Origin of the Universe & Solar System

The Origin of the Universe
ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to state the different hypotheses
explaining the origin of the universe specifically, the Big Bang Theory, the
Steady State Theory, and the Oscillating Universe Theory.
Learn about it!

Big Bang Theory
The most accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang
Theory. Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is considered as the first proponent
of the Big Bang Theory. The theory was supported by other scientists such as
Edwin Hubble, Arno Penzias, and Robert Wilson who presented pieces of
evidence to support it.
The Big Bang theory states that the universe started as a “singularity” that is
an area predicted to be in the core of a black hole with a very high temperature
and density, which compressed matter with its intense gravitational pressure.
The presence of the singularity is still a mystery to many scientists, but they
stated that this singularity constantly expands and cools. The rate of
expansion is almost equal to the rate of cooling, but within this moment of
expansion and cooling, the intense heat becomes present, which leads to the
increased expansion of the singularity.
The intense heat also leads to the creation of matter and antimatter that are
being destroyed every time they collide with each other. During this moment,
the number of matter dominates over the number of the antimatter and starts
the dominance of matter, or atomic particles, in the early universe. These
atomic particles undergo nucleosynthesis wherein atomic particles combine to
form another atomic particle.
Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and

helium. These chemicals then lead to the formation of stars and galaxies. The
presence of the stars leads to the formation of larger matter such as planets,
comets, and other celestial bodies. Ever since the Big Bang happened, the
universe continually expands, and the occurrence of the cosmic background
radiation was suggested to be an aftermath of the explosion that happened
twenty billion years ago.
Steady State Theory
The Steady State Theory proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred
Hoyle, suggests that the universe has always been there and will always be
present. It suggests that the universe always looks the same in any time or
space but continuously expands while simultaneously creating matter, which
maintains the density of the universe, hence the name Steady State. This
theory is so simple that it was widely accepted before the proposal of the Big
Bang Theory. The discovery of cosmic background radiation significantly
supported the explanations given by the Big Bang Theory, which led many
scientists to reject the Steady State Theory. This theory first explained that
cosmic background radiation is a result of a supernova, but after thorough
research, it was proven that it is equal in any direction of the universe and
could not be only a result of many supernovae.
Oscillating Universe Theory
The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory,

discusses that the universe is expanding and will contract once all the energy
after the Big Bang is used up. This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be
described as the combination of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch. The Big
Crunch occurs when the universe expands, as described in the Big Bang, and
then reverses and starts to collapse. The Oscillating Universe Theory suggests
that once the universe reverses and attains the point of singularity, another
universe will be born, and this is referred to as the Big Bounce. Tolman
theorized that the universe may be first in the cycle and could be a result of a
previous Big Bounce event.
Just like the Steady State Theory, scientists discovered many loopholes in the
Oscillating Universe Theory because it was said that for the universe to
collapse, energy must be present. This theory suggests that the universe will
collapse on its own after it reaches its full expansion, which violates some
laws of physics.
Explore
Aside from the theories discussed in this lesson, what other theories can you
suggest to explain the origin of the universe? You may use the internet to
search for other theories.
Try it!
Choose one of the theories about the origin of the universe. Create a concept
map illustrating the events that happen in the universe as explained by that
theory.
What do you think?

Do you think the universe has a beginning or has it always existed? Explain
your answer.
Key Points
 Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity that
exploded. This explosion resulted to the formation of all the matter in
universe.
 Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always been there
and will always be present.
 Oscillating Universe Theory discusses that the universe is expanding and
will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. The
collapsing of the universe will then lead to the formation of a new
universe.
The Origin of the Solar System

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the different hypotheses
explaining the origin of the Solar System, specifically the Nebular Theory, the
Encounter Theory, and the Protoplanet Theory.
The Solar System is composed of the Sun, the planets and its satellites, the
comets, and the asteroids. It is believed that the solar system has been formed
4.6 billion years ago and the evidence suggests that the members of the solar
system have a fairly uniform age.
Learn about it!

Nebular Theory
The nebular theory explains that the solar system originated from a nebula – a
gas cloud made up of hydrogen particles. Before, the nebula is stable, but it is
believed that a nearby supernova resulted in the disruption of the nebula. This
disruption created areas of high density, and as these areas were formed,
gravity acted, pulling other materials to it. The denser the nebula became, the
more heat it produced and resulted in the formation of the sun.
At first, the sun looked like a disc (imagine a CD), as it rotates, most of its
mass fused in the center. As the sun forms, the remaining particles that were
not suck up by the sun formed as rings. These rings of particles rotated and the
particles combined to form planets. As it forms, the denser materials, such as
iron and nickel, sank and the less dense materials, such as gases, floated to
the atmosphere of the formed planets.
Terrestrial planets, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, are formed near
the Sun because the gases are blasted away from it as it gets hotter. On the
other hand, the Jovian planets, composed of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune, are planets made up of gases without a land surface. These planets
are formed farther from the Sun since the gases at that distance condensed,
forming the Jovian planets. The origins of this theory can be credited
to Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre – Simon Laplace.
Encounter Theory
The Encounter Theory, proposed by Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon,

explains that the solar system formed as a result of a near collision between a
passing star and the Sun. As the star passes near the Sun, materials of both
the Sun and the star were drawn out. Interaction from the gravity of the
passing star and the Sun led to the formation of the planets in the Solar
System. It is believed that the materials from the Sun are denser. This explains
the positions of the terrestrial planets near the Sun. In contrast, the materials
from the passing star are less dense. This explains the positions of the Jovian
planets at a distance from the Sun.
Protoplanet Theory
The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. Just

like the nebular theory, protoplanetary theorists Carl von
Weizsacker and Gerard Kuiper believed that the Solar System started from a
nebula. An unidentified instability resulted to pulling together of dust particles
with each other that led to the formation of “planetesimals” – objects made up
of dust and rock particles believed to be the origin of planets. Planetesimals
combined with other planetesimals and formed protoplanets – larger
planetesimals. As the protoplanets are formed, like the Sun, it becomes larger
as other materials condense with it until the fusion of hydrogen and helium
happened. This fusion led to the production of the heat of the Sun and resulted
to the blasting off of protoplanets made up of gas. Smaller protoplanets are
attracted by the gravity of larger protoplanets and make it larger up to the
point that it will become the planets as we know it.
Try it!
Based on the theories about the origin of the solar system, draw a series of
visualizations to show the events that happened in the formation of our Solar
System.
What do you think?

After learning about the theories explaining the origin of the solar system,
what theory do you believe the most? Explain your answer.
Key Points
 The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated from a
nebula that was disrupted by a nearby supernova.
 The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed as a result
of a near collision between a passing star and the Sun.
 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis

stating that the Solar System started from a nebula that was disrupted
which led to the formation of protoplanets.
Earth: The Living Planet

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the different
characteristics of the earth necessary for the growth and survival of life.
Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most

complex life forms including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we lived
in is a rare planet; the only planet in our Solar System that permits life. The
different characteristics of Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life.
Learn about it!
Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350
ppm carbon dioxide, and other components. The table below shows the major
components in the atmosphere and their relative concentration
(Source:http://www.ucar.edu/communications/gcip/m7sssystem/m7pdfc3.pdf).
The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon
dioxide is used by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to
convert the energy from the sun to usable energy through the process of
photosynthesis. The oxygen makes it livable for living organisms including
humans for respiration and for our cells to function.
Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation. Thirty percent of
the radiation is reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's
surface. Another 25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, and the
remaining 45% is absorbed by the earth’s surface. Ozone or O3O3 is composed
of three oxygen atoms. In the stratosphere, O3O3 is abundant in the form of the
ozone layer. This layer absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths, and the absorption
of this radiation heats up the air.
Soil and Vegetation
The soil is composed of mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and
organisms. It is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of
vegetation. The soil promotes growth for plants by providing nutrients, water,
and as a substrate for anchorage of roots. In return, vegetation produces trees
and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and prevents soil and
wind erosion. This mutual relationship of the soil and vegetation makes our
planet livable.
Earth’s Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor.
Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface is the sea or the ocean. The ocean
houses many species of marine life and diverse mineral resources. Other forms
of water include river, streams, and lakes. Other than being a water reservoir,
these forms of water are all sources of fish and shellfish that we consume.
They also serve as thermostat and heat reservoir, especially the ocean. They
also serve as ways for transportation.
Explore!
Imagine that you have a garden. Get one plant that could fit in a pot but do not
put soil when you transfer it. Put the plant inside a box and leave it for one
week. What do you think will happen to the plant? How would you relate this
scenario with the different characteristics of the Earth?
Try it!
Research about the characteristics of other planets in the Solar System which
make them unfit for growth and life.
What do you think?

Are the characteristics of the earth interrelated with one another? If yes, how
do they affect each other?
Key Points
 The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon,
350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other components.
 The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide makes Earth habitable.
 Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation.
 The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of

vegetation.
 The hydrosphere serves as a water reservoir, a source of fish and
shellfish that we consume, a thermostat and heat reservoir, and a way for
transportation.
Earth: The Four Subsystems

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to explain that the Earth consists of
four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and energy flow.
The four subsystems of the Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere,
and biosphere.
What are the characteristics of these four subsystems?
Learn about it!

The Earth is comprised of four major subsystems. These subsystems are also
called the “spheres of the Earth.” They are atmosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Atmosphere
The word atmosphere comes from the Greek roots atmos which means gas,
and sphairawhich means globe or ball. The atmosphere makes up of all the
gases on Earth. It extends outward about 10 000 km from the surface of the
Earth. It is composed of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm
carbon dioxide, and other components.
The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,

thermosphere, and exosphere.
 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is

the lowest layer where the weather forms.
 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The
ozone layer that protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is
found in this layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It
protects the Earth from the impact of space debris.
 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has

charged particles that are affected by the Earth's magnetic field. The
particles create the Auroras or Northern and Southern lights.
 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above

the Earth's surface.
Geosphere
Geo is a Greek root which means ground. Geosphere includes all the soil,
rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It is divided
into three layers namely crust, mantle, and core.
The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It is made mostly of silicate
materials. There are two different types of crust, the oceanic and continental
crusts. The thin oceanic crust that lies beneath the oceanic floors is about 5 to
10 km thick. On the other hand, the thicker continental crust that makes up the
continents is about 15 to 70 km thick.
The mantle, which lies just below the crust, is made mostly of silicate rocks
rich in magnesium and iron. It is about 2900 km thick. It has increasing
temperatures at increasing depths. For instance, the layer with the lowest
temperature is the one right beneath the crust. This layer, which is soft enough
to flow, causes the plates of the crust to move. On the other hand, the layer
with the highest temperature is found in contact with the heat-producing core.
The core, which has a radius of 3400 km, is the innermost layer of the Earth. It
is made up of iron and nickel. It is the source of internal heat because it
contains radioactive materials that release energy as they decay into more
stable substances.
Hydrosphere
Hydro is a Greek root which means water. Hydrosphere is composed of all the
water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice. It is comprised of
97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater. It includes all bodies of water such as
oceans, lakes, rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also part of the
hydrosphere.
The water on Earth is constantly moving. It moves through the oceans in

currents. Warm waters in the tropics move toward the poles while cold water
from the polar regions move toward the tropics. Water also flows into streams
and rivers and through the rocks underground. It can also move from the
Earth’s surface to the air by evaporation and then fall back to Earth as
precipitation. It even moves into and out of the bodies of organisms.
Biosphere
Bio is a Greek root that means life. The biosphere is comprised of all living
things. It includes all microbes, plants, and animals. It extends to the upper
areas of the atmosphere where insects and birds can be found. It also reaches
the deep parts of the oceans where marine organisms can still survive.
Organisms interact with the other spheres to survive. Many organisms need
oxygen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to carry out life processes.
Water, which comprises the hydrosphere, is also important to organisms. The
rocks, soil, and minerals comprising the geosphere also support life
How the Earth’s Subsystems Interact
Matter and energy cycle between the four different subsystems. These cycles
make life on Earth possible. An example of these cycles is the water cycle.
Water moves between the different spheres. It absorbs, releases, and
transports energy around the world in its different forms.
What will happen if matter or energy does not change from one form to
another?
For example, what if water vapor does not fall back to the Earth as rain? Then
the bodies of water will be drained, and no life on Earth will exist.
Tips
Some of the components in the subsystems overlap. The most common
example is the soil which can be considered as a part of hydrosphere,
geosphere, and even biosphere. Since the soil is a complex material made up of
air, soil particles, water, and organisms, it underscores that a clear division
among subsystems cannot be drawn.
Explore
Imagine that you are part of NASA’s special mission and you are tasked to
discuss the things needed to replicate the Earth’s system in another planet.
What are the things necessary to enable life in that planet?
What do you think?

What is the importance of studying the interactions among the four
subsystems?
Key Points
 The four subsystems of Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 Atmosphere makes up of all the gases in our planet.
 Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust
to the core of the Earth.
 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water

vapor, liquid water, and ice.
 Biosphere is comprised of all living things and the areas where they are
found. It includes all microbes, plants, and animals.
 Matter and energy cycle between the four different subsystems to make
life on Earth possible.
Advancements on the Solar System

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the current
advancements and information on the Solar System.
With the vastness of our Solar System, how far does the human race reach?
Learn about it!
Pluto's Status
In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the Solar
System. However, the discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that
contains asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies) questioned the status
of Pluto as a planet.
 In 2005, Eris, a Kuiper Belt object, was discovered to be 10 percent bigger
than Pluto.
 At first, Eris was suggested as the tenth planet in the Solar System.
 Its incapability to clear its orbit due to lack of gravity led to classify it as
a dwarf planet together with Pluto. Other dwarf planets are Ceres in the
Asteroid Belt and Makemake and Haumea both in the Kuiper Belt.
 Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that orbit the sun, have enough mass
to assume a nearly round shape, and have not cleared its orbit due to lack
of gravity.
Planet X
However, recent observations by two astronomers, Mike Brown and Konstantin
Batygin, led to the speculation that a ninth planet is present in our Solar
System. They discovered six clustered objects in the Kuiper Belt and stated
that this clustering is due to the presence of a planet enough to put them in
place. Calculations and observations have been done to claim that a Planet
X exists. However, other astronomers stated that until it is seen, the claim for
the ninth planet in our Solar System is still in question.
Learn about it!
Mars Rover Mission

Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to examine the
nearest planet to Earth, Mars. They examined materials of Mars’ lithosphere
and assessed if the weather condition is viable for the survival of life.
Its mission was focused on the physical characteristics of the planet. It aimed
to collect data on how the planet formed its rocks and soil and whether or not
water has been responsible for the weathering and erosion of rocks. The rovers
examined the rocks and analyzed that it had sedimentary rocks that can be
formed if rocks are soaked for a long time in the water.
Based on the data collected, scientists believe that Mars had water in the past,
and this water sustained some microorganisms.
Since January 2014, rovers started digging for fossilized evidence of ancient
life.
Mars One Program

The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and establish a
human colony on that planet by 2027.
In 2014, the program chose astronauts that will be sent to Mars. Plans of
landing rovers and establishing communication satellites were also formulated.
The target is that by the year 2022, the first crew will start its travel to Mars
and will reach it after a year, and by 2035, the colony will have twenty crew and
will be able to sustain itself.
Titan’s Water
Titan is Saturn’s largest moon. Astronomers studying the Titan’s composition
lead to the discovery that liquid substance is present on the moon in the form
of liquid methane. Below is an image that was taken from the shutter-snapping
Cassini spacecraft which shows the most detailed look at one of the famous
lakes on the surface of Titan.
The discovery of Titan has been a breakthrough since it is the only known
celestial body in our Solar System that has liquid substance on it, aside from
Earth.
It was also discovered that the Titan is undergoing chemical processes, the
same processes that the Early Earth have undergone. If the Sun became large
enough, it will receive the same amount of solar energy we are receiving, thus,
making the possibility for life’s survival possible.
Explore!
Imagine yourself traveling as an astronaut. What are the other things that you
want to discover to contribute to the new advancements about our Solar
System?
Try it!
Research about other new discoveries that made an impact in the history of
our Solar System.
What do you think?

