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Intioduction
motives from the utility’s point of view are discussed. This that operational aspects in a
wide sense must be understood as g the different investment factors that affect the
introduction
1a : wet oder energy control systems. The following three chapters provide
autonomous and easily understandable description and discussion of he technological
basic elements in this field. In chapter 3, the rvisory and control functions are defined. The
operator and the an-machine communication part of such systems are treated in chapter ll,
followed by general configuration aspects for the whole system.
supe
The second half of the book is deeper and more detailed. Chapter 6 prings UP system
performance and reliability considerations which are yery important in control systems
controlling a complex and dynamic process: The chapter deals with real-time aspects,
concerning both hardware and software engineering, which are important under different
circumstances such as disturbances in the power system itself. With this aS a background,
chapter 7 describes in a detailed way the state-of-the-art of the technology today. This
means that various realizations are outlined. Chapter 8, is devoted to the power system
oriented application functions, which establish the go~called energy management systems.
‘The difficulty in going from ordinary SCADA functions up to EMS functions in a real-time
environment is discussed in detail and followed by a review of the whole application
function area. Chapters 6 to 8 form the main body of this book.
In chapter 9 a number of control systems in operation are described, mainly to illustrate
what has been said earlier. The book is terminated by chapter 10, which tries to look into
the future and find factors that will influence the control system design and technology of
tomorrow.
Z. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL: WHY?
ae
Faced by an increasingly complicated existence, the power utilities need efficient tools and
aids to ensure that electrical energy of the desired quality can be provided at the lowest
cost. The overall objective, both for short-term and long-term operations, is then to find the
best compromise between the requirements of security and economy. This means that the
operation may be characterized by three independent objectives: quality, security and
economy.
Quality is normally described by means of an accepted voltage profile (level and amount of
flicker) and frequency (setpoint with a narrow band and a threshold for the time delay) of
the delivered electric power.
Security is much more difficult to describe in quantitative terms. There are normally
certain rules in utilities and powerpools concerning power system balance, network
operation etc. in order to successfully take care of some predefined disturbances.
Economy consists of two parts: the investment part of apparatus, control systems and so
on, and the running cost for the whole power system.
No ideal combination of the three above-mentioned objectives exists. The optimal
combination is unique for every utility. The objectives of security and economy are even
contradictory because of obvious reasons. To keep the objectives on reasonable levels it is
a must today to take advanced control systems into service.
This book is not intended to be a textbook on the operation of power systems. However, to
understand fully the developing control center technology there is a need for a brief outline
of the task facing the utility and its dispatchers. Therefore, this chapter will first describe
the objectives and functions carried through in short term operation planning and daily
operation.
The organizational needs and the activities in a control center are also discussed to some
extent. Some aspects on the investment in computer-based control systems are elucidated
and the benefits gained are examined. Finally, some general remarks on the experience of
control centers are given.
4 9 ration of power systems 2.1 Ope
e is no one way of determining the operation of a power system, Te each power system has
its own characteristics in terms of myctiONs transmission, distribution and consumption.
‘The ryyiiarities of the equipment as well as physical and legally imposed Peastraints also
vary to'a great extent. Nevertheless, the activities
in a control center follow strict rules developed by each utility.
the system operation aspects directly influencing the control center can be split into three
groups, reflecting the time horizon:
Operations planning in the short term, from a few hours up to a
° few months. The operations planning then involves both planning of production
resources utilization and load forecasting as well as keeping the personnel aware of
possible contingencies in the system, i.e. training.
o Instantaneous operation. This involves monitoring of power
generation, loads and voltages as well as checking/reacting to transgressions of thresholds,
protection system action and equipment failures. Rearranging of production utilization and
transmission system is done by proper control actions.
o Operations reporting and direct follow-up of disturbances. The reporting is done to
create of statistical data used as input for planning as well as for accounting purposes.
Disturbance recording gives the basis for the primary fault location and for fast restoration.
Furthermore, the actual operation of a power system can exist in one of four operating
modes or states. These are shown in Figure 2.1, and are the normat state, the alert state, in
which some disturbance has occurred, thetemergency state and the restorative state. The
overall goal for the’ operation is to keep the normal state as long as possible. This is
achieved by detecting a movement against the alert state as soon as possible so that the
power system can quickly be brought back to the normal state again. If the power system
collapses the restoration must be smooth and fast.
Let us now discuss in some more detail the functions of planning, operation and reporting
of the power system and then consider the four modes of operation and their influence on
the control center. The
‘operations planning in the control center is done primarily on a
short-term basis. The intention is to minimize the system production cost by scheduling the
generation, taking into account forecasted system loads, bus ioads and the ;desired
commitment of production units. The expected power exchange with other producers of
electric energy is then also considered.
Restorative
Figure 2.1 The four modes of operation.
The load forecasting is normally done first on a yearly basis and is then broken down into
smaller time segments, e.g. month, week and finally an hourly forecast. The complete
forecast then involves many input sources, e.g. knowledge about economical and
industrial/private trends in the society, contacts with local distributors and big consumers,
weather forecasts ete. The breakdown into smaller time segments is often caused by the
statistical behaviour of the weather.
The minimizing of system production cost is highly dependent on the available energy
resources and the mix of plants in the system, e.g. hydro and/or thermal, coal-fired and/or
nuclear ete. In a purely thermal power system the production cost is mainly a function of
plant efficiency and fuel cost, as long as fuel is available. If the operation is accomplished
with minimum cost at each moment the optimal result is automatically achieved. However,
in a mixed system with a majority part of hydro generation, the minimizing is more
complicated. Basically, the "fuel" cost of hydro power is zero. The problem is that the
supply is limited and uncertain in volume and. distribution in time, due to precipitation
conditions. Once an inflow volume has reached a reservoir it must be decided at what time
it shall be used for electric energy production. The minimized cost for a mixed system is
obviously achieved by using water resources to the full extent when available and keeping
thermal resources to a minimum.
In addition to this basic cost minimization a variety of constraints are involved, e.g.:
o toad distribution and network limitations o -Maintenance schedules
o Power capacity restrictions
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