new era. In several ways fiber optics is a pivotal
breakthrough from the electric communication we have been accustomed to. Instead of
electrons moving back and forth over a regular copper or metallic wire to carry signals, light
waves navigate tiny fibres of glass or plastic to accomplish the same purpose. With a
bandwidth and information capacity a thousand times greater than that of copper circuits,
fiber optics may soon provide us with all the communication technology we could want in
a lifetime, at a cost-efficient price. At present there are many optical fiber communication
links throughout the world without using optical soutions. When we introduce optical
solutions as light pulses through the fibers, we can achieve high quality telecommunication
at a lower cost. We can expect a great revolution in optical fiber communication within a
few years by means of solutions.

56
 Chapter 11
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