What are the things you are looking forward to being discovered in our
universe?
Key Points
 In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the Solar
System.
 The discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that contains
asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies) questioned the status of
the Pluto as a planet.
 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to

examine Mars.
 Materials on Mars’ lithosphere were examined and the weather condition

was assessed to gauge whether it is viable for the survival of life.
 The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and
establish a human colony on that planet by 2027.
 Studying the Titan’s composition lead to the discovery that liquid

substance is present on the moon in the form of liquid methane.
Contributors in Understanding the Earth Systems

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to show the contributions of
personalities/people to the understanding of the earth systems.
Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers
interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” – atmosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is a relatively new field whose foundations are
established long ago by scientists in other fields.
Who are the scientists who contributed to the understanding of the Earth
system?
Learn about it!
Earth System Science

Earth System Science is an integration of chemistry, physics, biology, and
mathematics. It is the study of the Earth as an integrated system. It seeks to
understand the past, current, and future states of the Earth.
Many scientists had built the foundations of understanding the Earth systems.
They include James Hutton, Alexander von Humboldt, Vladimir Vernadsky,
James Lovelock, and Lynn Margulis.
James Hutton
James Hutton, the father of modern geology, was a Scottish farmer and
naturalist. It was in farming that he observed how land was shaped by
destructive forces of wind and weather systems. He described how the Earth
was formed in a repeated cycle of erosion and sedimentation, with heat from
volcanic activity as the driving force. He also introduced the concept
of uniformitarianism, implying that the geological forces (such as those that
trigger erosion and volcanic activities) in the past are the same as those in the
present, making it possible to determine the Earth's history by studying rocks.
Alexander von Humboldt

Alexander von Humboldt, a 19th-century geographer, helped establish the
foundation for Earth System Science through his observations of nature. He,
together with his colleagues, traveled to America; collected botanical,
zoological, and geological specimens; recorded the location of the specimens
where they were found; and performed atmospheric and geophysical
measurements. From his records, he recognized patterns that reveal underlying
processes, such as the transport of heat in ocean currents and the influence of
temperature on plants.
Vladimir Vernadsky
Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the
term noosphere. In his theory of Earth development, he stated that geosphere
was the first phase of the Earth that was developed. The second phase was the
biosphere or biological life. The emergence of life on Earth transformed the
geosphere. Then the noosphere, the sphere of human consciousness, is the
third phase. The development of human cognition then transformed the
biosphere.
Today, the study of human impact on the biosphere led to the concept
of sustainability, which is the capacity of the Earth to continue to support
human life.
James Lovelock
James Lovelock, a British environmentalist, proposed the Gaia hypothesis,
which postulates that the Earth works as a self-regulating system. He stated
that the living organisms co-evolve with nonliving things in the environment to
form a synergistic, self-regulating system where life is maintained and
perpetuated. He cited as evidence the photosynthetic bacteria during the
Precambrian times. The bacteria modified the Earth’s atmosphere to become
oxygen-enriched. The change in the atmosphere then supported the evolution
of more complex organisms.
Lynn Margulis
Lynn Margulis, an evolutionary theorist, further developed Lovelock’s Gaia
hypothesis. Margulis noticed that all kinds of bacteria give off gases and
thought that atmospheric gases were from biological sources. She collaborated
with Lovelock and published a paper on how life regulates the temperature and
chemical composition of the soil and the atmosphere.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

The major landmark in the formal development of the Earth System Science
was the formation of the Earth System Science Committee in NASA in 1983.
NASA began to study components of the Earth system, their linkages,
dependencies, and fluxes.
Scientists from NASA conduct the Earth Science Program with a purpose of
understanding the Earth system by using satellites for long-term observations.
By viewing the Earth from space, they have studied how the planet is changing
in response to human influences. For instance, they have shown how the
climate is changing due to the increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and
aerosols from human activities. These substances trap the Sun’s heat causing
an increase in the global temperature.
At present, NASA continues to answer the question “How is the Earth system
changing, and what are the consequences of these changes for life on Earth?”
Try it!
Choose one of the Earth’s subsystems – atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere,
or biosphere. Then research on how humans affect the subsystem. What
activities of humans have positive effects on that subsystem? What are the
activities that have negative effects? When the subsystem changes due to the
human activities, how does the change affect humans in return?
What do you think?
Why is it necessary to understand how the field of Earth System Science
developed?
Key Points
 Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It
considers interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” – atmosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 James Hutton, the father of modern geology, proposed uniformitarianism,
which implies that the present geological processes are the same as
those in the past.
 Alexander von Humboldt laid the foundations for Earth System Science by
his holistic observations of nature.
 Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the

term noosphere, which is the sphere of human consciousness.
 James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis collaborated on the Gaia hypothesis,

which postulates that the Earth works as a self-regulating system.
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) studies

components of the Earth system, their linkages, dependencies, and
fluxes.
The Internal Structure of Earth

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify and differentiate the
layers of the Earth.
What are the different layers of the Earth?
Learn about it!

The Earth consists of three layers: core, mantle, and crust. The solid outer
layer is the crust. A semi-molten rock called magma lies in the mantle below
the crust. Beneath the mantle is the core. The outer core is a liquid mixture of
nickel and iron while the inner core is solid.
The Crust
The crust is a very thin layer that measures between 0 and 60 km. It has two
layers and is composed of two major kinds of rocks. The thick continental
crust, about 32 km, makes up the land surface of the Earth and is composed
primarily of dense materials such as granite. The thin oceanic crust has a
depth of 5–10 km and is made up of basalt which is less dense than granite.
The crust can be broken down into plates which produce earthquakes when
they move along each other.
The Mantle
The mantle is below the crust. It is the thickest layer of the Earth, spanning
almost 2900 km and making up 84% of the Earth’s volume. It contains magma.
It is primarily solid but behaves as a viscous liquid. This behavior is due to
temperature differences towards the lower mantle. As the depth becomes near
the core, the temperature increases. This is known as the geothermal gradient,
the increase in temperature with depth. In the upper mantle, the temperatures
range from 600 to 900 °C. In the lower mantle, the temperature can reach over
4000 °C.
Convection currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer
mantle. If the upper part of the mantle cools down, it becomes part of the
crust. Also, this process is responsible for earthquakes and other geological
processes.
The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of
rigid, brittle rock. The layer below it is called the asthenosphere. This part of
the mantle is solid in a plastic manner (flows very slowly), allowing the plates
to move on top of it.
The Core
The core is at the center of the Earth. In this region, the temperature is hotter
than the mantle. It is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.
The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick. It is composed primarily of iron and
nickel. The temperature here is around 4000–5700 °C. Due to its high
temperature, the outer core undergoes convection and rotates faster than the
planet.
The inner core is a solid ball with a radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core, the
inner core is made up of iron and nickel, but in solid form. The temperature is
quite high at around 7000 °C.
The difference between the state of matter of the inner and outer core is due
to the very high pressure in the inner core, increasing the melting points of the
metals. Scientists believed that the inner core rotates opposite to the direction
of the flow of the outer core, creating an effect that influences the Earth’s
magnetic field.
Explore!
If you cut an apple in half, you will see that it is composed of three parts: a thin
skin, a flesh in which the mass is concentrated, and seeds located at the
center. Similarly, if you cut the Earth, you will see layers: a crust on the
outside, a mantle of significant weight, and a core at the center.
Try it!
Research about how the layers of the Earth are formed.
What do you think?

What might happen to the Earth if the inner core melts?
Key Points
 The Earth has three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.
 The crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth.
 The types of crust are the oceanic crust and the continental crust.
 The mantle lies below the crust and composed primarily of magma.
 The crust and the upper part of the mantle constitute the lithosphere; the
upper part of the mantle is the asthenosphere.
 The core is the center of the Earth and is composed of the solid inner
core and theliquid-like outer core.
Rock-Forming Minerals
EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify common rock-forming
minerals using their physical and chemical properties.
What are the different physical and chemical properties of minerals?
Learn about it!

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed
structure and a definite chemical composition.
Identification of Minerals
There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals
based on physical and chemical properties. Some minerals can be identified
with the use of high-powered instruments while some can be assessed through
their physical properties.
Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually
no access to complex analytical techniques. Although a particular mineral has
different forms, the fundamental physical properties are still the same. Useful
physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific
gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.
 The color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the crystal
lattice – the arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and
with high symmetry. The reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the crystal
lattice results in the color perceived by the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as

light is reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral
surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the
water with an equal volume.
 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or

scratches. It is generally measured using Mohs Scale of Hardness.
 Cleavage is the
tendency of the
mineral to be split
or broken along flat surfaces.
 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the
mineral breaks into forms other than flat surfaces.
 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress
such as cutting, crushing, bending, or hitting.
 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or
aggregated.
Chemical Properties of Minerals
All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure.
They can be represented by a chemical formula, which presents the
proportions of atoms that constitute them. For example, the mineral quartz has
a chemical formula SiO2SiO2. Its crystal structure is a continuous framework
of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.
The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and
crystal structure. Solubility and melting point are chemical properties
commonly used to describe a mineral.
 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified

temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is
soluble in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-
bound potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals
composed of atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have
high melting points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C.
In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be

analyzed through chemical and instrumental analysis. Crystallographic
techniques such as X-ray diffraction are performed to determine the crystal
structure of the mineral.
Common Rock-Forming Minerals

The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene,
amphibole, and olivine. All of the following silicate minerals, except for quartz,
are mineral groups.
Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of SiO2SiO2. It is a glassy-looking hard
substance with white streaks. Despite its hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7,
it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and
transparent. Colored varieties of quartz
are due to elemental impurities built into
its lattice. The grains of quartz in general
are irregular in shape.
Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of X(Al,Si)4X(Al,Si)4O8O8,
where XX is KK, CaCa, or NaNa. It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness of 6. It is
a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have lighter shades of red
or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals
that break along flat faces.
Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most
common examples are clear muscovite and black biotite. Mica is soft, with
Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is easily identified by its perfect
cleavage, reducing it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for the
flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.
Pyroxene
Pyroxene mine rals have a general composition
of Si2Si2O6O6, with some types containing
sodium, iron, magnesium, or a combination of
the three. Augite is the most common of
this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks
of white, light green, or light brown. It is
generally black in color and has stubby
prismatic crystals. Its key feature is its
two cleavages at around 90°.
Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6.
Hornblende is the most common amphibole. It has a glassy luster and an
opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long and very thin.
Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition
of (Mg,Fe)2(Mg,Fe)2 SiO4SiO4, but calcium, manganese, and nickel can be
substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-green color
and commonly used in the gemstone industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking
and transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a
granular shape.
Explore!
Silicates like quartz are among the Earth’s most important natural resources.
There would be no computers, phones, glass, or bricks. All of these rely on
silicate minerals as raw materials. What other minerals are known to have
important uses like silicates?
Try it!
Research on the different kinds of minerals found in common products (e.g.
lipstick, glass) that you use every day.
What do you think?

Is there a possibility for the physical characteristics of rock minerals to change
over time?
Key Points
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a
fixed structure and a definite chemical composition.
 Minerals can be distinguished based on physical and chemical properties.
 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak,

luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula

and crystal structure. Solubility and melting point are chemical properties
commonly used to describe a mineral.
 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica,

pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.
Rocks: Its Three Main Categories and Mineral Composition

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to classify rocks into igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
How are rocks classified?
Learn about it!
Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. From the diagram, we
can see that:
1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or

lava.
2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to
extreme heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process
called metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of

sediments, a process called lithification.
Also, we can see that one type of rock can be transformed into another type
depending on the process that it goes through.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are further classified as intrusive or extrusive igneous based on
grain size.
 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath
the earth. They are coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma
allowing crystal growth.
 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the
surface of the earth. They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks
ejected on the surface through volcanic eruptions. They are fine-grained
due to abrupt cooling on the surface.
Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition,
and percentage mineral composition. The diagram below shows the four
general compositions of igneous rocks–light-colored or felsic, intermediate,
dark-colored mafic, and ultramafic.
Learn
about
it!
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic or non-clastic.
 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting

rocks. When preexisting rocks are physically weathered and eroded, they
form sediments. When these sediments are transported, deposited, and
lithified, they form the clastic sedimentary rocks. These rocks can be
identified based on their grain sizes that can range from 0.002 mm (e.g.
clay size) to > 2mm (coarse gravel).
 No
n-
clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemical, or a combination
of both.Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead
organisms. Examples include coal (formed from carbon-rich plants) and
limestone (formed from the remains of calcareous organisms). On the
other hand, chemical sedimentary rocksare from chemical precipitation.
An example is rock salt formed when dissolved salts precipitate from a
solution. Below is a table of chemical sedimentary rocks based on
composition and texture size.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated based on
texture.
 Foliated metamorphic rocks have layered or banded appearance produced

by exposure to high temperatures and pressures.
o Examples include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
 In contrast, non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have layered

appearance.
o Examples include marble, quartzite, and anthracite.
Foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks can be further classified based on

their parent rocks. However, such classification can be difficult because of the
rock alteration during metamorphism. The table below shows the parent rocks
of different
foliated and
non-foliated
rocks.
Try it!
Collect some rock samples from random places in your area and classify each
rock whether it is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock. Further classify
them into the specific type of each classification of rock.
What do you think?

How do rocks undergo weathering?
Key Points
 Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or
lava.
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to
extreme heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called
metamorphism.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of

sediments, a process called lithification.
Geologic Processes on Earth’s Surface

Objectives
At the end of the class discussion, you will be able to describe how rocks
undergo different processes of weathering and explain how the products of
weathering are carried away by erosion and deposition.
The Earth is constantly changing through the years. According to the
Continental Drift Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener, the Earth was once a
giant landmass called Pangaea. This giant landmass was broken down into
several continents because of the movement beneath the Earth’s surface.
If continents came from a giant landmass, can you imagine how the mountains,
volcanoes, and soil are formed?
Learn about it!

Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called
weathering. Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller
pieces called sediments.
Different Types of Weathering

All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three
different types of rock weathering: mechanical weathering, chemical
weathering, and biological weathering.
 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into

smaller pieces without changing its chemical composition due to
different temperatures and water. Rocks in the highway develop cracks
and small fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This activity is
an example of mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed
into other substances that have different physical and chemical
compositions. Some agents of chemical weathering include water, strong
acids, and oxygen. Water hydrates and breaks the minerals in the rocks
through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with metals to
produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed
of weathering process. One example of chemical weathering in rocks is
when rainwater hydrolysed the feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.
 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects
and roots of the trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials.
For example, mosses and fungi that grow on rocks produce weak acids
that can destroy or dissolve the rocks.
Erosion
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or
rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to
erosion.
Types of Erosion
 Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments
to different parts of the bodies of water such as rivers.
 Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and
pebbles, are carried by wind to different places.
 Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out
chunks of rocks and causes scraping between the ice and the rock.
Plucking and scraping can lead to the development of other landforms if,
for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.
 Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil
infertile. This is caused by wind or flood in an area.
Deposition
Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or
final destination. The depositional environment can be continental, coastal, or
marine.
 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.

 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal.
 Explore!
 Our country is a pathway of typhoon because of our location in the globe.
The government always warns us, especially those who reside near the
slopes or low-lying areas, to evacuate immediately when this happens.
Given the different types of erosion you have learned, particularly soil
erosion, what would you suggest that the government should do to
minimize the devastating effects of this erosion?
 Try it!
 Take a tour in a nearby river. Observe the different types of rocks that you
will see and take note of their physical characteristics. What can you say
about those rocks?
 What do you think?

 Why do you think it is necessary for the rocks to undergo the process of
weathering?
Key Points
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces
called sediments.
 Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks downslope from the original
place of weathering.
 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional

environment or final destination.
Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Objectives
At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:
 describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from,

 describe how magma is formed (magmatism), and
 describe what happens after the magma is formed (plutonism and

volcanism).
The layers of the Earth include the crust, the mantle, and the core. The core is
the hottest layer of the Earth. The heat coming from this layer is responsible
for any geological activities happening on our planet. Volcanoes, mountains,
and continents were formed because of this internal heat.
Why is the core layer hot?
Learn about it!

Internal Heat of the Earth
The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or
the middle layer, and the core or the innermost layer.
 The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life
forms on Earth.
 The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas
of semi-solid magma.
 The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also
considered as the center and the hottest part of the Earth.
Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from

the core to the crust. The temperature of the mantle varies depending whether
it is near the crust or near the boundary of the core. The principal contributors
to the heat of the core come from the decay of radioactive elements and from
the heat of the molten outer core which solidifies near the inner core.
Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geologic processes on Earth. This
measures the flow of thermal energy coming from the core, passing through
the mantle, and up to the atmosphere, which is mainly due to the mantle
convection. This, however, is counteracted by the solar radiation.
Magmatism
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are
subjected to high temperature and pressure melt and become the
magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock mixture that can be found in the
lower portion of the crust and the upper part of the mantle. Depending on the
temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and the mantle, the magma
can be formed in different ways.
Plutonism
On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the
formation of intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks came from the
solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface. These rocks will reach the
Earth’s surface through the process ofuplifting - a force that pulls the crust
apart and lets the rocks from the underground to be brought up.
When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the
Earth’s surface through uplifting. When the magma reaches the surface, it
becomes lava - streams of molten rocks that cool and solidify to form extrusive
igneous rocks.
Volcanism
Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any
opening in the Earth’s crust that allows magma and gases to be released in the
upper crust. This process of bringing up the magma is called volcanism.
Explore!
Our country, the Philippines, has 37 volcanoes. Among 37 volcanoes, 18 of them
are active and show activity in the past 100 years. Why do you think the
Philippines has plenty of volcanoes?
Try it!
Get an ice cube and put it in a glass. Put a teaspoon of salt to the ice cube and
leave for two hours. What do you notice? What is the connection of this
experiment with the contained heat from the mantle and the core?
What do you think?

If the mantle and the core are extremely hot, why is the heat coming from
these layers not felt on the Earth's surface?
Key Points
 The three layers of the Earth are crust, mantle, and core.
 The principal contributors to the heat of the core are the decay of
radioactive elements and the heat of the molten outer core near the inner
core.
 Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred

from the core to the crust.
 Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geologic processes on Earth.
 Magma are rocks that melted when subjected to high temperature and
pressure.
 Magmatism is the activity or the motion of magma.
 Plutonism is the formation of intrusive igneous rocks through the

solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface.
 Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of magma onto the surface of

the Earth.
 Volcano is the opening on the Earth’s crust where magma, gases, and hot
vapor are being ejected or released.
 Lava is the cooled and solidified magma upon reaching the Earth’s
surface.
Metamorphism and Its Effects in Rock Formation

Objectives
At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:
 compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous

rocks,
 describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to
changes in pressure and temperature, and
 describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as

compression, pulling apart, and shearing.
Igneous come from the Latin word ignis which means heat or fire. Igneous
rocks are formed when the magma or lava cools and solidifies. It may happen
below (plutonic) or above (volcanic) the Earth’s surface.
Learn about it!

The types of igneous rocks depend on where they solidified and hardened.
Some igneous rocks solidified before they were ejected and some igneous
rocks are formed after they reach the ground.
Two Types of Igneous Rocks

 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an
eruption occurs. Crystallization occurs due to high temperature in the
mantle. Different rock materials allow the formation of intrusive igneous
rocks. The most common example is granite. Granite is used in floor tiles
and monuments.
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when the lava cools and solidifies on
the Earth’s surface. The texture of these rocks is finer as compared to the
intrusive igneous rocks. Due to rapid cooling of the lava, large crystals
are formed on the rocks. The most common example is basalt. Basalt is
used for construction purposes such as pavements, railroads, and road
base.
Metamorphism of Rocks
When you expose igneous rocks to intense heat and pressure, they could
undergo metamorphism. Metamorphism is the process of change in the form
and structure of rocks due to intense heat and pressure. It comes from the
Greek word metamorphoun meaning transform or change shape. The rocks that
undergo metamorphism are converted tometamorphic rocks.
Types of Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to
the igneous intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the
intrusions. Country rocks are rocks surrounding the igneous
intrusions. Igneous intrusions form when molten magma moves and seeps
through fractures and in between crystals of rocks. The zone of
metamorphosis that surrounds the intrusions is called halo or aureole.
 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones
are altered due to high pressure. The rocks that are formed with this type
of metamorphism are called mylonites. Mylonites are compact, fine-
grained rocks with thin laminations or layers.
 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that
occurs in broad areas. It is caused by high temperature and pressure that
resulted from the thickening of the crust and plate tectonics.
Types of Stresses in the Earth’s Crust

 Compression cau
ses the rocks to
push or to collide
towards each
other. This can
make the rocks come together or make the plates rise. Mountains and
hills could be formed when two plates collide.
 Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks
away from each other. This force created continental drifts and long
mountain ranges. It moved the oceanic crust away from each other that
resulted in the rising of less dense rocks coming from the mantle.
 Shear
force pushes
some
of the
crust
in
different
direction.
Shearing
results to
the breaking
of the large
parts of the crust into smaller size. This force always happens along the
plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are the location where the two plates
meet. When the two plates rub each other and move to opposite
directions, it creates friction. This friction leads to the shaking of the
Earth’s ground or earthquake.
Explore!
Observe what happens when you ride an airplane. As it takes off and gradually
lifts off, you suddenly feel like air bubbles are filling your ears. How would you
connect this situation with the different types of stress the Earth’s crust
encounter?
Try it!
Get a polymer modelling clay. Mold the clay into any shape that you want. Put
the clay in a regular oven and bake it for 15 minutes at 275 °F (135 °C). Take it
out of the oven and let it cool for at least an hour. What happened to the clay?
Can you mold it again into other shapes without breaking it?
What do you think?

Can igneous rocks form sedimentary rocks underneath the Earth’s surface?
Key Points
 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an
eruption occurs.
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies on
the Earth’s surface.
 Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of

rocks due to intense heat and pressure.
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to

the igneous intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the
intrusions.
 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones
are altered due to high pressure.
 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that

occurs in broad areas.
 Compression is a type of stress that causes the rocks to push or to

collide towards each other.
 Tension is a type of stress that pulls the rocks away from each other.
 Shear force is a type of stress that pushes some of the crust in different
direction.
Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift Theory and Its Evidence

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to cite evidence that support
continent drift and explain how the continents drift.
The seven major world continents are North America, South America, Europe,
Africa, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica.
Learn about it!

In 1912 German
meteorologist Alfred
Wegener proposed that in the
beginning, the Earth has only one
giant landmass
called Pangaea, which means "all
land." He hypothesized that this giant
landmass slowly broke into smaller
land pieces that eventually drifted
away from each other which
made the seven continents that we
now know. This is known as the
Continental drift theory.
Alfred Wegener presented the following pieces of evidence to support his

theory:
 The continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. This is most evident in
the matching coastlines of South America and Africa.
 Similar animal and plant fossils were found in different continents. The
fossils of the reptile mesosaurus were found along the coastlines of
South America and Africa which are separated by the Atlantic Ocean.
Moreover, the fossil of a fernlike plant glossopteris was found distributed
in all the continents.
Learn about it!
 In the matching coastlines
of northwestern Africa and eastern
Brazil, South America, the rocks
are of the same type and age.
 Geologic features such as mountain
ranges are found along matching
coastlines like that of the
Appalachian Mountains and
Scandinavia.
 Coal seams are found in Antarctica.
 Coal is produced from organic

matter like dead plants and
animals. In a very cold place like
Antarctica, it would be impossible for most organisms to survive. The
presence of coal indicates that the continent was once inhabited by many
organisms. It also gives a clue that Antarctica was once located near the
equator where abundant animal and plant organisms could be found.
 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers, were found in
Africa, South America, India, and Australia. They were of the same age
and type. The presence of tillites indicates that those places had glaciers
in the past, were once located near the South Pole, and had drifted away
from each other.
 The pieces of evidence supported the continental drift theory; however,

the theory was rejected due to lack of force for the movement.
 In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of
convection cells in the Earth’s mantle. When the rocks in the Earth’s
interior are heated by radioactivity, they become less dense, and they rise
toward the surface of the Earth. When they cool down, they become
denser and sink. The continuous process of rising and sinking of rocks
produces convection cells or convection currents. These currents cause
the tectonic plates, which include the crust, to move and drift.

Try it!
Observe how convection current is produced by heating five to ten pieces of
monggo beans in a beaker. How do the beans move?
What do you think?

What do you think happens when plates, which are the crust divided into parts,
collide, spread, and slide past each other?
Key Points
 Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory is supported by the following
pieces of evidence: fit of the continents, similar fossils and geologic
features in different continents, coal seams in Antarctica, and tillites in
the equator.
 According to Sir Arthur Holmes, convection cells in the mantle drive the
tectonic plates to move and the continents to drift away from each other.
The Formation of Faults and Folds
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the movement of
plates leads to the formation of folds and faults.
The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these
plates move due to the convection currents in the Earth’s interior.
Below is an illustration that depicts the location and the movement of plates.
The arrows indicate the direction of their movements.
Plate Movements
The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These
boundaries can be convergent, divergent, or transform.
In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide toward each other. When
the plates move away from each other, they are in a divergent boundary.
Finally, when plates slide past each other, they are in a transform boundary.
Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at
convergent boundaries, tensional stress at divergent boundaries, or shear
stress at transform boundaries. Due to these stresses, rocks experience
changes in volume and shape.
Rock Deformation
Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed towards each
other. Tensional stresspulls rocks apart and shear stress causes rocks to slide
opposite each other.
When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or

bending (fold).
Fracture
Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend
to break orfracture when subjected to compressional and tensional stresses.
Fractures can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock where
there is considerable movement in the fracture surface while a joint is a break
where there is no considerable movement.
Types of Fault
There are two types of faults. They can either be dip-slip or strike-slip faults.
Dip-slip Faults
Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These
movements are described based on the direction of the motion of the hanging
wall with respect to the footwall. A hanging wall is the block of rock that rests
on the fault plane while a footwall is the one below the fault plane.
Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is

caused by tensional stress it is characterized by the hanging wall moving
downward with respect to the footwall. A reverse fault, wherein the hanging
wall moves upward, is formed by compressional stress.
Strike-slip Fault
Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is caused
by shear stress.
Fold
Deep
within
the crust,
where
pressure
and
temperature are high, rocks are plastic-like; thus, they do not break but they
tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they become
thicker and become thinner when they are pulled apart.
Types of Fold
When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they
form anticline structures. Synclines are formed when blocks of rock bend
downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers
forms monoclines.
Explore
Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology, find out if you live in an area where there is a fault.
Try it!
Make slabs out of clay – preferably use different colors to make layers. Apply
compressional, tensional, and shear stress on the slabs of clay. How do the
layers move or look like after applying each type of stress?
Key Points
 Compressional stress is associated with the convergent plate boundary
that causes rocks to be squeezed toward each other.
 Tensional stress is associated with the divergent plate boundary that
causes rocks to be pulled apart.
 Shear stress is associated with the transform plate boundary that causes
rocks to slide opposite each other.
 Movement of plates leads to rock deformation such as fracture and fold

due to stress.
 A fracture is a break in the rocks and can be classified as a fault or a

joint depending on the amount of movement. A fault can either be a dip-
slip or a strike-slip fault.
 A fold is a bend in the rocks and can be classified as anticline, syncline,

or monocline.
The Seafloor Spreading

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the structure of the
ocean basins evolves as the seafloor spreads.
Due to convection currents in the Earth’s interior, tectonic plates are in

constant motion. In the previous lesson, you have learned how plate
movements form faults and folds in the rocks.
How do convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread?
Learn about it!
Seafloor Spreading
In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection
currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread. Convection
currents carry heat from the molten materials in the mantle and core towards
the lithosphere. These currents ensure that the materials formed in the
lithosphere is “recycled” back into the mantle. In this “recycling” process,
which was later named as seafloor spreading, the molten materials flow out to
form mid-oceanic ridges, spread sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into
the ocean trenches.
When the
molten
materials
rise, they
slowly
spread
sideways.
This
motion
makes the
seafloor
above it to
be pulled
apart, creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic ridge, where the
molten materials go out. New oceanic crust is formed from the outpouring of
the molten materials, and as the process continues, oceanic ridges or
underwater mountain ranges are built. Oceanic ridges are composed of
volcanic rocks.
As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor
also keeps on spreading forming a central valley, or a rift valley, at the summit
of the oceanic ridges. The molten materials push the seafloor away from the
ridges and towards the trenches.Trenches are depressions on the ocean floor.
When the molten materials are brought near the trenches, they start to cool,
become denser, and sink back down into the Earth where it is heated and
melted again. The spreading of the seafloor continues as a “recycling” process.
As new seafloor is created, it continues the process until it disappears back
into the deep ocean trenches. Records show that the oldest seafloor is
relatively younger (about 170 million years old) than the oldest rocks (about 3
billion years old) found on land. This shows that the seafloor is constantly
recycled.
As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older
materials. This means that the nearer the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the
younger it is compared to the ones farther from the ridge.
World Oceanic Ridges

Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away
from each other; while trenches are formed at subduction zones where plates
collide with each other or at convergent boundaries.
The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The
marked areas depict where new oceanic crusts are formed which would also
show where the ocean floors spread, just like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These
areas are located at divergent boundaries. On the other hand, the areas farther
from the marks, located at convergent boundaries, are subduction zones, like
the Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are formed.
Try it!
Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS), find out on which type of plate boundary the
Philippines lie. Are there trenches or mid-oceanic ridges present in the
Philippine Area of Responsibility?
What do you think?
How will you compare the ocean floor of the Philippines located in the western
side of the Pacific Ocean to the ocean floor of the United States of America
located in the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean?
Key Points
 Mid-oceanic ridges are openings in the seafloor where molten materials
from the Earth’s interior come from.
 New oceanic crust is formed at mid-oceanic ridges.
 Oceanic ridges are underwater mountain ranges that form through the
accumulation of molten materials that go out of mid-oceanic ridges.
 Seafloor spreads as new molten materials come out from the Earth’s
interior pushing the ocean floor as they flow out.
 As the seafloor spreads, structure of the ocean basins evolves depending

on the plate boundary that they lie on.
Stratification of Rocks and How It Is Used to Determine the Age of the Earth
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed,

 describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to
determine the age of stratified rocks, and
 explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the
subdivisions of geologic time.
How can we determine the age of the Earth?
Learn about it!
How Layers of Rocks Are Formed

Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have
been broken down by water or wind. The older rocks become sedimentary
particles such as gravel, sand, and mud. These particles can also bury dead
plants and animals. As time goes by, the particles accumulate, and those that
are at the bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate;
sand becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The animals or
plants buried with them become fossils. These series of events form the
different layers of rocks.
Methods to Determine the Age of

Stratified Rocks
There are two methods of determining the ages of rocks: relative dating and
absolute dating.
 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock

sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an
event.
Relative Dating
Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells
that one rock is older than the other but does not tell how old each of the rock
is.
In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative
positions of sedimentary rocks. He discovered that they settle based on their
relative weight or size in a fluid. The largest or heaviest particles settle first,
and the smallest or the lightest particles settle last. Any slight changes in the
particle size or composition may result in the formation of layers
called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The
layered rocks are also called strata.
Principles of Relative Dating

The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary
rocks, the top layer is younger than the bottom layer.
It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's
history because it indicates the relative
age of the rock layers and fossils.
The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid
down horizontally. However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based
on the law of original horizontality, the rocks that were tilted may be due to
later events such as tilting
episodes of mountain
building.
Principles of Relative Dating

The law of lateral continuity states that rock layers extend laterally or out to
the sides. These layers may cover broad surfaces. Erosion may have worn away
some parts of the rock, but the layers on either side of the eroded areas still
match.
The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks
are younger features that cut through older features of rocks.
Absolute Dating
Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of
rocks by measuring its radioactive decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock
decays into a stable daughter isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate,
so the age of the sample could be determined.
Examples
 Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.
 K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion
years.
The Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the
geologic rock records, which describe the relationships between the events
that happened throughout the Earth’s history. The sequence of events is based
on the radiometric dating of igneous rocks associated with the fossil-bearing
sedimentary rocks.
A geologic
time scale
is revised
as more
fossil-
bearing
sedimentary rocks are dated. It is calibrated by integrating results from

relative and absolute dating. Below is an example of how geologic time scale is
calibrated.
How the Geologic Time Scale is
Calibrated
 Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.
 The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the
laws of relative dating leading to a chronological order of events.
 Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or

radiometric methods. Absolute dating provides the age for the ash layers
while relative dating provides at least six strata with relative ages – first
and last occurrences of the fossils and the volcanic eruption events.
Try it!
Research on how the age of the trees can be determined. How would you relate
this to the topic?
What do you think?

What is the importance of determining the age of rocks?
Key Points
 Strata or the different layers of rocks are formed when the sediments at
the bottom of the pile become rocks.
 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the
rock sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or

period of an event.
 Geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the
geologic rock records.
 The integration of relative and absolute dating results to a calibrated

geological time scale.
The Geologic Time Scale

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 describe how marker fossils are used to define and identify subdivisions
of the geologic time scale; and
 describe how the Earth's history can be interpreted from the geologic
time scale.
Look around you. Everything you see, from the variety of living organisms to the
environment they live in, is the product of changes that occur throughout
geologic time.
Do you want to know how we can get a glimpse of the events that happened
millions or even billions of years ago?
Learn about it!

When plants and animals die, their remains and imprints are buried in rocks or
sediments. These preserved remains or traces are called fossils. Fossils are
pieces of evidence that life has happened in the past. Information from these
fossils are used to construct the geologic time scale.
The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth. It is
made up of time units that divide Earth’s history based on the appearance or
disappearance of life forms (supported by fossil remains) in specific times. This
scale helps us to study and interpret the history of life on Earth.
As shown in the diagram below, the geologic time scale is divided into
hierarchical chunks of time. From largest to smallest, this hierarchy includes
eon, era, period, and epoch. The last column, indicates millions of years ago, it
is represented by Ma which means mega-annum.
 An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans hundreds to
thousands of millions of years. There are three major eons, the Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic eons. The Phanerozoic eon is the one we are
in today.
 An era is hundreds of millions of years long. The three major eras in the
Phanerozoic eon are the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Mass
extinctions mark the boundaries between the eras. We are in the Cenozoic
era, which began 65 million years ago, after the extinction of the
dinosaurs.
 A period is tens of millions of years long. It is based on the forms of life

existing at that time. For instance, the tertiary and quaternary periods
comprise the Cenozoic Era. The tertiary period is the beginning of the age
of mammals while the quaternary period is considered the age of humans.
 An epoch is several million years long. It is the division of the most recent
periods. For example, the quaternary period, which began with an ice age
about 1.8 million years ago, is divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene
and Holocene epochs. Each epoch has unique geography and climate, so
plants and animals that existed during those times are unique to each
epoch, too.
 The subdivisions of the geologic time scale are identified through marker
fossils, or guide fossils. A marker fossil is a fossil of a plant or an animal
that existed for a relatively short period of time. It helps geologists
distinguish between rock strata from different time periods.
 For a fossil to be considered as a guide, it should be common, can easily
be identified at the species level, and should be distributed at many
locations on the Earth. Also, the shorter the life period of a fossil, the
greater the chances of correlating it with different sediments.
 Primitive life forms existed on Earth during Precambrian time and the
Paleozoic era. They continue to evolve through the Mesozoic Era and the
current Cenozoic Era.
 The diagram below shows the significant events that happened and the
organisms that existed and became extinct at different periods of time.
These events became clues to the evolving history of Earth through time.
Several theories were formed from these clues, such as Darwin's theory
of Natural Selection and the theories on events that resulted in the
extinction of dinosaurs.
Explore
Take note of your surroundings. How has the area where you live changed over
geologic time? How might it look thousands or millions of years ago? What are
the plants and animals that are presently living in your area? Do you think that
the types of animals and plants have changed much over time?
What do you think?

Why is it important to study the events that happened and the organisms that
existed even before the dawn of man?
Key Points
 Fossils are plant or animal impressions preserved in rocks that provide
evidence of life forms in the past.
 The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth.
 Geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
 Divisions within the geologic time scale are based on the appearance or
disappearance of organisms at specific times.
 A marker fossil is used to define and identify subdivisions of the geologic

time scale. It is a fossil of a plant or animal that existed for a relatively
short period of time.
Geological Hazards
NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND ADAPTATION
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the various hazards
that may happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.
The Philippines is prone to geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions, and landslides. These natural events bring about different hazards
that may cause damage to infrastructures and endanger human lives.
What are geological hazards? Are you prepared if they happen?

Learn about it!
A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property
and life as a result of a geological process such as earthquake, volcanic
eruption, or landslide.
Earthquake
An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of
energy from accumulated stress along the geologic faults or by volcanic
activity. It may cause collapse of buildings, tsunamis, landslides, and ground-
level changes.
Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause
adverse effects on organisms and their environment.
 Ground shaking refers to the vibration of the land surface during an earthquake.
The intensity of the vibration depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and
the distance from the epicenter. Ground shaking may cause partial or total
collapse of buildings and structures.
 Ground displacement or surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical
displacement of the ground surface along the fault zone. It affects smaller area
compared to ground shaking. However, it severely damages buildings and
structures located adjacent to the faults.
 Liquefaction is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid‐like state

during ground shaking. When it occurs, large rigid structures may tilt or sink into
the liquefied deposits.
 Tsunami is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other

disturbance under the sea. It causes flooding and destruction of structures near
the shorelines.
 Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during ground shaking and displacement. It
poses threat of explosions which may cause death and destruction of property.
Example
On October 15, 2013, a devastating earthquake happened in the province of
Bohol. Its recorded magnitude was 7.2. The ground shaking and displacement
caused major damage of several government buildings, schools, and houses. At
least 93 people had been reported dead after the earthquake.
Volcanic Eruption
Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are
released from a volcano due to a buildup of pressure inside. The effects of an
eruption can be on a local scale affecting the areas near the volcano (e.g. lava
flow reaches nearby towns) or on a global scale (e.g. volcanic ash particles on
air change global temperature).
Volcanic Eruption Hazards

Volcanic eruption hazards are events associated with a volcanic eruption that
may cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment.
 Lahar is a mixture of volcanic debris and water that flows at the slopes of the
volcano. It destroys infrastructures, buries towns and crops, and fills river
channels.
 Pyroclastic fall is a mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of ash and
dust) and hot gases. It moves rapidly along the ground surface. It buries towns
and causes burns, injury, and damage upon impact.
 Volcanic gases are vapors released during an eruption. Some of these gases,
such as hydrogen sulfide (HSHS) and sulfur dioxide (SO2SO2), are poisonous.
They cause respiratory damage and death.
 Tephra falls are rock fragments and lava blobs ejected by a volcano. They
damage structures, break power lines, kill vegetation, and cause respiratory
damage.
Example
Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991. This eruption deposited about 5
km of rock fragments and volcanic ash on the volcano’s slopes. When a heavy
3
rain fell on that day, the rocks and ashes were washed down into the
surrounding lowlands in large, fast-moving mudflows called lahar. Lahar caused
more destruction in the lowlands than the eruption itself.
Landslide
A landslide, also called landslip, occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris,
and soil) move downwards along a slope. It may be caused by earthquakes or
heavy rainfall. It can also be aggravated by human activities such as
deforestation, blasting, and construction.
Landslide Hazards
Landslide hazards are events associated with a landslide that may cause
adverse effects on organisms and their environment.
 Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses, and cars as it
moves down the slope. It may block bridges and tributaries causing flooding
along its path.
 Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as clay, fine
sand, and silt. It is slower than mudflow, but it inflicts the same damage.
 Rock fall is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It disrupts road
traffic in mountainous regions. When it hits a structure or vehicle, it causes
damage depending on the size of the rock and the force of impact.
Example
A massive landslide happened on February 17, 2006 in Southern Leyte. The
landslide caused widespread damage and loss of life. It was followed by heavy
rainfall and a minor earthquake. The official death toll was 1126.
Most geological events cannot be prevented from happening, though they can
be predicted but with little precision. The government, from the national to the
local level, must continuously train people to be prepared for these events and
plan strategies to mitigate or lessen the effects of these hazards.
Explore!
You are enjoying your summer vacation at the beach. Suddenly, you felt the
ground moving because of an earthquake. What should you do? What are the
scenarios that may happen during and after the earthquake?
Try it!
Get the map of your barangay or municipality and identify the possible hazards
that may occur in your area in the case of certain geological events. How will
you prepare for these events?
What do you think?

Why is it important to know the hazards that can be brought about by
geological events?
Tip
Hazards can be brought by one or more geological events. For example,
earthquake and volcanic eruption can trigger a landslide.
Key Points
 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to
property and life as a result of a geological process such as earthquake,
volcanic eruption, or landslide.
 An earthquake is the sudden, rapid shaking of the surface of the Earth. It
may cause ground shaking, ground displacement, liquefaction, tsunami,
and fire.
 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas
are released from a volcano due to a buildup of pressure inside. It may
bring about lahar, pyroclastic fall, volcanic gases, and tephra fall.
 A landslide occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil) move
downwards along a slope. It may bring about mud flow, earthflow, and
rock fall.
Understanding Geological Hazard Maps

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify areas prone to hazards
brought by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides using geological
hazard maps.
In the previous lesson, you have learned about the different hazards that are
caused by geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.
How can you determine if a certain location is prone to geological hazards?
Learn about it!

Geological Hazard Map
A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to
hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It is a tool
used by scientists and local government authorities to anticipate any hazard
that a geological event may bring. It also helps the public be informed and
prepared for the geological hazard.
How do you read a geological hazard map?

You must take note of the following elements in studying the geological hazard
map:
Map Title
The map title indicates what type of information is being presented by the map.
For example, the title “tsunami-prone areas” indicates that the map presents
the places along the coastal areas that are prone to tsunami hazards.
Symbols and Legend

Symbols are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used on the map. For example,
a line may indicate faults or tsunamis while a triangular shape may represent a
volcano. The legendtells you specifically what these symbols mean.
Source
Make sure that the source of your map is a credible institution. Hazard maps
are produced by government agencies like PhiVolcS (Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology), DOST (Department of Science and Technology),
and DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources). Private
research institutes like the Manila Observatory also generate maps. With the
use of the Internet, these maps can be viewed online on their websites.
Earthquake Hazard Map

The map below shows the earthquake-prone areas in the Philippines.
Based on the legend, the different locations are colored depending on
the number of earthquake hits for the past 30 years. For example, Baguio City
(Benguet), which is found on the northern part of Luzon, experienced 76-100
earthquakes. Meanwhile, Puerto Princesa City (Palawan), which is on the
Southwest of Luzon, experienced fewer earthquakes (0-11).
The top ten provinces that are most prone to earthquakes are:
1. Surigao Del Sur

2. La Union
3. Benguet
4. Pangasinan
5. Pampanga
6. Tarlac
7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental
9. Nueva Vizcaya
10. Nueva Ecija
Surigao del Sur, along with Davao Oriental, are earthquake-prone because they
are located along the Philippine Trench and because of nearby active fault
lines. Deep-focus earthquakes that are experienced in La Union and
Pangasinan are due to the Manila Trench, while shallow earthquakes in these
areas together with Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Benguet are generally due
to their location along the Philippine Fault Zone. Although Ifugao experienced
fewer earthquakes in the past, it is still very vulnerable to future earthquakes.
In addition, the size of the red dots indicates the magnitudes of the
earthquakes that hit the area for the past 30 years. For example, a large dot in
Manila indicates that the magnitude of the earthquake is 7.3 to 7.6. On the
other hand, a tiny dot, as seen in areas around Palawan, means that the
magnitude of earthquake is around 5.5 to 6.2.
Try it!
Find a map of the Philippines and compare it to the earthquake-prone area
map. Then answer the following questions:
1. Which is more prone to earthquakes, Pampanga or Zamboanga?

2. Which town experienced a greater magnitude earthquake, Panay or
Mindoro?
3. Tsunami Hazard Map

4. The following map shows the places along the coastal areas in the
Philippines that are prone to tsunami hazards. Cyan, magenta, and yellow
lines indicate the potential of the tsunami and the tsunami generators.
When the earthquake occurs in the Philippines, then tsunami is locally
generated. On the other hand, an earthquake that occurs outside the
country may be a foreign tsunami generator for the Philippines.
Majority of the coastal areas in Luzon (with the exception of Palawan and
northern islands) have a high tsunami potential with historical tsunami records.
Meanwhile, the coastal places in the Visayas region also show tsunami
potential mostly from local generators with a small percent of foreign
generators. Furthermore in the Mindanao region, high tsunami potential is also
evident in the mainland area while the small islands located in the southwest
show tsunami potentials by local generators.
Tsunamis that are locally generated are more dangerous than those that are
generated by foreign or distant sources because they may reach a nearby
shore in few minutes. There may not be enough time for tsunami warning
centers to issue a warning. People living near the coast with high risk of locally
generated tsunami must be alert when there is a reported earthquake in their
area. They must observe unusual ocean changes and listen to loud ocean roars.
They must evacuate immediately when they sense these natural tsunami
warning signs.
Map of the Distribution of Volcanoes

Below is the map showing the distribution of volcanoes all over the Philippines.
These volcanoes are classified as active (red), potentially active (orange), and
inactive (gray). Places where active and potentially active volcanoes are prone
to hazards of volcanic activities or volcanic eruptions.
For example, Mayon Volcano situated in Albay in the Bicol Region, is known not
only for its perfect cone, but also for its volcanic activities. It has 49 recorded
eruptions as of 2013. The areas surrounding the volcano are highly affected by
volcanic hazards. On the contrary, Palawan is not vulnerable to volcanic
eruption hazards since there are very few volcanoes near the area and all of
them are inactive.
Earthquake-Induced Shallow
Landslides Map
Places that have landslide hazards are presented in the map below. The legend
tells you the levels of the danger of the occurrence of landslide. For example,
majority of the provinces in the Northern Luzon is considered a high-danger
zone. These include mountainous areas like Abra, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, and
Mt. Province. On the other hand, Palawan shows no present risk in landslides.
Explore!
Your family decided to move to a different place and live there permanently.
You know nothing about the safety of this new place; however, you observed
that there is a nearby volcano. Also, there are coastlines several kilometers
from your house. You decided to go to the local government hall to ask about
the area, and they gave you hazard maps.
How can you use these maps to confirm the safety of your new home?
What do you think?
Why is it important to understand geological hazard maps?
Key Points
 A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable
to hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It
helps the public be informed and prepared for the geological hazard.
 You must take note of the title, symbols and legend, and source when
studying a geological hazard map.
 Geological hazard maps of the Philippines include maps that present the
earthquake-prone areas, tsunami-prone areas, distribution of volcanoes,
and earthquake-induced shallow landslides.
Coping with Geological Hazards

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give practical ways of coping
with geological hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.
Recall that a geological hazard is a condition or an event that may cause harm
to property and life as a result of a geological process such as earthquake,
volcanic eruption, or landslide.
What are the practical ways of coping with these hazards?
Learn about it!

What should you do before, during, and after geological hazards brought by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides?
Earthquake
Despite its rarity, an earthquake is extremely destructive, most especially in
urban areas. Ground shaking is the major cause of damage, but secondary
effects like ground displacement, tsunamis, liquefaction, fire, and landslides
may occur.
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after an earthquake:
Before an Earthquake
 Develop a disaster plan. Determine the “safe places” in your house. A safe place
could be under a sturdy table or against an interior wall away from windows or
tall furniture.
 Practice "drop, cover, and hold on" in the safe place. Drop under a sturdy desk or
table, take cover, and hold on.
 Take training on first aid from your local Red Cross chapter. Also, learn how to
use a fire extinguisher.
 Discuss earthquake with your family and/or housemates. Everyone should know
what to do in case the disaster strikes.
 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable food, water,

first aid kit, clothes, a battery-operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries.
During an Earthquake
 Wherever you are, take cover immediately.
 If you are indoors, drop on the ground, take cover under a sturdy thing like a
table, and hold on until the earthquake stops. Stay away from windows, tall
furniture, and light fixtures. Shattered glass and heavy objects may hurt you.
 If you are outdoors, go to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights,
and power lines.
 If you are in a vehicle, pull over to a safe place, avoiding anything that can
collapse. Stay inside the vehicle with your seat belt fastened until the shaking
stops.
After an Earthquake
 Check yourself for injuries.
 Help injured or trapped persons if you can.
 Be prepared for aftershocks. Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that follow

the main earthquake and can cause further damage to weakened buildings.
 Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, and gasoline immediately.

 Open cabinet doors cautiously. Contents may have been shifted during the
shaking.
 Listen to the radio or television for more information from authorities.
 Stay out of damaged buildings.
 If you are in a coastal area, move to a higher ground. The earthquake may
trigger tsunamis.
 If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes, be aware of landslide.

Soil and rocks may be loosened by the earthquake.
Volcanic eruption
A volcanic eruption is impossible to stop, but it can be managed. Its hazards
include lahar, pyroclastic flow, volcanic gases, and tephra fall.
Here are the practical ways that must be done before, during, and after a
volcanic eruption:
Before a Volcanic Eruption

Also, include masks and a pair of goggles for each member of the family.
 Make an emergency plan. Each member of the family must know what to do and
how to contact one another when the disaster strikes.
 Learn about your community's risk from hazards of volcanic eruptions.
 For government institutions, set-up an exclusion zone around a volcano for

safety and crowd control. An exclusion zone is a location where specific
activities are prohibited.
During a Volcanic Eruption

 Follow the evacuation orders issued by government officials and evacuate
immediately to avoid flying debris, hot gases, volcano blast, and lava flow.
 Be aware of mudflows and lahar. The danger of these hazards increases near
tributaries. They can flow faster than you can walk or run. Look upstream when
crossing a bridge and do not cross it when a mudflow is approaching.
 Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your nose and mouth to prevent
inhaling volcanic gases. Also, cover your skin to protect yourself from ashfall.
 If you are unable to evacuate, remain indoors with doors, windows, and
ventilation closed until the ash settles.
 Listen to the radio for the latest emergency information.
After a Volcanic Eruption

 Stay in the evacuation center until the authorities say that it is safe to go back
home.
 Help in cleaning and checking the damages brought by volcanic eruption
hazards.
 When cleaning ashes or mudflows at home, use a dust mask to cover your nose
and mouth. Seek advice from the authorities regarding the disposal of volcanic
ash in your community.
Landslide
Landslide hazards include debris flow, rock fall, and mud flow. Here are the
practical ways you can do before, during, and after a landslide:
Before a Landslide
 Have your parents ask for a ground assessment of your property.
 Know the patterns of storm-water drainage near your home. Note where runoff
water converges, and avoid these places during a storm.
 Learn about the emergency response and evacuation plans for your area during
a landslide.
 When you suspect imminent landslide danger, contact the emergency response
team of your community immediately. Evacuate immediately and inform
neighbors who might be at risk.
 Consider relocation if living in an area vulnerable to landslides.
During a Landslide
 Stay alert and awake. Many landslide fatalities occur when people are sleeping.
 Stay away from the path of any landslide hazards. If you suspect imminent
danger, evacuate immediately.
 If caught in a rock fall and escape is not possible, roll into a ball to protect your
head.
After a Landslide
 Stay away from the landslide area.
 Listen to local radio for the latest emergency information.
 Check for injured or trapped persons near the landslide, without entering the
area. Direct the rescuers to their locations.
 Replant the damaged ground as soon as possible to avoid landslides in the

future.
Try it!
Make an emergency plan with your family. Then prepare an emergency supply
kit. It must include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery-
operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries. Also, include masks and a pair
of goggles for each member of the family.
Explore!
Imagine being out-of-town for a family outing. After settling in a hotel, you have
learned that a nearby volcano has just erupted. What will you do during and
after the volcanic eruption?
What do you think?

What are other practical ways to cope with geological hazards caused by
earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and landslides?
Key Points
 Many geological hazards cannot be prevented. However, through careful
planning and preparation, damage to property and loss of life can be
avoided.
 Everyone in the family must know what to do before, during, and after
geological hazards brought by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.
Human Activities That Trigger Landslides

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to identify human activities that speed up or
trigger landslides and suggest ways to help lessen the occurrence of landslides
in your community.
Recall that a landslide, also called landslip, occurs when earth materials
(rocks, debris, and soil) move downwards along a slope. It may bring about
geological hazards including debris flow, rock fall, and mud flow.
How do human activities speed up or trigger a landslide?
Learn about it!

Landslides may be triggered by natural processes such as heavy rainfall and
earthquakes. They can also be triggered and aggravated by human activities.
Human Activities that Trigger

Landslides
 Clearcutting is a method done by logging companies to cut down every
marketable tree from a selected area to harvest timber. Deforestation or
removal of trees that hold water and topsoil may cause landslides.
 Slash-and-burn is a method that cuts down and burns off the existing
vegetation. It is a form of deforestation because the land is converted to
other uses.
 Mining and quarrying operations use explosives in their blasting

techniques to break rocks and gather ore deposits. They cause land areas
to slide due to the vibrations from the blast.
 Construction activities such as building of roads and railways may

interfere or change the natural drainage of water. When there is heavy
rainfall or flood, water may then move to a different path which may
saturate slopes and cause landslides.
Ways to Lessen the Occurrence of

Landslides
 Instead of clearcutting, selective cutting can be adopted by logging
companies to allow old trees to remain. This method cuts down mature or
inferior kind of trees to encourage the growth of the remaining trees in
the forest.
 Do alley-cropping instead of slash-and-burn method. Alley-cropping is a
method of simultaneously growing an agricultural crop with a tree crop,
retaining soil fertility.
 Plant more trees with strong root structures that hold the soil together.
 The government must set mining rules based on the evaluation of slope
stability and landslide threat in the mining areas. Mining companies must
follow these rules. In case of disobedience, temporary or permanent
suspension of mining operations must be implemented.
 Avoid construction on steep slopes. As this is not entirely possible,

evaluation of the area for land development should be performed by
engineers and geologists.
 Construct proper drainage away from the slope to control water

accumulation and to avoid slope instability.
 During construction, do not add unnecessary weight of fill materials to

avoid overloading. Also, check broken or leaking pipes because
oversaturation of soil with water can trigger landslides.
Aside from these, what other ways can help lessen the occurrence of
landslides?
Explore!
Imagine that you are the mayor of a town near a mountain. Ground assessment
of the area has shown that a part of the mountain has nickel. A mining
company has asked a permit to mine the nickel. What will you do? Will you
grant the permit? Why or why not?
Try it!
Find a picture of a landslide from the Internet. Write something about the
picture by answering the questions below. Be descriptive.
1. What do you think was the reason why the landslide took place?
2. How did the people in that area contribute to the landslide?
What do you think?

What can you do to lessen the occurrence of landslides in your own
community?
Key Points
 Human activities can increase landslide risks. They include clearcutting,
mining and quarrying, bad agricultural practices, and construction
activities.
 Suggestions to lessen landslides include planting more trees, controlling
water in the slope, practicing good agricultural methods, and avoiding
construction on steep slopes.
Hydrometeorological Hazards
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the various hazards
that may happen in the event of tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, and ipo-
ipo.
The Philippines is located along the typhoon belt in the Pacific. It experiences
an average of 20 typhoons every year. It is highly susceptible to hazards
brought by typhoons including floods, strong winds, storm surges, and
landslides.
What are the characteristics of these hazards?
Learn about it!

A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or an event that may cause harm
to property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process such as
tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.
Tropical Cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over
tropical oceans. It is called typhoon in the Philippines. The typhoons entering
the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) are given a local name by
the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA). This agency monitors and disseminates information
about weather disturbances.
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
Tropical cyclones or typhoons bring about hazards that may cause adverse
effects on organisms and their environment.
 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land. Due to heavy rainfall
brought by a typhoon, the water levels in dams and rivers increase. The water
then overflows to nearby land areas. A flood can damage houses, buildings, and
bridges. Flash flood, which is a sudden, rapid flooding, may cause drowning and
fatal injuries.
 A strong sustained wind is often brought by a typhoon. It can damage or destroy
vehicles, buildings, bridges, fields, and plantations.
 A landslide is the movement of a mass of rocks, soil, and debris down a slope. It
can be triggered by heavy rainfall.
 A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea water due to a typhoon. It is created

when water is being pushed toward the shore by the force of the winds moving
in a circular manner. It ravages beaches and coastal areas.
Example
Super Typhoon Yolanda (International name Haiyan) was one of the most
powerful typhoons ever recorded. It caused massive destruction in the
Philippines on November 9, 2013. Strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm
surges caused widespread damage to properties and loss of lives. About 6000
people died and 28 000 were injured because of the typhoon.
Monsoon
A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia. It
brings a different kind of weather depending on where it comes from. When it
blows from the southwest between May and September, it brings rainy weather.
When it blows from the northeast between October and April, it brings dry
weather. In the Philippines, the southwest monsoon brings about heavy rainfall.
Southwest Monsoon Hazards

A monsoon may bring about the same hazards caused by a typhoon. It may
cause heavy rainfall, strong wind, landslide, and flood.
 Heavy rainfall and strong wind can damage residential and industrial buildings.
It can also destroy agricultural crops.
 A landslide may happen when the soil becomes saturated with water due to
heavy rainfall. The soil and rocks from the slope can move down and destroy
many properties along the way.
 A flood may occur due to heavy rainfall that saturates the soil and causes an
overflow of water to dry land areas.
Example
On August 1 to 8, 2012, the southwest monsoon (Habagat) caused typhoon-like
damage in Metro Manila and nearby provinces. Heavy rainfall caused the
Marikina River to overflow, triggered a landslide, and caused the collapse of
roads and bridges. The floods and rain left 95 people dead and damaged 8000
houses.
Ipo-ipo
An ipo-ipo (tornado) is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like a
funnel-shaped cloud. It can destroy large buildings, uproot trees, and hurl
vehicles.
Ipo-Ipo Hazard
The strong whirling wind can lift and hurl objects it encounters no matter how
heavy the object is. It causes destruction of houses, buildings, dams, and
bridges. The lifted objects may also cause injuries and death upon impact.
Try it!
Many typhoons bring strong winds and intense heavy rainfall which cause
damages to properties and loss of lives. Using the internet, research the top 10
strongest typhoons that hit the Philippines. Then write down the effects of the
typhoons to the humans and their environment.
What do you think?

What should you do before, during, and after the occurrence of a
hydrometeorological hazard?
Key Points
 A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or event that may cause
harm to property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process
such as tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.
 A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms
over tropical oceans. It may bring about strong winds, flood, landslide,
and storm surge.
 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land.
 A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia.

In the Philippines, the southwest monsoon may bring about heavy rainfall,
landslide, and flood.
 A tornado or ipo-ipo is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like

a funnel-shaped cloud. The strong whirling wind brought by a tornado can
lift and hurl objects it encounters.
Understanding Hydrometeorological Hazard Maps

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify areas prone to hazards
brought about by tropical cyclones and floods using hydrometeorological
hazard maps.
You have already learned the importance of understanding hazard maps. In this
lesson, you will learn about the Philippine hydrometeorological hazard maps. `
What are the areas in the Philippines prone to hazards brought about by
tropical cyclones and floods?
Learn about it!
Hydrometeorological Hazard Map

A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are
vulnerable to hazards caused by tropical cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo. Recall
that in studying a hazard map, you have to note the title, source, legend, and
symbols. They guide you in understanding the information presented by the
map.
Risk to Typhoons Map
A tropical cyclone (also called bagyo in the Philippines) is the generic term for
any intense circulating weather system over tropical oceans. When it
originates from the Pacific Ocean, it is called a typhoon. It may bring about
hazards such as heavy rainfall, strong wind, flood, and landslide.
The Philippines is located on the western rim of the Pacific Ocean, an active
area for typhoon formation because of the vast expanse of deep, warm ocean
water. Because of its location, the country experiences an average of 20
typhoons per year, about nine of them make landfall. Aside from its location, it
is also comprised of more than 7000 islands, so there are plenty of coasts and
shorelines that could be directly hit by strong winds and heavy rainfall.
Because the Philippines is hit by many typhoons in a year, it is important to

study which areas in the country are at high risk. Below is the map of the
country along with the colors indicating the level of risk to typhoons.
The dark blue areas on the map

are those that have high risks of being hit by typhoons. For example, the
smaller islands in the northern part, including Batanes, have very high risk to
typhoons. In fact, these islands are hit by typhoons almost all year round. Also,
Albay in the Bicol region has very high risk to typhoons. It is often the first area
that is hit by typhoons that move along a westward path.
On the other hand, those that are colored green have medium risks, and those
that are yellow and tan have low risks to typhoons. For instance, Mindoro
(located in Southern Luzon) has medium risk, Bohol (in the Visayas) has low
risk, and Bukidnon (and most of Mindanao region) has very low risk to
typhoons.
DOST-Project NOAH
Project NOAH is the Philippines' main disaster risk reduction and management
program. It was initially launched by the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST). It has released hazard vulnerability maps to help
concerned agencies involved in disaster prevention and mitigation. Included in
their maps are flood susceptibility maps.
Flood Susceptibility Map

Flood is the overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal confines. It
is a hydrometeorological hazard that can be caused by heavy rainfall brought
by a typhoon or the Southwest monsoon. It causes damage to infrastructure
and poses threats to the health of residents living in the area.
Unlike the typhoon risk map which presents the level of risk of different
provinces to typhoons based on their location to the typhoon route, flood maps
are more area-specific. Aflood map represents past scenarios of flood events in
the specific area due to the overflow of a nearby water resource.
How to Do
1. Open the website http://noah.dost.gov.ph/#/.
2. Click on the icon for Flood and choose flood hazards.
3.
Input the following information – Region: NCR; Province: District 2; Municipal:

Marikina; Return Rate: 5 years.
4. Study the map.
Marikina has low-lying areas and is prone to floods. When the water in the
Marikina watershed rises above the channel, overflow ensues, and flooding
starts. Among the barangays, Malanday and Tumana have high levels of flood
hazard while Concepcion Dos has medium hazard level for the past five years.
Source of Map:
A.M.F. Lagmay. (2012). Disseminating near real-time hazards information and

flood maps in the Philippines through Web-GIS. DOST-Project NOAH Open-File
Reports, Vol. 1 (2013), pp. 28-36. ISSN 2362 7409.
Ipo-Ipo
Ipo-ipo is the local name for a tornado, a violently rotating column of air in
contact with the ground. It is usually formed during thunderstorms. At present,
there is no ipo-ipo hazard map produced specifically for the Philippines.
Try it!
1. Open the website http://noah.dost.gov.ph/#/.
2. Click on the icon for Flood and choose flood hazards.
3. Input your region, district, and municipality. View the results of flooding for the
last 5, 25, or 100 years.
4. Identify the barangays in your municipality that have high levels of flood
hazard. What is the level of flood hazard in your barangay?
Explore!
You are a volunteer stationed in an area vulnerable to typhoon and flood
hazards. How will you plan for the rescue operations in these extreme weather
events with the help of the hazard maps of that area?
What do you think?

How are hydrometeorological maps helpful in preparing for extreme weather
events?
Key Points
 A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are
vulnerable to hazards caused by tropical cyclones, floods, and ipo-ipo.
 In studying a hazard map, you have to note the title, source, legend, and
symbols.
 The risk to typhoons map presents the level of risk of different provinces
to typhoons based on their location to the typhoon route.
 A flood map represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific area
due to the overflow of a nearby water resource.
 Project NOAH has released hazard vulnerability maps to help concerned

agencies involved in disaster prevention and mitigation.
Coping with Hydrometeorological Hazards

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to give practical ways of coping with
hydrometeorological hazards caused by tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods,
or ipo-ipo.
Recall that a hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or an event that may

cause harm to property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process
such as tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.
What should you do before, during, and after a hydrometeorological hazard?
Learn about it!
Tropical Cyclone and Monsoon

Tropical cyclones and the Southwest monsoon may bring heavy rainfall and
strong winds. They may cause massive flooding and landslides. Tropical
cyclones can also cause storm surges along coastal areas.
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after a tropical
cyclone or monsoon:
Before the Tropical Cyclone or Monsoon

 Make sure you have an adequate supply of non-perishable food and clean water
at home.
 If you live in a place that is in the path of the cyclone or monsoon, close all
doors and windows.
 Check your drainage system at home. An efficient drainage system will lessen
the chance of flooding and leaks.
 Check to see if there is a need to fix roofs, ceilings, doors, and windows.
 Frequently listen to the weather reports.
 Charge up emergency lights and power banks. There is a high probability of

power outage due to strong winds and heavy rainfall.
 Identify a safe area for evacuation.
During the Tropical Cyclone or Monsoon

 Closely monitor weather reports for updated information on the tropical cyclone
(storm signal numbers or storm surge advisory) or monsoon.
 If you are in an area being directly hit by the hazard, stay indoors as much as
possible.
 Evacuate when necessary and bring your emergency supply kit.
 In case of a threat of a storm surge, evacuate to a place higher than 500 meters
from the coast.
After the Tropical Cyclone or Monsoon

 If your house was heavily damaged, ask for the advice of authorities regarding
its safety and stability. Do not go inside the house if you are uncertain of its
condition.
 Check gas, water, and electrical lines for any damage.
 Beware of animals such as snakes that may have entered your house.
 Wear protective gears when cleaning up debris.
 Some roads may be closed due to flood. If you come upon a barricade or a
flooded road, turn around and use another route.
Flood
Flooding is the overflowing of water on normally dry land. It has been one of
the most costly disasters in terms of damage to property and loss of life. The
most common cause of death associated with flood is drowning.
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after a flood:
Before the Flood
 Create a family disaster plan. Designate a contact person who can be reached
and discuss where you will meet if family members are separated.
 Closely monitor weather reports for information on the possibility of flooding.
 Identify a safe place for evacuation and alternative routes that are not prone to
flooding.
 If a flash flood warning is issued in your area, evacuate to a safe place

immediately.
 If flood alert is issued in your area, move valuables and furniture to higher levels
and disconnect electrical appliance.
During the Flood

 If you see any signs of flood, turn off the main source of electricity and go to a
higher place such as the second floor or attic.
 Do not wade along flooded areas to keep yourself from having water-borne
diseases.
 In case you need to pass through the flood, wear protective gears such as boots
and raincoats.
 Follow any evacuation orders.
 Watch out for live wires or any electrical outlet submerged in water.
 If you are inside a vehicle and water rises around it, leave it immediately. Climb
to higher ground as quickly as possible.
 If you see someone falls or is trapped in flood water, do not go after the victim.
Throw the victim a floatation device such as tire, large ball, or ice chest. Then
ask help from a trained rescuer.
After the Flood

 Have an electrician inspect your house wirings and electrical outlets before
using them.
 Clean up your house. Dispose of things that may be used by mosquitoes to
breed.
 Boil water before drinking because it may have been contaminated.
 Do not go or return to flooded areas until the authorities say that it is safe to do
so.
Ipo-ipo
Ipo-ipo creates havoc – tearing off roofs, uprooting trees, damaging power lines
and sending flying debris everywhere.
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after an ipo-ipo:
Before an Ipo-ipo
 Know the safe places where you can hide when there is an ipo-ipo. The safest
place is underground. If your house does not have a basement, a small room in
the middle of the house away from the windows is best.
 Pay attention to weather reports about the possible occurrence of an ipo-ipo.
Familiarize yourself with the warning sign. An ipo-ipo is often accompanied by
strong typhoons. Watch out for clouds that begin to rotate in a circular pattern.
 Create a family disaster plan. Designate a contact person who can be reached
and discuss where you will meet if family members are separated.
During an Ipo-ipo
 If you are inside a house, move to a safe place. Get under a steady piece of
furniture, such as a heavy table. Hold onto it and protect your head.
 If you are inside a vehicle, get out and seek a safe shelter.
 If you are outdoors and there is no shelter to hide, lie down in a low area with
your hands over your head and neck. Always watch out for flying debris.
 If you are inside a high-rise building, move to a room on the lowest floor.
After an Ipo-ipo
 Check yourself for injuries.
 Check for injured or trapped persons. Help if you can, but do not move them
unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
 Wear protective gears when walking and working through the debris.
Explore!
Imagine that you are at the beach. You heard over the television that a tropical
cyclone will directly affect the place you are staying. What would you do?
What do you think?

Hydrometeorological hazards can be triggered by human activities. What
human activities can trigger these hazards?
Key Points
 It is important to know what to do before, during, and after a
hydrometeorological hazard.
 Create a family disaster plan and educate everyone on what to do during
and after the occurrence of the hazard.
 Be calm when the hazard strikes and carry out the disaster plan.
 Continue practicing safety procedures even after the occurrence of the

hazard.
Coastal Processes
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how coastal processes
result in coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
What are the different kinds of coastal processes? How do these processes
result in erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion?
Learn about it!
Coastal Processes
The landscapes along coasts constantly change. Coastal processes are
naturally-occurring processes that bring alterations to the coastal zones. They
are interactions of marine, physical, meteorological, geological, and biological
events.
Waves
Waves are created by the energy of the wind on the sea. The wind causes
water particles to rotate and produce waves. Large waves are usually formed
during storms and typhoons. The height and energy of the waves vary on wind
speed, duration of the wave, fetch, and water depth. Fetch is an area of a water
wave where the wind blows in a constant direction. The higher speed, longer
duration, wide fetch, and deeper wave have more energy than other types of
wave.
Types of Waves
 Constructive waves have low energy and have a stronger swash (a wave
that approaches the coast) than backwash (a wave that recedes from the
coast). They are responsible for material depositions.
 Destructive waves have a higher height and energy. They are significant
forces of change in the coasts. In destructive waves, the backwash is
much stronger than the swash. Because of this, the coast has a higher
tendency of erosion. Strong destructive waves can carry a great load of
sediments that could significantly alter the coastal landscape.
Tides
Tides are temporary fluctuations in sea levels due to gravitational forces
between the sun, the moon, and the earth. They carry less energy to the coasts
but occur more often than waves. High tides occur when water levels are at
their highest while low tides occur when water levels are at their lowest.
Low-lying locations get submerged in seawater during high tide leading to

submersion. Repeated exposure of the coasts to submersion can loosen
materials and cause erosion in the long run.
Sea Level Rise

Faster sea level rise has been observed in the recent years. This is due to the
warming of the sea and melting of glaciers. The rise in sea level has become
more permanent. This warming of the sea and melting of glaciers are due to
enhanced greenhouse effect brought about by carbon emissions from various
human activities. Islands and even some countries are in danger of being
submerged underwater if the sea levels continue to increase. Sea level
changes threaten low-lying areas to experience submersion permanently.
Crustal Movement
Continents and landmasses have been formed and continuously shaped by the
movement of tectonic plates. These plates move because of the accumulated
stress within the Earth's crust releasing energy and forming different
landmasses. Coastal areas can be changed by the movement of these plates.
Crustal movements can cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion
along coasts. Its major effect is erosion followed by submersion as a
subsequent effect. It can also cause low-lying areas and islands adjacent to
oceans or seas to sink. Saltwater may also enter freshwater basins if crustal
movements would cause cracks in the coastlines.
Storm Surge
Storm surge occurs when the wind from tropical cyclones cause sea water
levels to beunusually higher than high tide levels. It can go as high as 20 feet
or more above the normal sea level. It is more likely to occur on coasts with
gentle slopes than those with steep slopes.
Some locations experience submersion during storm surge, which is not

experienced during high tides. Erosion is also more likely to happen because of
the additional actions of wavesduring storm surge. Inland groundwater sources
experience saltwater intrusion. This happens when the seawater reaches the
coastal areas and gets into groundwater and other freshwater resources.
Explore
Mae has been living in a coastal barangay for 30 years. Recently, she noticed
that during high tides, water could reach high altitude as compared five years
ago. The water could go further inland. What happened to the coasts near her
barangay that enabled water to reach further inland?
Try it!
Create a diagram of the different coastal processes. The diagram must show
the similarities and differences of these processes as well as their effects
(coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion) to coasts.
What do you think?

Coastal processes are naturally-occurring events. As humans, we do not have
the capability and technology to prevent these from happening though we can
do some things to respond to these occurrences. How can areas near coasts
be prepared for different coastal processes?
Key Points
 Coastal processes are natural events that affect the features of coasts
and nearby areas.
 The three primary effects of coastal processes are erosion, submersion,
and saltwater intrusion.
 Tides cause an increase or a decrease in sea levels. Locations with

increased sea level (high tide) are exposed to the dangers of submersion.
Constant submersion can also lead to erosion.
 The rise in sea levels causes submersion of low-lying areas.
 Crustal movements cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
 Storm surge endangers areas near coasts to submersion. Erosion can

also occur because of wave action on storm surges. Saltwater intrusion
can also happen if the seawater reaches wells and reservoirs of
freshwater.
Coping with Coastal Erosion, Submersion, and Saltwater Intrusion

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give practical ways of coping
with coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
Coastal processes are unavoidable occurrences driven by nature and amplified

by human action. They cause damage to the shorelines through coastal
erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
How can the effects of coastal processes be managed?
Learn about it!

The following practices and methods can help coastal areas cope with coastal
erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
Coastal Protection
Some structures and methods can help protect the coasts from erosion and
submersion. They are usually constructed along the coasts.
 Seawalls and bulkheads are structures that are built parallel to shores
that protect the coasts from wave actions.
 Groynes and jetties are structures that are built perpendicular to shores
to prevent coastal erosion by promoting beach build-up as they trap sand.
 Breakwaters are offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel

waves and in turn, prevent erosion and submersion.
 Beach nourishment is a method where a large amount of sand is added to

the coasts. This will create a new beach or widen an existing one.
However, this method is costly which deters communities to use it.
 Sandbags are used to counteract waves that hit the shores. They also
diminish the effect of a storm surge that can cause submersion.
Reducing Coastal Erosion

Aside from coastal protection, different ways can be done to reduce the impact
of coastal erosion. Some of them are less expensive than constructing
structures along the coasts.
 Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe distances

from the coasts.
 Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to prevent
erosion.
 Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to reduce
the speed of current that promote erosion.
 Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by mining.
 Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts from
erosion.
Coping with Saltwater Intrusion

The following methods help in dealing with saltwater intrusion.
 Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of saltwater

intrusion cases.
 Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater intrusion.
Structures must be regulated to have a safe distance from the sea to
prevent excessive groundwater extraction from the reservoir that
contributes to saltwater intrusion.
 Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent saltwater
from intruding through the coasts.
 Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further advancement

of saltwater if already present.
 Try it!
 You were assigned as the head engineer of a government project to
design structures for a coastal area that suffers from saltwater intrusion,
high waves, and storm surges. Plan the structures and management that
you would like to apply for this coastal area. Provide a sketch and a short
explanation for each structure that you plan to build.
 Explore
 You are one of the leading researchers in your coastal community. A land
developer wants to build a mall that is 20 feet off the edge of the coast.
He presented that his mall will not be affected by coastal processes
because there were no records of any major damages done in your
community. As a researcher, what are the problems that the land
developer might encounter if he would continue to build his mall?
Key Points
 Coastal protection involves methods and structures that prevent coastal
erosion and submersion. Examples of these structures
are seawalls, gyrones, and breakwaters.
 Beach nourishment and installation of small walls made of sandbags are
other methods of coastal protection.
 Reducing coastal erosion involves methods that minimize the erosion

already occurring on the coasts.
 Beach dewatering, construction of buildings in a safe distance from the

water, ban of mining activities, and maintaining plant cover are some
examples of ways to reduce coastal erosion.
 Coping with saltwater intrusion involves three major steps: monitoring

and assessment, regulation, and engineering structures.
Mitigation of the Impacts of Land Development, Waste Disposal, and

Construction on Coasts
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite ways to prevent or mitigate
the impact of land development, waste disposal, and construction on coasts.
The modifications in coasts are not solely caused by coastal processes. Some
human activities contribute to the alteration of coastal landscapes. They can
worsen the effects of coastal processes.
What are some effects of human activities on the coasts? How can the effects
of human activities be prevented from negatively affecting coasts?
Learn about it!

Human activities such as land development, waste disposal, and construction
cause different changes in coastal features. It is vital that impacts of these
activities be prevented or mitigated to help the coasts in withstanding coastal
processes.
Coastal Land Development

Coastal land development is due to the demand in space, structures, and
facilities that are used for various human needs. It aggravates the effects of
coastal processes. It increases the incidents of sand mining and sediment run-
off that contribute to coastal erosion. In addition, the increase in
establishments leads to higher demand for freshwater which then contribute to
saltwater intrusion.
Several ways must be employed to control the impact of land development on

coasts. In the Philippines, PD 1586 has established the implementation
of Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA allows the
determination of the possible environmental consequences of implementing a
project, and it also plans possible preventive and enhancing methods for
mitigation of the determined risks. EIA points out the dangers before, during,
and after development. Meanwhile, environmental risk assessments (ERAs)are
done in an ongoing project and help identify and evaluate the effects on the
ecosystem of any hazards caused by land development. Developments must
also have a blueprint that ensure that coasts are preserved, infrastructures are
used efficiently, and the development itself has a beneficial use for the
community. Lastly, controlling activities of development must be employed to
ensure the protection of coasts from strain.
Waste Disposal
The increase in development and population may lead to increased amounts of
waste disposed of in a coastal area. The wastes are sometimes disposed of in
landfills built near the coasts. The construction of these landfills not only
causes land and water pollution to the coastal area but also amplifies the
effects of coastal erosion and results in saltwater intrusion.
Effective solid waste management planning and implementation must be

carried out by the residents and users of coastal areas. Managing solid wastes
at the community level prevents coastal deterioration. Industrial wastes must
also be properly managed and not released in coastal areas.
Construction
Constructions on coasts are consequences of the increasing land development
in the area. If done haphazardly, these constructed infrastructures can cause
more harm to the coast.
It is crucial that these structures are built at a safe distance from the coasts.
This ensures both the structures’ and coasts’ safety. Structures must also have
strong foundations to withstand the coastal harshness so that they will not
deteriorate. It is also suggested that the buildings be elevated so as not to
impact directly the coastal soil and for their protection against coastal
processes. If possible, reinforcing building envelopes should be considered to
protect the infrastructure and land from coastal threats. Building envelopes are
structures that separate interior from exterior, like walls, doors, roofs.
Explore
Identify a coastal area near your home or school. What are the possible risks to
this area brought about by coastal land development, waste disposal, and
construction? What regulations does your local government implement to
protect these areas?
Try it!
You recently finished rural studies and your expertise is coastal management
and protection. A coastal area community has agreed for land development and
is seeking your help to draft rules and regulations for the agreement with the
contractor. What provisions will you include in the agreement? Draft your own
terms of agreement for the land development project that emphasizes coastal
protection.
What do you think?

What will be the effect on coastal areas if unregulated land developments,
waste disposal systems, and construction activities continue to happen?
Key Points
 Coastal land development, waste disposal, and construction are three
major human activities that directly affect coasts.
 Coastal land development is a thriving activity due to increasing
demands. Unfortunately, it contributes to the incidents of soil erosion and
saltwater intrusion.
 Risk assessment, blueprint development, and control of activities can

mitigate the effects of coastal land development.
 Construction of landfills not only pollutes the soil and water but also
causes erosion.
 Effective solid waste management can prevent the effects of waste

disposal along coastal areas.
 Construction of building envelopes and strong foundations for

infrastructures, andconducting works at a safe and acceptable
distance from the shoreline are mitigation procedures for the effects of
construction on coastal areas.
The Evolving Concept of Life

INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the evolving concept of
life based on emerging pieces of evidence.
Study and analyze the diagram.

What was the first form of life?
Learn about it!

Life is believed to have existed on earth for billion years now. Scientists do not
know exactly when did life begin on Earth. However, they are able to trace how
life developed and evolved using some pieces of evidence.
The Origin of Life

There are many theories about the origin of life. Some believed that living
organisms were put to Earth by some divine forces. Others say that life did not
originate from Earth but from other planets. But among scientists, the most
accepted theory is that life came from inanimate matter.
According to the primordial soup theory proposed by Alexander

Oparin and John Haldane, life started in a primordial soup of organic
molecules. Some form of energy from lightning combined with the chemicals in
the atmosphere to make the building blocks of protein known as the amino
acids.
Early Forms of Life

The first form of life is believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years ago.
The first evidence of life is found in microfossils. Microfossils are fossils that
contain the remains of tiny plants and animals. They are very small and can be
measured in millimeters, and some could only be identified under a
microscope.
Some of the remains of organisms do not have a nucleus so they were

called prokaryotes. They are known to be the earliest forms of life. They have
survived the extreme conditions of the early environment. They started to
make their own food by utilizing the energy from the sun and the carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. These are the photosynthetic organisms. The
process of photosynthesis produced more oxygen that changed the Earth’s
early atmosphere. This change in the atmosphere allowed oxygen-breathing
organisms to exist. The cyanobacteria are the first photosynthetic organisms to
form. Their microfossils are among the easiest to recognize. Their morphology
remained the same and they left chemical fossils in the form of broken
products from pigments.
The first microfossil that showed remains of organisms with differences in

structure from the simple form of life was seen in rocks about 1.5 billion years
old. They are larger than bacteria and have internal membranes and thicker
wall. These findings marked the beginning of eukaryotic organisms on earth.
How did multicellular organisms evolve?

Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved from unicellular
eukaryotes. Some single eukaryotic cells, like unicellular algae, formed
multicellular aggregates through association with another cell producing
colonies. From colonial aggregates, the organisms evolved to form multicellular
organisms through cell specialization. Protozoans, sponges, and fungi came to
being.
The first fossilized animals which were discovered 580 million years ago
were soft-bodied. The continuous process of cell specialization brought the
emergence of complex and diverse plants and animals, including human
beings.
Evidence from fossil layers proved that different forms of life were present and
have evolved through time. According to Charles Darwin, organisms change
over time as a result of adaptation to their environment in order to survive.
Explore!
Your mother bought some meat from the market one day. She placed the meat
in a pan but forgot to place it in the freezer. After some time, maggots were
seen crawling from the meat. What can you say about these outcomes?
Try it!
Place a piece of bread in a plastic container and leave it for three days.
Observe what would happen to the bread. What do you see on the bread? What
brought them there?
What do you think?

If multicellular organisms came from unicellular organisms, then are all
species related?
Key Points
 The first forms of life are the bacteria found on microfossils.
 Eukaryotic cells evolve from prokaryotic cells.
 Multicellular organisms evolve from eukaryotic cells through cell

specialization.
 The evolution of life is brought about by the changes in the environment

which are are linked to changes in climate and geology.
 Evidence that life evolved is found in fossil records and molecular biology.
Classical Experiments that Lead to the Discovery of First Life

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe classic experiments
that model conditions which may have enabled the first forms to evolve.
How did life begin on Earth?
Learn about it!

About 4.6 billion years ago, the Earth began to exist. The existence of life, as
believed by many scientists, started from the moment the Earth’s environment
became stable to support life. Several theories were proposed to explain life’s
origin. One of these theories is the primordial soup theory proposed
by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane.
According to this theory, life started in a primordial soup of organic molecules.

Chemicals from the atmosphere and some form of energy from lightning
combined to make amino acids which are the building blocks of protein.
Several scientists conducted different experiments that modelled conditions

which may have enabled the first life forms to evolve. Among these
experiments are the Electrical Discharge Experiment, Thermal Synthesis,
and The Protocell Experiment.
Electrical Discharge Experiment

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the primordial soup theory
by simulating the formation of organic molecules on the early Earth . They
confined methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen in a closed system and
applied continuous electrical sparks to trigger the formation of the building
blocks of life. After a day, they observed a
change of color in the solution. After a week,
the solution was tested, and they found out
that several amino acids were
produced.
The purpose of this experiment was not to try and produce amino acids, rather,
its purpose was to explore the conditions of the early Earth and what the
naturally occurring results would be.
Thermal Synthesis
Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life using a specific
mixture of pure, dry amino acids. In his experiment, after heating the mixture,
an aqueous solution was formed and cooled into microscopic globules
called protenoid microspheres. The globules looked like coccoid bacteria and
seemed to be budding, which is a form of reproduction in some
microorganisms.
He claimed that the protenoid microspheres constituted protocells – almost
true cells, and multiplied through division like true cells. He believed that these
cells were the link between the primordial environment and the true living
cells.
The Protocell Experiment

Jack Szostack contemplated on how early life forms formed in a primordial
chemical environment. He then thought that the simplest possible living cells
or protocells just required two components to be formed: a nucleic acid
genome to transmit the genetic information and a lipid sac which encapsulated
the genome and let itself grow and divide.
Szostack built lipid sacs made in fatty acids and a replicase – an RNA molecule
that catalyzes its own replication, in the test tube. He found out that lipid sacs
with more RNA grew faster. He suggested that such test tube evolution was
possible. The results suggested that the early forms of life with just a single
gene, an RNA gene, could have undergone a Darwinian evolution.
Try it!
Try to leave a piece of bread on the table for two to three weeks. What do you
think will happen to it? How will you relate this to the experiments about the
origin of life?
What do you think?

Which of the three experiments is the most plausible in determining the origin
of life? Why?
Key Points
 One of the theories about the early forms of life is the primordial soup
theoryproposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane.
 Several scientists conducted different experiments that modelled
conditions which may have enabled the first life forms to evolve; this
include Electrical Discharge Experiment, Thermal Synthesis, and The
Protocell Experiment.
 Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the primordial soup theory
by simulating the formation of organic molecules on the early Earth .
 Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life using a

specific mixture of pure, dry amino acids.
 Jack Szostack made protocells from a lipid sac and a replicase – an RNA
molecule that catalyzes its own replication.
The Connections and Interactions among Living Things

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how unifying themes
(e.g., structure and function, evolution, and ecosystems) show the connections
among living things and how they interact with each other and with their
environment.
How are these units connected to each other?

Ecology
Ecology is the study of living organisms and their relationships with each other
and their environment. Let’s take the diagram as an example. The diagram
depicts that everything is connected and interrelated with one another. They
are different from each other, but they co-exist with one another in one
community. The unifying themes of life give us an idea of how each of these
themes contributes to the connection and interaction of living organisms and
their environment.
Biological Systems
A system consists of related parts that interact with each other to form a
whole. It has different parts, but each plays a significant role for the whole to
function as one. Without the help from each other, it cannot fully perform its
function.
Levels of Organization
The cells are considered as the basic unit of life. All living organisms are made
up of cells. When cells come together, they form the tissues. A group of tissues
form the organs. A group of organs form the organ systems. An organism
consists of many organ systems but functions as one individual.
Forms and Functions

The function of an organism or a part of an organism greatly depends on its
form and structure. It is related to how it works. An example of this is the
webbed foot of a duck which helps the duck swim and search for their food
under water.
Reproduction and Inheritance

Reproduction ensures the survival of species. All living organisms reproduce
either through asexual or sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, the
offspring inherits the genes from a single parent. However in sexual
reproduction, the offspring inherit the genes from two individual parents.
Energy and Life

Living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. In plants, they undergo
photosynthesis where plants convert the energy from the sun into sugar. Since
most of the animals cannot produce their own energy, they get the energy from
the consumption and assimilation of the biomass of plants and other animals.
Thermal Regulation
The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is
called homeostasis. Humans have to maintain a body temperature of 37 ∘∘C.
When the temperature outside our bodies becomes hot, the skin cools down by
perspiration maintaining the normal body temperature.
Adaptation and Evolution
In a world that is continuously changing, life itself evolves. Organisms change
over time to acclimate to their environment in order to survive. If they fail to
adapt to the changes, they usually become extinct. One contemporary example
of adaptation is the Aedes aegypti or the mosquito famous for carrying dengue
that caused major outbreaks nationwide. They were able to adapt to the
scarcity of rain which is essential to their life cycle.
Evolution takes time, usually decades. However, there are times when change
happens very rapidly. One example is the blue moon butterfly that managed to
undergo a mutation which made the males survive an infection of a parasite.
Explore!
Look around you and identify the living organisms that surround you. What
makes them similar to one another? What makes them different?
Try it!
Observe what happens to your body when you enter a very dark and cold
theatre. How does your body adapt to its surroundings?
What do you think?

Which of the following unifying themes do you consider the most important of
all? Why did you say so?
Key Points
 Ecology is the study of living organisms and their relationships with each
other and their environment.
 An organism’s structure is related to how it works.
 An organism consists of many organ systems but functions as one

individual.
 The function of an organism or a part of it depends on its form and

structure.
 Reproduction ensures the survival of species.

 Living things obtain energy in the food they eat.
 The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is

called homeostasis.
 Organisms undergo adaptation or evolution in order to survive.
Cell: The Basic Unit of Life

BIOENERGETICS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how cells carry out
functions required for life.
Have you ever wondered what the inside of a cell looks like and how its parts
perform functions required for life?
Learn about it!
The Basic Unit of Life

All organisms are made up of cells. The cell is the basic structural unit found in
every living organism that performs several functions throughout life. The zoo
animals such as elephants and snakes, the plants in the garden, and even
yourself, are all living things composed of cells. These cells can only be seen
through the use of a microscope.
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

There are two types of cells based on the presence or absence of a nucleus.
Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which contains the genetic material or DNA.
They also have several membrane-bound organelles such as ribosomes and
mitochondria. They include animal and plant cells.
Prokaryotic cells differ in eukaryotic cells because their DNA is found in a

region called thenucleoid rather than a nucleus. They also lack most
membrane-bound organelles present in eukaryotes. However, prokaryotes
have cytoplasm where organelles are suspended, flagellathat aids in
motility, cell wall made of peptidoglycan, cell membrane that serves as a
selective barrier, and ribosomes that make proteins.
Eukaryotic Cells
There are two types of eukaryotic cells: animal and plant cells.
Animal Cells
Aside from the nucleus, the typical animal cell also have other membrane-
bound organelles such as mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus,
endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, microtubules, plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
and ribosomes.
 The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell because this is where most
energy (ATP) is produced.
 The lysosomes break down large molecules into smaller pieces and digest worn
out organelles.
 The Golgi apparatus sorts and packages proteins and lipids produced by the
smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
o The cis face receives the materials for processing in transport vesicles.
o The trans face is the discharging end where molecules are released
through the secretory vesicles.
 The endoplasmic reticulum has two types: rough ER and smooth ER.
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum is bounded with ribosomes. It is where most

protein synthesis occurs.
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes attached. Its function is
mainly for lipid synthesis.
 The nucleus is the largest organelle that serves as the control center of the cell.
It contains the hereditary material known as DNA.
 The microtubules are components of the cytoskeleton and important in a

number of cellular processes.
 The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that encloses the cell

separating its contents from the surroundings.
 The cytoplasm is a semifluid matrix where organelles are suspended.
 The ribosomes consist of the large and small subunits. Their main role is to
synthesize proteins needed by the cell.
Plant Cells
Plant and animal cells share the same structures except for the chloroplast,
cell wall, and amyloplast, which are only found in plants. A large vacuole is
found in both animal and plant cells but is a typical and distinct structure in a
plant cell.
 The cell wall provides support and protection for the cell. Special openings
called plasmodesmata are used to communicate and transport materials
between plant cells.
 The chloroplasts convert light energy to sugars through photosynthesis.
 The vacuole is responsible for storing food, water, and metabolic and toxic
wastes.
 The amyloplast is responsible for the production and storage of starch and the
conversion of starch back to sugar as needed by the plant for energy.
What is the main difference between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cells?
Eukaryotic cells have nucleus that contains the genetic material while
prokaryotes do not have. Instead, the genetic material of prokaryotes is found
in a region called the nucleoid.
How do cells carry out functions required for life?

Cells have different types which are specialized to perform specific functions.
For example, cardiac muscle cells have numerous mitochondrion because they
need a lot of energy. Nerve cells are long for them to be able to transmit
signals from the brain to the rest of the body. Cell membrane of cells in the
intestine is extended to have more surface area to absorb food. Mammalian red
blood cells don’t have nucleus to make more room for hemoglobin, a protein
that carries respiratory gases.
Explore!
Cancer cells are basically cells that have gone wrong. Typically, these cells no
longer respond to signals, their growth is uncontrollable, and they even evade
apoptosis (programmed cell death). Since the cells keep on dividing, they
eventually form a lump (tumor) that grows in size. How do normal cells become
cancer cells?
What do you think?

Human red blood cells lose their nucleus when they mature. What properties of
mature red blood cells can you infer from this information?
Key Points
 The cell is the basic unit of life.
 Prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus. Their genetic material is found in a
region called the nucleoid.
 Eukaryotic cells have nucleus which contains the genetic material. They
can be classified as animal or plant cells.
 Animal cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles such

as mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleus, microtubules, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
 Plant cells have the same structures as animal cells except for
chloroplast, cell wall, and amyloplast which are only found in plants.
 Cells have different types which are specialized to perform specific

functions.
Photosynthesis
BIOENERGETICS
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how photosynthetic
organisms use light energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to form
energy-rich compounds.
Take a look at this picture.
What can you say about this picture?
Learn about it!

The sun is the primary source of energy needed by all organisms to survive.
However, this energy cannot be consumed by most organisms unless converted
into other forms of energy. Think of it this way. When you go to another
country, you need to exchange your money for their currency so that you can
use it. Just like in this case. Only plants and photosynthetic organisms convert
light energy into forms usable by other organisms.
Photosynthesis is the process where photosynthetic organisms convert light
energy to form sugar. The thylakoid membrane contains chlorophyll which is
responsible for capturing light energy. Photosynthesis has two phases: light-
dependent reaction and light-independent reaction.
Light-Dependent Reaction
The reaction occurs in the thylakoids. It converts light

energy to ATP and NADPH. It can be summarized into four steps:
1. Light absorption and splitting of water. Light strikes the chlorophyll and
an enzyme splits water (H2OH2O) into protons
(H+ionsH+ions), electrons, and oxygen (O2O2).
2. Production of ATP. ATP synthase accepts energy from H+ionsH+ions to
produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
3. Hydrogen pump powered by electron acceptors. Electrons pass through
proton pump and the energy from the electrons pumps H+ionsH+ions back
to the thylakoids.
4. Production of NADPH by re-energizing electrons. Light strikes again, the
chlorophyll and electrons get re-energized. The last electron acceptor
moves electrons to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)
and H+ionsH+ions to produceNADPH.
Light-Independent Reaction
This is also known as the Calvin cycle. Takes place in the stroma and
uses ATP and NADPHfrom the previous reaction. It reduces CO2CO2 to form
sugar. The reaction is summarized below.
1. Fixation
of CO2CO2.
Ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase
(Rubisco)
catalyzes CO2CO2 to ribulose 1, 5-
bisphosphate (RuBP). A carbon atom sticks to RuBP and
results to unstable 6-C molecule and splits into 3-
phosphoglycerate.
2. Reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate. The energy from ATP
and hydrogens from NADPH are added to the 3-C molecule to form 3-
phosphoglyceraldehyde (G3P).
3. Regeneration of RuBP from G3P. Most of the G3P are used to generate
back the RuBP and prepares again for CO2CO2 fixation.
Photosynthesis is composed of two reactions. Below is the summary:
Explore!
A group of boys placed a bunch of leaves in a sealed plastic bag and left it
under the sun. After two days, they saw drops of water inside the plastic bag.
What does this infer?
Try it!
Get a plant and cover some of the leaves with aluminum foil. Place it under the
sun for three days. Examine the leaves and compare it to the other leaves after
three days. What do you observe?
What do you think?
How does deforestation affect photosynthesis?
Key Points
 Photosynthesis is the process where plants and other photosynthetic
organisms convert light energy into chemical energy to form sugar.
 Photosynthesis has two phases: light-dependent reaction and Calvin
Cycle.
 The light-dependent reaction converts energy to ATP and NADPH.
 It has four steps: (1) Light absorption and splitting of water, (2) production
of ATP, (3) hydrogen pump powered by the movement of electron
acceptors and, (4) production of NADPH by re-energizing electrons.
 Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH from the previous reaction.
 It has three steps: (1) Fixation of CO2, (2) reduction of 3-

phosphoglycerate and, (3) regeneration of RuBP from G3P.
The Energy Flow from Environment to Cells

BIOENERGETICS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to trace the energy flow from the
environment to the cells.
Cells of living organisms need constant supply of energy to carry out life
processes. The lions catching their prey, the birds flying through the air, and
the dogs wagging their tails – use energy.
Where do organisms get this energy? How does energy flow from environment
to cells of organisms?
Learn about it!

Energy that organisms use comes from food. Organisms can either make their
own food (autotrophs) or get it by consuming other organisms (heterotrophs).
Most autotrophs, such as plants, phytoplankton, and algae, capture light energy
and take in carbon dioxide and water from the environment. The reactants
(CO2CO2 and H2OH2O) are then converted into glucose. In addition, oxygen is
released as a by-product. This process is known as photosynthesis which
occurs in the cell’s chloroplast. Since autotrophs can make their own food,
they are also called producers.
On the other hand, heterotrophs cannot make their own food so they depend on
other organisms for food. Some consume autotrophs (herbivores) while others
consume other heterotrophs (carnivores) or consume both (omnivores). Since
they obtain energy from consuming other organisms, they are also
called consumers. The cells of heterotrophs produce ATP (energy-carrying
molecule) by breaking the chemical bonds in glucose and releasing their stored
energy. This process is known as cellular respiration which occurs in the
mitochondria of each cell.
Photosynthesis in autotrophs and cellular respiration in heterotrophs work

together to store and release energy in living organisms. The reactants of one
process are the products of the other. The reactants of photosynthesis
– CO2CO2 and H2OH2O produce C6H12O6C6H12O6 and H2OH2O. These products
are then used by heterotrophs in cellular respiration which
releases CO2CO2and H2OH2O back to the environment.
Energy Flow from Environment to Cells

As energy moves among living organisms, some of it is lost as heat.
Nevertheless, that energy is not completely lost in the universe. Energy is
never created nor destroyed. It is just converted from one form to another. One
good example is when you feel hot after exercise. The warmth that you feel in
your body results from energy transformation that occurs when you move. As
shown in the illustration, loss of energy in the form of heat and body activities
is involved at each step of energy transfer among organisms.
The illustration above shows the overall flow of energy through living
organisms. The solar energy is captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplast of
plant cells (producers). Through photosynthesis, glucose is produced. Animals
could then use this glucose from producers to make their own energy through
cellular respiration. This process occurs in the mitochondria of animal cells. As
energy is transferred, some energy is lost in the form of heat through different
activities of the body.
Explore!
There is 90% energy loss at each trophic level (feeding level). This means that
only 10% of the energy from one level of the food chain makes it to the next.
How much energy do you think is accessible to humans? And how much do we
use?
What do you think?

Why is there greater energy loss in warm-blooded organisms than in cold-
blooded ones?
Key Points
 Autotrophs can make their own food through a process known as
photosynthesis.
 Heterotrophs consume other organisms for food. They harvest energy
through the process known as cellular respiration.
 As energy is transferred between living organisms, some energy is lost in

the form of heat and body activities.
 Only 10% of the energy is obtained when an organism eats the other.
 The solar energy is captured in the chloroplast of producers. Through

photosynthesis, glucose is produced. Animals could then use this glucose
from producers to make their own energy through cellular respiration
which occurs in the mitochondria.
How Organisms Obtain and Utilize Energy

BIOENERGETICS
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how organisms obtain
and utilize energy and recognize that organisms require energy to carry out
functions required for life.
What do you notice about this picture?
Learn about it!

Carbohydrates are one of the most important food sources for animals. If
carbohydrates are stored, then its potential as a source of energy is null. When
you put a coin in a machine slot, it will not accept it unless it’s a token
because it was made to read the token, not the coin. Same goes with this. It
must be broken down into sugar and produce ATP that will act as a fuel
essential for cell's activities and processes.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion where carbohydrates are
broken down into glucose and ATP. There are two types of cellular
respiration: aerobic respirationand anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
This occurs when glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen. This is
divided intothree stages: glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.
A. Glycolysis
 It is a process where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acids.

 It takes place in the cytoplasm.
 Two ATP and NADPH are produced.
 This can happen with or without oxygen.

B. Kreb's Cycle
 This happens in the mitochondria.

 Kreb's cycle requires oxygen.
 When a pyruvic acid loses CO2CO2, it produces acetyl-CoA which oxidizes to

form CO2CO2, ATP, and other compounds (NADH and FADH2).
C. Oxidative phosphorylation
 Phosphorylation is the process where electrons are combined with another

molecule from the ATP.
 The main goal is to transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP.
 Two steps are involved: electron transport chain (ETC) and chemiosmosis.
 ETC transports electrons but no ATP produced.
 In chemiosmosis, ATP synthase is driven by protons to produce ATP.
Anaerobic Respiration
This occurs in the absence of oxygen and glucose is broken down to ATP. There
are twotypes of anaerobic respiration: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation.
A. Alcoholic Fermentation
 Glucose is converted to alcohol. This type of fermentation does not occur in

humans. It usually occurs in bacteria and yeast.
B. Lactic Acid Fermentation

 This occurs in the human body when oxygen in the muscles is used up and the
muscles still require more energy, thus producing lactic acid.
 Explore!
 You have a paper in Biology due next week. Since the deadline is still next
week, you procrastinated. At the day of the deadline, you rushed to finish
your paper. You wanted to finish it but it feels like you can't think
anymore. Based on the situation, what is the role of cellular respiration in
your body's condition?
 Try it!
 Place 1/2 teaspoon of yeast in an Erlenmeyer flask. Add 40 mL of vinegar
to the 50 mL Erlenmeyer flask then cover the flask tightly with a balloon.
Observe what happens to the balloon. What does this prove?

 Why is cellular respiration important for one to maintain life?
Key Points
 Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion where
carbohydrates are broken down into glucose and ATP.
 There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic
respiration and anaerobic respiration.
 Aerobic respiration occurs when glucose is broken down in the presence

of oxygen. This has three stages: glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.
 Glycolysis is a process by which glucose is broken down into pyruvic

acids, ATP, and NADPH.
 In Kreb's cycle, pyruvic acids produce acetyl-CoA to form CO2 and ATP.
 Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen and glucose is

broken down to energy.
 Two types of anaerobic respiration: alcoholic and lactic acid

fermentation.
 In alcohol fermentation, glucose is converted to alcohol.

 Lactic acid fermentation leads to the production of lactic acid in the
human body when oxygen in the muscles is used up and still requires
more energy.
 A total of 36 ATP is produced during cellular respiration.
The Reproduction of Plants

PERPETUATION OF LIFE
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how plants reproduce.
Angiosperms, also called flowering plants, have seeds enclosed within an ovary
whilegymnosperms have unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of their
leaves or scales.
How do angiosperms and gymnosperms reproduce?
Learn about it!
Reproduction in Angiosperms
Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs in angiosperms. They consist of
the androecium(male reproductive structure) and gynoecium (female
reproductive structure).
Male Reproductive Parts of the Flower
Androecium is the male reproductive structure of the plant that consists of a
whorl of stamens.
The stamen is comprised of the filament and the anther. The filament is a long,
slender stalk that holds the anther while the anther produces the pollen
grains (male reproductive cells).
(a) Stamen
(b) a cut section of the anther
Female Reproductive Parts of the Flower
Gynoecium is the female reproductive structure of a flower. It may consist of a
single pistil (monocarpellary) or may have several pistils (multicarpellary).
The pistil is made up of the stigma, style, and ovary. The style is a slender stalk
that supports the stigma while the stigma is the sticky part that receives the
pollen. The ovary is the basal sac that contains the ovules (female reproductive
cells).
Both the male and female gametes of the flowers are non-motile. They are
brought together by pollination.
Pollination
Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes. It takes
place when the pollen grains from the male anther are transferred to the
female stigma.
Types of Pollination
 Autogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to
the stigma ofthe same flower.
 Geitonogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred
to the stigma of another flower of the same plant.
 Xenogamy, also called cross-pollination, is a type of pollination where
pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of a different plant.
Agents of Pollination
 Abiotic agents are nonliving things that aid in the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to the stigma. They include wind and water.
 Biotic agents are living things that aid in pollination. They include animals
and even humans.
Example
A bee, which sips nectar from flowers, transfers the pollen grains from one
flower to another. It is an example of a biotic agent.
Tips
In pollination, the pollen grains are transferred to the female reproductive
structures of a flowering plant. However, it does not guarantee the transfer of
the correct type of pollen to another flower since the pollen grains are of the
same species as the stigma where it came from. It is the pistil of the flower
that recognizes whether the pollen is the correct type or not.
If the pollen is of the right type, the pistil recognizes and accepts the pollen to
promote post-pollination events that lead to fertilization.
Fertilization
Fertilization takes place when the sperm (germinated pollen) unites with the
egg (ovule) forming a zygote.
Process of Fertilization
1. The pollen grain attaches to the stigma.
2. Each pollen grain becomes a part of the pollen tube, which grows down
the neck of the style and reaches the ovary.
3. Sperm cells are discharged into the embryo sac, fertilizing the egg cell.
Double Fertilization
During double fertilization, the pollen grain enters the ovary and releases two
sperm cells. One sperm cell unites with the egg cell forming a diploid cell or
zygote. The other sperm cell bonds with two polar nuclei forming a triploid
endosperm nucleus.
Post-fertilization
During post-fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo while
the endosperm nucleusdevelops into the endosperm.
Also, the ovule, which contains the embryo and endosperm, matures into
a seed while theovary forms the pericarp of the fruit.
The seed is the beginning of the next generation. It grows into a seedling and
then into a mature plant. The mature plant then produces flowers that contain
the reproductive cells.
Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not have flowers and fruits. Their ovules,
which become seeds, are on the surface of a scale or modified leaf.
Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. They produce two
kinds of cones: the male and the female cones. The male cones produce the
pollen while the female cones contain at least one ovule.
Pollination
In gymnosperms, the main pollinating agent is wind. Wind carries the pollen
from the male cones to the female cones. A sticky substance secreted by the
ovule collects the pollen.
Fertilization
After pollination, the ovule closes and seals in the pollen. One sperm cell
fertilizes the egg cell forming a zygote.
Post-Fertilization
The fertilized egg develops into an embryo, and the other parts of the ovule
mature into the seed coat and food store.
Try it!
Collect
a Hibiscus or a gumamela flower. Using a magnifying glass, observe the pollen
grains in an open anther of the flower.
If a microscope is available, get a pollen sample, place it on a glass slide with a

drop of water, and observe the pollen grains under the microscope.
What do you observe?
What do you think?

How do humans contribute to the pollination of angiosperms and
gymnosperms?
Key Points
 Angiosperms have seeds enclosed within an ovary
while gymnosperms have unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of
their leaves or scales.
 The flower consists of the gynoecium (female reproductive structure)
and androecium(male reproductive structure).
 Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. The male cones
produce the pollen while the female cones contain at least one ovule.
 Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes.
 Fertilization is the union of pollen grain and ovule in the ovary.
 During double fertilization, one sperm cell fertilizes the ovule forming the
zygote (diploid) while the other sperm cell unites with the two polar
nuclei to form the endosperm (triploid).
 In angiosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the

rest of the ovule develops into a fruit.
 In gymnosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the

rest of the ovule develops into a seed.
The Reproduction of Animals

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the different ways of
how representative animals reproduce.
Insects chirping, frogs croaking, and wolves howling are all sounds of
evolution’s important act, reproduction. It is an essential feature of living
organisms because, without reproduction, life will not exist.
How do different animals ensure continuity of species?
Learn about it!

There are two types of reproduction that exists in living organisms: asexual
and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is common among lower form of
animals while sexual reproduction can be found in more complex animals.
Asexual Reproduction
This type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce an individual.
Therefore, the offspring produced is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most
common forms are fission, fragmentation, and budding.
Fission
Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as
the parent divides in half. The illustration below shows a sea anemone
undergoing fission.
Fragmentation
Fragmentation, the breaking of body parts into fragments, is always followed by
regeneration, regrowth of lost parts. Even if the animal is broken into many
pieces, each piece will grow into a new individual. Planarians, as shown in the
illustration below, as well as sponges, cnidarians, bristle worms, and sea
squirts reproduce by fragmentation.
Budding
Budding is when an outgrowth called a bud grows and develops from the parent
animal and would eventually separate to become a new individual. This type of
reproduction is common in certain species of coral and hydra.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The
combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances of species
variation. Therefore, species extinction is highly unlikely. Fertilization, the
union of egg and sperm cells, could happen internally or externally.
External Fertilization
In external fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the female
reproductive tract. This is common among most species of bony fish and
amphibians. As shown in the illustration below, the clasping of the male frog
induces the female to release eggs, over which the male releases his sperm.
Most eggs of the amphibians develop in the water but others carry them on
their back or in their vocal sacs as shown below.
Internal Fertilization
In internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the female
reproductive tract. Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce
offspring in any of the following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.
 Oviparity – after the eggs are being fertilized internally, it would complete
its development outside the mother’s body. The egg would receive its
nourishment through its yolk. This is found in some bony and
cartilaginous fish, most reptiles, some amphibians, all birds, and a few
mammals (monotremes).
 Ovoviviparity – the eggs are also fertilized internally and receive its
nourishment through its yolk. However, eggs will complete its
development within the mother. They are then fully developed when they
are hatched and released by the mother. This is common in some bony
fish (including mollies, guppies, and mosquito fish), some cartilaginous
fish, and many reptiles.
 Viviparity – the eggs are developed internally and receive nourishment
directly from the mother’s blood through placenta rather than from the
yolk. This can be found in most cartilaginous fish, some amphibians, a
few reptiles, and almost all mammals including humans.
 Explore!
 Jellyfish reproduction involves both sexual and asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction occurs in the adult stage where males release sperm
and females release eggs. When sperm and egg combine, it will form a
small larva called planula. These planula will attach to rocks and become
polyps. During this stage, they can reproduce asexually by elongating
then budding off to produce many young jellyfish.
Why do you think many species of jellyfish produce offspring
extraordinarily quickly?
Try it!
Tell whether the following scenarios are under asexual or sexual reproduction
and state the advantages and disadvantages of having these qualities.
1. offspring are genetically variable

2. every offspring is genetically identical
3. slower rate of reproduction
4. faster rate of reproduction
5. needs only one parent to produce an offspring
6. needs two parents to produce an offspring
7. extinction of species is unlikely
Key Points
 Reproduction is an important feature of living organisms because it
ensures continuity of species.
 The two types of reproduction that exist in living organisms are asexual
and sexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction involves only one parent to produce a new

individual. The offspring is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most
common forms are fission, fragmentation, and budding.
 Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form

as the parent divides in half.
 Fragmentation involves the breaking of body parts into fragments. Each
piece will regenerate and become a new individual.
 Budding is when a bud grows and develops from the parent animal then
would eventually separate to become a new individual.
 Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The

combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances of
species variation.
 Fertilization could happen internally or externally.
 External fertilization involves the union of egg and sperm outside the
female reproductive tract.
 Internal fertilization involves the union of egg and sperm within the
female reproductive tract. Animals that undergo in this type of
reproduction produce offspring in any of the following
ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.
DNA: Its Role in Inheritance and Protein Synthesis

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how the information in
the DNA allows the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins.
What do you observe in this diagram?

Learn about it!
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genetic information of almost all
living organisms. It contains nucleotides composed of a five-carbon sugar
deoxyribose and a phosphate group. There are four nucleotides in a
DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine(G), and cytosine (C).
The sequence of the DNA strand contains codes of information that provide
instructions for making proteins needed by organisms in order to grow and live.
In our diagram, the recipe was transcribed into English for one to make the
recipe. The same with DNA, if not transcribed, it will not give instructions to
make proteins needed by our cells.
Role of DNA in Inheritance

Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic unit of heredity. Every
individual has two copies of each gene, one from the father and the other from
the mother. They are responsible for all the traits that an individual inherits
from their parents. The sperm and egg cells carry 23 chromosomes each. When
they unite, a total of 46 chromosomes will be produced. The only thing that
makes us unique from each other is the slight variations in the genes. For
example, most of us have black eyes, some have brown eyes. We all have genes
for eye colors, but the differences in the genes dictate whether a person will
have black or brown eyes.
Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis

The DNA plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins. Proteins play an
important role in the cells’ functions and structures. There are three processes
involved in the production of proteins: replication,
transcription, and translation.
Replication
Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical
DNAmolecules. During this process, the DNA unwinds, and both strands of the
double helix will serve as templates for producing new strands of DNA.
Learn about it!

Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA
strand is transcribed to the messenger RNA (mRNA). This RNA is called the
messenger RNA because it carries the message copied from the DNA to
produce proteins. In this process, RNA uses complementary coding where the
bases are matched up, similar to how DNA forms a double helix. The difference
between RNA and DNA is that instead of thymine, RNA makes use of uracil.
Translation
Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the
information encoded in mRNA. As a whole, the synthesis of proteins is made
possible by the DNA which provides the information needed to create proteins
in the body.
Explore!
A girl is alleged to be the lost daughter of a rich business man. Now that this
man is very ill and wanted to be sure that this girl is his daughter, he ordered
his staff to get samples from her and do DNA paternity testing. The results
found were inconclusive. Why do you think the results were inconclusive?
Try it!
Go to a hospital and observe the X-ray technicians. Have you ever wondered
why they stand behind the lead walls and other persons must not enter the
room while doing the X-ray?
What do you think?

What happens when an organism undergoes mutation?
Key Points
 DNA contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms.
 The nucleotide consists of deoxyribose and a phosphate group.
 There are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
andcytosine (C).
 Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic unit of heredity.
 Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two

identical DNA molecules.
 Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA

strand is transcribed to the messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from

the information encoded in mRNA.
Genetic Engineering and Its Applications in Reproduction

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 describe the process of genetic engineering;

 conduct a survey of the current uses of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs); and
 evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMOs.
Have you ever heard of genetically modified organisms?
Learn about it!
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology

Genetic engineering means modifying genes in a living organism to produce
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) also known as transgenic crops. It is a
modern type of genetic modification. In this process, the gene of interest is
physically removed and placed in an organism to be modified. This method is
more rapid and specific than the traditional plant breeding because genes
coding for a specific trait could be transferred to an organism. You can think of
genetic engineering as an application of biotechnology since it is a technology
that uses biological systems, processes, or organisms to create products
intended to improve the quality of human life.
How is genetic engineering done?
As shown in the illustration above, copies of the recombinant plasmid will be

isolated and transferred to other organisms. Depending on the gene of interest,
genetic engineering has various applications in the field of medicine,
environment, and agriculture.
To help you describe the processes involved in genetic engineering, let us use
Bt corn, a genetically modified pest resistant plant as an example. This plant
was grown in the Philippines against Asian corn borer, a major pest in corn.
DNA Isolation (isolating plasmid and gene of interest)

The first step in creating a pest-resistant plant is isolating the plasmid
of Agrobacteriumand pest- resistant gene from a bacteria, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt).
 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram-negative soil bacteria cause crown gall

disease in plants but its tumor-inducing plasmid is usually used in genetic
engineering because of its ability to integrate its DNA to a plant’s genome.
 The resistant gene would be obtained in the DNA of Bacillus thuringiensis. This
bacterium produces a protein known as Cry1Ab toxin that is lethal to larval
stage oflepidopterans (moth family).
Ligation (gene insertion to the plasmid)

Restriction enzymes are also called restriction endonucleases. Once it
recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence, it stops and cleaves the strands.
The resistant gene and isolated plasmid are cleaved using same restriction
enzyme before they are combined using DNA ligases.
Transformation (plasmid is placed back into bacterial cell)
The recombinant plasmid would then be placed back to the bacterium in a
process calledtransformation.
Selection (identification of the desired clone)

The nutrient media with X-gal (special galactose sugar) are used to select the
transformed bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with the gene of
interest.
The selected bacteria would then infect the cell of corn and integrate the gene
into the plant’s DNA. When the plant cell divides, each daughter cell receives
the new gene. The transformed corn plant is now pest-resistant.
The inserted gene producing the toxin in the genetically modified crop is only
lethal to specific target pests.
Learn about it!
Current Uses of GMOs

The genes of bacteria, plants, and animals are being modified to improve the
quality of human life. Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses
in agriculture, medicine, and the environment.
Uses of Genetically Modified Bacteria

 Escherichia coli creates a synthetic human insulin.
 Cyanobacteria is used to yield polyhydroxybutyrate to produce bioplastic.
Uses of Genetically Modified Plants

 Bt corn is a pest-resistant plant against corn-infesting larvae.
 Banana vaccine is an edible vaccine against hepatitis virus.
 Golden rice is a genetically modified rice that produces beta-carotene.
Uses of Genetically Modified Animals

 Bioluminescent animals are used to identify different types of cells to detect
diseases.
 Some bioluminescent animals such as glofish became novelty pets to humans.
 Fast-growing salmon are genetically modified salmon to continually produce

growth hormones.
Advantages of GMOs
The GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as:
 Increased productivity. This enables farmers to have higher crop yields and
reduced pesticide use. (e.g. Bt corn)
 Reduced pesticide use. Since GM crops are modified for a specific pest, the use
of pesticide against that pest is reduced or removed.
 Improved nutrition like the high beta carotene content of Golden Rice. GM crops
such as Golden Rice with improved nutrition (high in beta carotene) reduces eye-
related problems like blindness due to malnutrition.
 Aided disease detection. Diseases can be identified because of protein trackers

in bioluminescent animals.
Disadvantages of GMOs
GMOs also raised concerns from people because of its possible harm to the
environment and mankind such as:
 Reduced biodiversity of non-damaging insects. Pest resistant crops (e.g. Bt corn)

lead to unintended harm to non-crop damaging insects such as larvae of
Monarch butterflies when affected by pollen of Bt corn.
 Decreased pesticide effectivity. Pest resistant crops seem to reduce the need
for pesticide at first but it would increase later on because the weeds and pests
would develop immunity to the chemicals.
 Produced allergic reactions. Some people develop an allergic response to GM

crops when exposed to them.
 Led to a higher cost for GM seeds. Farmers buy new seeds every year. Farmers
using second generation seeds would lead them to Supreme Court with a charge
of patent infringement.
 Explore!
 As of 2014, International Rice Research Institute declared that the
Philippines would have field trials of GM rice known as Golden rice (high
in beta-carotene). However, the farmers in the Bicol region together with
other independent organizations expressed strong opposition against it.
Given all the benefits of golden rice and GMOs in general, why do you
think there are still controversies underlying the production of GMOs?

 Substantial amounts of human insulin and numerous different proteins
are created using genetic engineering. However, even if the approach is
done correctly, it does not work for producing human hemoglobin. Why do
you think so?
Key Points
 Genetic engineering means altering genes in a living organism to produce
a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
 Biotechnology is a technology using biological systems, processes, or
organisms to create products intended to improve the quality of human
life.
 The following are the steps in genetic engineering: DNA isolation, ligation,
transformation, and selection.
 DNA isolation is isolating the plasmid and gene of interest.
 Ligation involves sealing the gene of interest into the plasmid after they
are both cut with the same restriction enzyme.
 Transformation is a process wherein cells ingest foreign DNA from the

surroundings.
 Selection of the bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with the

gene of interest.
 Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture

(e.g. pest resistant plants), medicine (e.g. edible vaccines), and
environment (e.g. butanol production).
 GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as increased productivity,

improved nutrition, disease detection, and cheaper medicines.
 Possible risks about GMO such as reduced biodiversity, decrease

pesticide effectivity, allergic reactions, and high cost for GM seeds posed
concerns to many people.
True or false
1Angiosperms have seeds enclosed within an ovary

while gymnosperms have unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of
their leaves or scales.
2The flower consists of the gynoecium (female reproductive structure)

and androecium(male reproductive structure).
3Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. The male

cones produce the pollen while the female cones contain at least one
ovule.
4fragmentation is when a bud grows and develops from the parent animal
then would eventually separate to become a new individual.
5aSexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. The

combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances of
species variation.
6Fertilization could happen internally only.
7Genetic engineering means altering genes in a living organism to

produce a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO).
 \8Biotechnology is a technology using biological systems, processes, or

organisms to create products intended to improve the quality of human
life.
9The following are the steps in genetic engineering: DNA isolation,

ligation, transformation, and selection.
10DNA isolation is isolating the plasmid and gene of interest.

Origin of the Universe & Solar System

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Origin of the Universe & Solar System

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The Origin of the Universe

ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Learn about it!

Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and

Oscillating Universe Theory

The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory,

What do you think?

The Origin of the Solar System

Learn about it!

The Encounter Theory, proposed by Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon,

The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. Just

What do you think?

 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis

Earth: The Living Planet

Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most

Soil and Vegetation

What do you think?

 Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation.

 The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of

Earth: The Four Subsystems

What are the characteristics of these four subsystems?

Learn about it!

The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,

 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is

 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has

 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above

The water on Earth is constantly moving. It moves through the oceans in

How the Earth’s Subsystems Interact

What do you think?

 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water

Advancements on the Solar System

Learn about it!

Learn about it!

Mars Rover Mission

Mars One Program

What do you think?

 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to

 Materials on Mars’ lithosphere were examined and the weather condition

 Studying the Titan’s composition lead to the discovery that liquid

Contributors in Understanding the Earth Systems

Learn about it!

Earth System Science

Alexander von Humboldt

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

 Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the

 James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis collaborated on the Gaia hypothesis,

 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) studies

The Internal Structure of Earth

What are the different layers of the Earth?

Learn about it!

What do you think?

What are the different physical and chemical properties of minerals?

Learn about it!

Physical Properties of Minerals

 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as

 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or

 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified

In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

What do you think?

 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak,

 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula

 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica,