Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
DOI 10.1007/s00267-012-0003-7
PROFILE
Soil Bioengineering Application and Practices in Nepal
Yam Prasad Dhital • Rijan Bhakta Kayastha •
Jiancheng Shi
Received: 22 December 2011 / Accepted: 12 December 2012 / Published online: 22 December 2012
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract The small mountainous country Nepal is situ-
ated in the central part of the Himalayas. Its climate varies
from tropical in the south to arctic in the north; and natural
vegetation follows the pattern of climate and altitude.
Water-induced disaster problems including soil erosion,
debris flow, landslides and flooding are common due to the
unstable landscape. Soil erosion is the most important
driving force for the degradation of upland and mountain
ecosystems. Soil bioengineering has been used in Nepal for
nearly 30 years to deal with erosion problems on slopes, in
high way construction and riverbank stabilization. The
main soil bioengineering techniques used in Nepal are
brush layering, palisades, live check dams, fascines and
vegetative stone pitching. This study is based on the
geology, climate and vegetation of Nepal and briefly
summarizes the application of soil bioengineering on
slopes and stream banks, with especial attention to the role
of vegetation on slope and stream bank stabilization. Fur-
thermore, this paper addresses the role of community
participation and responsibility for successful application
of vegetation-based techniques in management, mainte-
nance and utility aspects for the future. In recent years, soil
bioengineering techniques are extensively used due to their
cost-effectiveness, using locally available materials and
low-cost labour in comparison to more elaborate civil
engineering works. However, scientific implementation
Y. P. Dhital (&)
R. B. Kayastha
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering,
Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal
e-mail: yam@ku.edu.np
J. Shi
Institute of Remote Sensing Application, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Chao Yang, Beijing 1001, China
123
and record-keeping and evaluation of the work are indeed
essential.
Keywords Landscape
Soil erosion
Vegetation

Slope stabilization
An Introduction to Soil Bioengineering
Live plants and other natural materials have been used for
centuries to control erosion problems on slopes and along
riverbanks in different parts of the world (Schlueter 1986).
Reliance on available and inexpensive indigenous plant
materials, low capital costs compared to constructing civil
engineering structures, and the possibility for involving the
local population in management and maintenance are
substantial arguments that make soil bioengineering tech-
niques highly appropriate for a developing country
(Lammeranner and others 2005). Southeast Asian countries
such as Philippines, Malaysia and Hong Kong have been
employing soil bioengineering ground treatment more than
other countries, according to the published literature, and
there is a high level of acceptance for employing bioen-
gineering modification, in particular for enhancing the
stability of slopes in that region (Fatahi and others 2010). It
has been proposed that future development in the region
will include wider use of native species of vegetation and
the application of various alternative soil bioengineering
measures (GEO 2000). This family of techniques can be
cost-effective, flexible, applicable in remote areas, and
adaptable with nature without causing damage to lives and
property. Learning from past mistakes and drawing on
current learning, biotechnical methods can offer ecologi-
cally-compatible alternatives to standard practice (Li and
Eddleman 2002).
Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
Soil erosion is the process of detaching the soil particles
from the land surface of one place and transporting them to
another place for deposition. Continuous soil erosion
increases sedimentation in rivers which increases the level
of the river bed and increases the probability of flooding.
Soil erosion is the major driving force for the degradation
of upland and mountain ecosystems, and significantly
interferes with the process of plant community develop-
ment and vegetation succession. It commences with seed
formation and has impacts throughout the whole growth
phase by affecting seed availability, dispersal, germination,
seedling establishment, plant community structure, and
vegetation spatial distribution (Juying and others 2009).
Soil erosion is a physical stress that affects soil–vegetation
interaction, and it is also controlled by the response of
vegetation (Lu and others 2003). Soil bioengineering is a
simply applied vegetation-based technique to control soil
erosion. It uses sound engineering practices in conjunction
with integrated ecological principles, using living vegeta-
tion and other materials to construct slopes (hill-slopes,
riverbanks, and lake/shorelines), stabilize slopes, control
erosion, protect wildlife habitats and enhance the func-
tioning of ecosystems (Donald and Robbin 1996). The
ecological consequences of widespread vegetation loss has
become an increasing concern of scientists, academics,
environmental foundations, and people who are affected
on the local level by such loss (Courtney and White 2000;
Yap 2000).
Soil Bioengineering in Nepal
Some research studies have been conducted on soil bio-
engineering in Nepal, although more practical works have
been implemented by Governmental Offices and some
private consultants rather than the original research one.
Clark and Howell (1992) have focused their study on the
role and principles of soil bioengineering for the develop-
ment of soil bioengineering strategies in rural mountain
areas. Sharma (2004) has studied slope stabilization tech-
niques in the hills and mountains with the application of
indigenous vegetation-based techniques and farming sys-
tem approaches. Lammeranner and others (2005) have
focused on implementation and monitoring of soil bioen-
gineering measures on landslides on the roadside areas in
the middle mountains. Tamrakar (2010) from his assess-
ment of river bioengineering for protecting banks and
rehabilitating stream function concluded that river mor-
phology, hydraulics, channel and bank material, erosion
processes, vegetation and disturbing conditions are the
preliminary parameters for categorizing and recognizing
stream stability. The Department of Soil Conservation and
Watershed Management under the Ministry of Forest and
355
Soil Conservation, the Department of Roads under the
Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, and the
Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention under
the Ministry of Irrigation have been performing soil bio-
engineering works in their respective fields according with
work distribution. However, soil bioengineering applica-
tion on the road side under the Department of Roads was
found more effective and successful than others (Lawa-
rance 1994; Ojha and Shrestha 2007).
People living in a mountainous country like Nepal have
been facing many problems, mainly due to unstable land-
scape. Unstable characteristics of landscapes include nat-
ural phenomena like soil erosion, landslides, floods,
earthquakes, cloud bursts, wind storms and hail storms.
These natural phenomena become disasters when they
adversely affect human life or property. It is estimated that
only from sloping terrace land soil loss occurs at the rate of
60–70 ton/ha/year (GoN/JICA 1998). Most of the slopes
having altitudes varying from 150 to 1,500 m are fragile in
Nepal because of the immature slope lands, high intensity
rainfall and deforestation. Both natural slopes and engi-
neered slopes having slope angles between 30o and 40o are
highly susceptible to erosion and sliding, the latter often of
a shallow nature due to saturation by heavy rain (Lawrance
and others 1996). People living in these areas are more
vulnerable. They are facing land-slides in the upper parts of
the watersheds and flooding in the lower parts. Soil bio-
engineering and civil engineering works have been jointly
used to address such hazard problems including slope
failure, edge cutting, mass wasting and inundation. Soil
bioengineering constructions have been carried out in
Nepal during the last 30 years, and much experience in
slope stabilization works by means of vegetation has been
made (Howell 2001).
In general trend, soil bioengineering is the use of living
vegetation either alone or in conjunction with small-scale
civil engineering structures and non-living plant material,
to reduce shallow-seated instability erosion on slopes, and
flood hazard minimization in plains with stream bank
protection. In Nepal, soil bioengineering works are mainly
carried out in the pre-monsoon period. Local people’s
participation should be fruitful for the successful applica-
tion of vegetation-based techniques and for proper care
after the implementation, but local people are almost
always busy on their fields in the pre-monsoon period.
Nearly 70 % of the country people depend on agriculture,
and so, the pre-monsoon period is very important for them
to prepare their field for rice plantation. Thus, some
researchers suggest that a possible solution may be the
rescheduling of soil bioengineering works from before the
monsoon to during the winter (Florineth and others 2002;
Lammeranner and others 2005). However, pre-monsoon
period is considered as a favourable time for soil
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bioengineering because the survival rates of cuttings and
rooted plants are higher during monsoon, although there is the
possibility of washout of pre-mature plants. The objective of
this review study is to summarize the soil bioengineering
techniques which have been applied and possibly may apply
in Nepal, and to define the role of vegetation on slope and
river bank stabilization, and to emphasize the role of com-
munity participation on soil bioengineering application and
succession.
Background of the Study Area
Geology
Hagen (1969) divided Nepal into eight east/west-oriented
well-defined physiographic provinces arrayed from south
to north, respectively the Terai, Churia Hills, Dun Valleys,
Mahabharat Range, Midland, Fore Himalaya, Higher
Himalaya, and Inner and Trans Himalayan Valleys. In
another way, Nepal can be sub-divided from south to north
into the following five major tectonic zones: Gangetic Plain
(Terai), Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) zone, Lesser Himalayan
zone, Higher Himalayan zone and Tibetan-Tethys Hima-
layan zone (Upreti 1999). These tectonic zones are sepa-
rated from each other by a series of thrust faults. The Main
Frontal thrust (MFT), the Main Boundary thrust (MBT)
and the Main Central thrust (MCT) separate, respectively,
the Siwalik from the Terai, the Lesser Himalayan zone
from Siwalik and the Higher Himalayan zone from the
Lesser Himalayan zone. The South Tibetan detachment
system (STDS) marks the boundary between the Higher
Himalayan zone and the overlying sedimentary sequence
of the Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan zone. The Terai consists
of Pleistocene to recent alluvium deposited by the rivers
originating within the Himalayas or beyond. The Siwalik
consists of an alternation of mudstone, sandstone and
conglomerate at varying proportions and textures (DWIDP
2005). At some places along the MFT, the Siwalik rocks
are observed to rest over the recent sediments of the Terai
(Dahal 2006a). The Lesser Himalaya consists almost
exclusively of low-grade metasediments. The characteristic
rocks are slate, phyllite, quartzite, limestone and dolomite.
The Higher Himalayan zone consists of high-grade crys-
talline rocks including various kinds of gneisses, schists
and migmatites. The Tibetan-Tethys zone is composed of
sedimentary rocks, such as shale, limestone and sandstone
(Dahal 2006b). Among them, the Siwalik and the lesser
Himalaya zone are highly susceptible for land-slides during
monsoon period, and the Terai zone is affected by flooding.
Thus, vegetation-based solutions are more relevant in these
three zones than others.
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Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
Climate
The climate in Nepal varies from tropical to the arctic
within the 200 km span from south to north. The Terai and
the Chure (Siwalik) Hills have tropical to sub-tropical
climates. The Middle Mountains are sub-tropical in valley
bottoms, but warm temperate on valley sides, and cool
temperate on higher ridges, which experience occasional
snowfall. The high mountains and the high Himalayas are
alpine with a nival climate above the snowline (Kansakar
and others 2004). National mean temperatures hover
around 15 °C, and increase from north to south with the
exception of mountain valleys. Temperature generally
decreases with elevation and drops by 6.5 °C per 1,000 m.
Rainfalls occur due to southeast monsoon which lasts
between the months of June to September. In winter sea-
son, precipitation is caused by the weather system origi-
nating in the Mediterranean region. In general, Nepal
receives about 1,500–2,500 mm rainfall in a year. About
80 % of the total annual rainfall occurs during the summer
monsoon months (Nayava and others 2009). Sometimes,
10 % of the total annual precipitation can occur in a single
day, and 50 % of the total annual precipitation is often
recorded within 10 days of the monsoon period (Dahal and
Hasegawa 2008). The Siwalik and the Mahabharat Range
receive more rainfall in comparison to the other belts of the
country. Rainfall intensity during cloudbursts that last from
a few min to a few hours can be up to 100 mm/h or even
more in those areas. On these occasions the permeable soils
take in large quantities of water and can become saturated
or nearly so to depths of around 0.25 m. This can cause the
upper soil layers to begin to move down slope as a plastic
or even a liquid mass (Lawrance and others 1996). Pre-
cipitation decreases from east to west during the summer
monsoon, whereas the winter monsoon shows the reverse
trend. In addition, micro-level variations are common
because of Orographic effects (MoHA 2009). At elevations
above 2,000 m, the amount of precipitation tends to
decrease with elevation (Ichiyanagi and others 2007). In
recent years, climate change is also a debate of the country,
whether it affects on rainfall pattern, temperature, vegeta-
tion and Himalayan glacier. Middle mountain and high
Himalayan regions are more sensitive to climate change
due to their physiographic characteristics (Shrestha and
others 1999).
Vegetation
The natural vegetation of Nepal follows the pattern of
climate and altitude (Fig. 1). The natural vegetation in the
Terai consists of scattered patches of tropical evergreen
forests and riverine forests dominated by Dalbergia sisso
and Acacia catechu. The foothills between the Terai and
Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
Fig. 1 Ecological zone of
Nepal (modified after Lillesø
and others 2005)
the Chure Hills sustain a narrow but continuous belt of
valuable tropical deciduous forest dominated by Shorea
robusta. The combination of S. robusta and grass-land is
common on the lower slopes of the Siwalik Hills, the
Gangetic floodplain, and the Dun Valleys (Hoorn and
others 2000). The Middle Mountain zone has the greatest
diversity of ecosystems and species in Nepal due to the
great variety of terrain types and climatic zones. Vegeta-
tion consists of a mixture of many species including pines,
oak, rhododendrons, poplars, walnuts and larch. Nearly 32
percent of Nepal’s forests occur in this zone (MoFSC
2002). The high Himalaya zone comprises sub-alpine and
alpine climates and associated vegetation types. The vast
forested area below the timber line bears some of the most
valuable forests in Nepal including; spruce, fir, cypress,
juniper and birch. Summer grazing pastures are common in
lower elevations, while high altitude plant species adapted
to extremes of cold and desiccation are found in higher
elevations (MoE 2008). Within the broad eco-climatic
zones, Nepal nurtures about 118 ecosystems, 75 types of
vegetation and 35 types of forests (Bhuju and others 2007).
Although, vegetation zones are more sensitive in Terai,
Siwalik and Mahabharat Range including lower and upper
hills due to increased deforestation in alarming rate (Gau-
tam and others 2004; Panta and others 2008). However,
pioneer plant species of these areas are more useful for soil
bioengineering application.
Soil Bioengineering on Slopes
Role of Vegetation on Slope Stabilization
Engineering functions and hydrological effects of vegeta-
tion are key factors to control soil erosion and to stabilize
357
slopes. On a broad scale, catchment, armouring, rein-
forcement, anchoring, supporting and draining functions
are counted as engineering functions ascribed to vegeta-
tion, whereas interception, evaporation, storage, leaf drip,
pool formation, water uptake and infiltration are counted as
hydrological effects of vegetation. Vegetation efficiently
mitigates erosion in two ways: by active or passive pro-
tection (Rey and others 2004). Active protection against
erosive agents consists of rain drop interception (Woo and
others 1997), an increase in water infiltration in soil (Cerdà
1998), thermal regulation (Roviera and others 1999) and
soil fixation by root systems (Gyssels and Poesen 2003).
Vegetation also has a passive action by trapping and
retaining sediment inside the catchment due to its aerial
parts (Abu-Zreig 2001). Vegetation and the selection of
plant species are important in stabilizing slopes and pro-
tecting against soil erosion in terms of its capacity of the
root reinforcement and water absorption capacity (Nor-
maniza and others 2008). Plant roots’ reinforcement in soil
affects both mechanical and hydrological properties. The
mechanical or reinforcing effect of plant roots on the sta-
bility of slopes is mainly attributed for increasing the shear
strength of the soil (Wu 1995). Roots increase soil shear
strength by anchoring a soil layer and by forming a binding
network within the layer (Ziemer 1981). Plant species can
grow differently depending on local conditions; therefore it
can be expected that a wide diversity of plant species will
allow for any detrimental effects of environment on root
biomass or architecture to be buffered (Stokes and others
2009). In a world experiencing climate change, potential
weather scenarios should also be considered during species
selection. Species which are currently struggling for sur-
vival under, e.g. dry conditions will not be suitable if
temperatures increase and water becomes more limited
(Stokes and others 2010).
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What vegetation in Nepal grows in specific zones is
determined mainly by the temperature and moisture condi-
tions for which each species is adapted. Altitude range, hill
slope, light requirements, availability and nutrients are other
essential factors for the vegetation development. Species
used for soil conservation properties should meet the fol-
lowing criteria; pioneer plant character, adventitious rooting
ability and coverage resistance, and fast and simple propa-
gation (Weigel and others 1987). Pioneer plant species are
important for soil bioengineering because their adaptations
are well-suited to the dry, infertile conditions characteristic
of land-slide sites, and bare-cut slopes. The use of compat-
ible species, i.e. those that can survive, grow, and reproduce
together, and foster succession are ideal. The species which
are used in vegetation-based techniques have the correct
attributes of establishment, perennial growth, vigour and
persistence. Some pioneer plant species which have been
popularly used in Nepal for soil bioengineering with char-
acteristics such as method of best propagation and altitudinal
variation are summarized on Table 1. Bamboos (Dendro-
calamus hamiltonii, Bambusa balcooa, Bambusa nutans) are
widely used in road sectors due to simple propagation and
availability. They are usually raised by the traditional
method or by rooted clump cuttings from a nursery. Large
clumps of the large stature of the bamboos are one of the most
substantial vegetation structures available to reinforce and
support a slope (Howell 1999a).
Soil Bioengineering Techniques
Application of soil bioengineering techniques depends
upon the kind of erosion and slope failure process. In Nepal,
most of the soil bioengineering techniques have been
implemented for the landslide treatment in Lesser Himalaya
and Siwalik zones. Topography, local geology, location of
the landslide on the slope, steepness of slope, thickness of
debris or soil, soil texture, biotic influence, and drainage
system are mainly considered in designing landslide treat-
ment. Environmental criteria such as sensitiveness of the
slope to erosion/mass movement, potential for downstream
damage, mainly agricultural field, settlement, road and other
infrastructure, and socio-economic criteria such as demand
of local people, possibility of people’s participation, budget
limitation, and extent of impact on people’s livelihood
should be further considered for landslide treatment (Math-
ema and Joshi 2010). Stone quarry site, land use change,
shifting cultivation and overgrazing on the slopes have been
increasing the probability of occurrence of landslides
(Devkota and others 2008). Although, the use of vegetation
for protecting and stabilizing slopes is on the increase, but
planting is usually carried out without clear knowledge of the
way in which the plants will act to improve slope condition.
Vegetation is applicable only to erosion and failures in
debris, as opposed to rock, and where the depth to the failure
plane is\250 mm (Lawarance 1994).
The main soil bioengineering techniques used in Nepal
are brush layering, palisades, live check dams, fascines, and
vegetative stone pitching. Brush layers armour and reinforce
the upper soil layers as the roots anchor and reinforce the soil
in addition to catch the debris (Howell 1999b). In this system,
hardwood cuttings are laid in lines across the slopes, usually
following the contour. The tips of the cuttings protrude just
beyond the face of the slopes, where they grow buds and
leaves that intercept rainfall, slow runoff and filter sediments
(Bischetti and others 2010). Palisades are generally used for
protection of deep, narrow gullies and shadow V-shaped

Table 1 Popular plant species of Nepal used in soil bioengineering (Howell 1999b; Devkota and others 2006)
Species Local name Botanical name Characteristics Best propagation Alt.(m)

Grasses Amliso Thysanolaena maxima Large clumping Slip cuttings 100–2,000

Babio Eulaliopsis binata Medium-sized clumping Slip cuttings/seeds 100–1,500
Kans Saccharum pontaneum Large clumping, spreading Slip cuttings 100–2,000
Khar Cymbopogon microtheca Medium-large clumping Slip cuttings/seeds 500–2,000
Narkat Arundo clonax Large clumping, spreading Stem/slip cuttings 100–1,500
Shrubs/small trees Bains Salix tetrasperma Tree up to 15 m high Hardwood cuttings 100–2,700
Bhujetro Butea minor Shrub up to 4 m high Direct seeding 500–1,500
Dhanyero Woodfordia fruticosa Shrub up to 3 m high Seeds/polypots 100–1,500
Namdi phul Colquhounia coccinea Shrub up to 3 m high Hardwood cuttings 1,000–2,000
Tilka Wendlandia puberula Tree up to 10 m high Seeds/polypots 100–1,500
Large trees Chilaune Schima wallichi Large, evergreen tree Seeds/polypots 900–2,000
Khayer Acacia catechu Large, thorny tree Seeds/polypots 100–1,000
Lankuri Fraxinus floribunda Large deciduous tree Seeds/polypots 1,200–2,700
Sisau Dalbergia sisso Large broad-leaved tree Seeds/polypots 100–1,400
Utis Alnus nepalensis Large broad-leaved tree Seeds/polypots 900–2,700

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rills. These structures stabilize the gully floor by forming a
strong barrier and trapping material moving downwards. The
effects increase after shoot development of planted cuttings
(Lammeranner and others 2005). In this system, hardwood
cuttings are planted in lines across the slope, usually fol-
lowing the contour. In certain locations, palisades can be
angled to provide drainage. Live check dams are generally
used on gullies to catch debris, and to armour, and reinforce
the gully floor, where large woody cuttings are planted across
a gully, usually following the contour. Fascines are also used
to catch the debris, and to armour, and reinforce the slope,
where bundles of live branches are laid in shallow trenches.
After burial the trenches, they put out roots and shoots,
forming a strong line of vegetation. Vegetated stone pitching
provides a very strong form of armouring, where slopes are
strengthened by a combination of dry stone walling or cob-
bling and vegetation planted in the gaps between the stones
(Howell 1999a).
The other soil bioengineering techniques used in Nepal
are planted grass lines (contour/horizontal, down slope/
vertical, diagonal), grass seeding, turfing, shrub and tree
planting, shrub and tree seeding and jute netting. Grass slips
(rooted cuttings), rooted stem cuttings or seedlings are
planted in lines according as the requirements and site
characteristics. Planted grass lines (contour/horizontal)
provide a surface cover, which reduce the speed of runoff and
catch the debris, thereby armouring the surface. Planted
grass lines (down slope/vertical) armour the slope and help to
drain surface water. Planted grass lines (diagonal) armour the
slope and have limited function of catching debris and
draining surface water. Turfing is used for armouring on
gentle embankment slope. Grass, shrub and tree seeds are
applied directly on very steep, rocky and unstable slopes to
be revegetated by direct sowing and broadcasting. A locally
made geotextile of woven jute netting (mesh size about
40 9 40 mm) is placed on the slope for protection of the
surface, allowing seeds to hold and germinate, and acts as a
mulch when it decays (Howell 1999a). Shrubs or trees are
planted at regular intervals on the slopes. As they grow, they
create dense network of roots in the soil, and play an
important role in erosive dynamics control (Ziegler and
Giambelluca 1998). However, at least three seasons must
pass before a plant is capable of performing an engineering
function (Lawrance and others 1996).
Soil Bioengineering on Stream Banks
Role of Riparian Vegetation on River Bank
Stabilization
Stream bank erosion involves the loss of agricultural and
recreational land. It contributes to a reduction in water
359
quality and can undermine expensive infrastructure such as
roads, bridges and buildings. Although stream bank erosion
is a natural process, the removal of native riparian vege-
tation, in addition to flow regulation schemes, has been
shown to significantly exacerbate the problem. Therefore,
in mitigating erosion and rehabilitating stream banks,
revegetation is often seen as an effective and relatively
inexpensive means to prevent further erosion and to sta-
bilize the banks (Docker and Hubble 2008). Environmental
benefits derived from woody vegetation include diverse
and productive riparian habitats, shade, organic additions
to the stream, cover for fish and improvements in aesthetic
value and water quality (Li and others 2006). Studies have
shown that (i) flow velocities and near-bed shear stresses
are reduced within vegetation zones, (ii) vegetation can
increase the local and boundary flow resistance, (iii) tur-
bulence intensities are increased near the canopy tops for
submerged vegetation and along the interface between
emergent riparian vegetation and the main channel, (iv)
vegetation can reduce the transport capacity of the flow and
cause sorting and deposition of sediment, and (v) vegeta-
tion can create secondary circulation patterns and coherent
flow structures (Bennett and others 2002).
The presence of healthy and riparian trees is good for
bank stability and which helps to reduce or minimize
sediment supplied to the river by slumping and other types
of mass failure (Hubble and others 2010). Riparian vege-
tation is a significant factor in the productivity and func-
tioning of stream ecosystems (Tait and others 1994). Other
studies have demonstrated that tree cover promotes over-
water shading, improves habitat, provides corridors
between established undisturbed areas, and provides large
woody debris to the stream which is essential for providing
habitat for particular for the large variety of riverine
invertebrate fauna on which various vertebrates feed
(Lovett and Price 2007). However, large woody debris
sometimes may cause flooding and stream bank erosion
during the time of high intensity of rainfall. Plantings in
riparian buffer zones are an effective means of reducing
nutrient and sediment loads into the stream (Williamson
and others 1996). Roots of riparian trees protect banks
against erosion more effectively than species inhabiting
non-riparian zones (Pollen and Simon 2005). Riparian
ecosystems are important in terms of their ecological,
social, economic and aesthetic value (Li and Eddleman
2002).
Vegetation controls sediment erosion, transport and
deposition processes by its resistance to flow and the
capacity of roots to modify substrate cohesion (Corenblit
and others 2007). Bed load transport capacity decreases
with the increase of flow resistance within vegetation. Stem
density and diameter are key-parameters controlling bed
load transport in open channels. Because these two
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parameters are negatively correlated with flow velocity and
positively correlated with the friction factor (Ishikawa and
others 2003), the effective tractive force and bed load
transport decreases with an increase of vegetation density
and stem diameter (Samani and Kouwen 2002). Thus,
dense riparian forest may lead to significant sediment
accretion in fluvial corridors during floods. Nonetheless,
existing modeling studies formally demonstrate that vege-
tation is a major energy dissipation factor in river corridors
and has the potential to act as a fundamental morphoge-
netic agent by significantly impacting on erosion-transport-
deposition processes (Corenblit and others 2007). The
evidence from the flood events is also revealing which are
the most vulnerable reaches of river channel in combina-
tions of morphology, sediment and vegetation character-
istics. Furthermore, the information derived from the
modeling of these impacts should help to show how veg-
etation can be used in mitigating the effects of floods by
reducing flow velocities and by reducing erosion (Brookes
and others 2000).
Soil Bioengineering Techniques
Very few soil bioengineering works have been done on
stream bank protection with the combine effort of local
community and Nepal government where they have been
affected by river hazard, but still they are not scientifically
recorded. Nepal’s rivers carry around 336 million tons of
soil per year to the main river systems entering India
(Brown 1981). Thus, the bed level of rivers in Terai is
rising by 35-45 cm annually (Dent 1984). Hence, widths of
the river have been widening every year during the mon-
soon. Bank cutting, farmland inundation and even washed
a way in every monsoon are the common problem of
Siwalik and Terai regions of Nepal. Riverbanks are
essentially a type of slope, and so their stability is governed
by the same general principles as hill-slopes and embank-
ments. Hence, the stability of an individual riverbank can
be assessed in terms of slope geometry, hydrological con-
ditions, surcharge weight, material properties and vegeta-
tive reinforcement-variations in these parameters will
commonly affect the calculated factor of safety of a slope
(Hubble and others 2010). Soil bioengineering systems
create resistance to sliding or shear displacement in a riv-
erbank as they encourage root development. The functions
of ecological engineering methods are improving the
revival ability, protective ability, recoverability of eco-
systems, and also are improving the functions of stream
(Wu and Feng 2006).
The techniques of soil bioengineering such as live
stakes, live fascines, and use of a brush layer are mostly
employed in the construction of riverbanks and enhance-
ment of damaged riparian ecosystems, but some combined
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Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
techniques such as vegetated geogrids and geogabions are
used in some segments of rivers with a higher flow rate
(Li and others 2006). In addition to the soil bioengineering
techniques used on slope, branchpacking, vegetated
geogrids, live cribwall and tree revetment are used on stream
bank for better stabilization. Branchpacking is brushlayering
with wood staking compacted backfill, used to repair small
slumps and holes in stream banks, and it provides immediate
soil reinforcement. In vegetated geogrids technique, brush-
layering incorporated with natural or synthetic geotextiles
are wrapped around each soil lift between the layers of live
cuttings, and it provides immediate stabilization without
vegetation growth. Live cribwall is a box-like interlocking
arrangement of untreated log or timber members, where
structure is filled with suitable backfill material and layers of
live cuttings that root inside the crib structure and extended
into the slope, and it provides immediate protection from
erosion, while established vegetation provide long-term
stability. In tree revetment technique, a series of whole, dead
trees cabled together and anchored by earth anchors in the
stream bank, it should be used in combination with other
biotechnical techniques (Li and Eddleman 2002). Although,
none of the particular soil bioengineering techniques on
river bank stabilization in Nepal could be found till to this
date. However, very few agro-forestry practices have been
done to reclaim the flood affected farmlands (Kafle 2006). It
should be fruitful, if all these soil bioengineering techniques
were used to stabilize the river banks of Siwalik and Terai
regions of Nepal.
Community Participation on Soil Bioengineering
Application and Succession
Role of Community Participation
Community participation is viewed as a key to success in
ecosystem restoration. From the management point of
view, the knowledge of the people’s motivation underlying
their decision to participate in restoration is very useful and
will help managers in designing restoration education,
promoting community involvement and making funding
decisions (Stone and others 2008; Evans and others 2008;
Le and others 2012). Traditional ecological knowledge
practices and traditions have become of increasing interest
as a source of wisdom regarding ecosystem design and
sustainable resource use (Menzies and Butler 2006; Arm-
strong and others 2007). Strategies practiced by indigenous
and local cultures have maintained their environment and
provided resources for many years and, therefore provide
an extraordinary source of knowledge from which inno-
vative solutions can be derived to meet present and future
challenges (Laureano 2000; Menzies and Butler 2006;
Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
Armstrong and others 2007). In Nepal, the participation of
the community at each stage is fundamental to the green
road approach. A ‘green road’ is a fair weather rural road
constructed for low volume traffic without rock blasting. It
incorporates soil bioengineering as one of the important
tools of environment conservation (Sharma and Maskay
1999; Mulmi 2009).
Lessons Learned an Example
In June 2010, the first author of this article visited one suc-
cessful soil bioengineering site in Hariwan V.D.C.—1, in the
foothills of the Siwalik which lies 36 km far from the District
Headquarters, at Sarlahi, Nepal. Most of the villagers are
illiterate, but are aware about the disaster events in recent
years and involve themselves in community work whenever
they need to (Fig. 2). According to the local community, a
huge flash flood occurred in July 2004 on both sides of the
village, and the whole village was potentially in danger.
After that event, they started soil bioengineering on the banks
of ephemeral streams and on nearby bare land areas on both
side of the village with the support of the District Soil
Conversation Department, Sarlahi.
Initially, they prepared a social map, conducted training
and held seminars about disaster mitigation and defores-
tation at the local level with the collaboration of local
Fig. 2 Local people
participation on community
work in Hariwan V.D.C-1,
Sarlahi. Left picture: peoples are
collecting stones for check dam
(June 2010). Right picture:
peoples are co-operating for
making wire net for small check
dam construction (June 2010)
Fig. 3 Vegetation succession
on flood affected site in
Hariwan V.D.C.-1, Sarlahi. Left
picture: Bamboos combination
with small check dam on bank
of ephemeral stream (June
2010). Right picture: Mixed
vegetation on flood affected
bare land (June 2010)
361
government bodies. Later on, they formed a monitoring
committee with local representatives and managed a con-
trolled cattle grazing. Small check dams were built in the
front part along some of the unstable sections of stream
banks, where bamboos were planted behind the check
dams. Bamboos wattlings were placed in some middle
parts, and indigenous plant species like Dalbergia sisso,
Acacia catechu, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Thysan-
olaena maxima were planted on flood-damaged bare lands.
Some transported fruit plants and other useful plants were
also planted, but most of them did not grow properly.
Nearly 4 years later, the results were seen in that the
banks of the streams were almost fully stabilized, and most
parts of the bare land were covered with other new trees,
shrubs and grasses than that had been planted (Fig. 3—
Right picture). The effects of natural disasters like flood-
ing, land-slides and edge cuttings had been highly reduced,
and flow channels of the rivers were also narrowed.
Bamboo combinations are seen to be very effective to
control soil erosion and as a flood control mechanism
(Fig. 3—Left picture). People’s participation with the
control of cattle grazing had made a major contribution for
vegetation succession. According to District Development
Committee of Sarlahi, if civil engineering works alone
were used alone, the total capital cost would be increased
by nearly four times.
123
362
Community people have started agro-forestry practices for
the last 2 year on the reclaim land of the flood affected areas.
The livelihoods, on the other hand, is also indicating to be
improved as they are growing grasses and tree fodder from the
same land to raise the goats and other live stocks, gradually
they can use that land to grow cereal and other crops annually
to get benefits. However, there might be land demarcation
problem after few years for the ownership of the land.
Conclusions and Recommendations
This study has summarized the role of vegetation for slope and
stream bank stabilization, different soil bioengineering tech-
niques, and focused on the role of community participation on
vegetation application and succession. Engineering functions
and hydrological effects of vegetation are key factors to
control soil erosion and to stabilize slopes. Selection of plant
species for the particular function is very important. However,
the problems of soil erosion control and slope stability
demands solutions which are designed with specific consid-
eration for the failure mechanisms and for the local conditions.
Practical application of soil bioengineering techniques for the
stabilization of slope, especially for the treatment of landslide,
was found more effective and successful. Although, there is
more lacking of practical implementation of vegetation-based
techniques for the stabilization of stream banks. Participation
of local people for the application of vegetation-based tech-
niques have major role for the implementation and execution
of the project. The project based on agro-forestry system
might be better for the stabilization of river bank as well as
income generation for the local people.
Soil bioengineering is very useful and applicable tech-
nology for developing country like Nepal because it deals the
problem on slopes and later reduces sediment loads and
sediment problems on downstream, and ultimately prevents
the sediment deposition on riverbed so as to minimize the
flood impact. Furthermore, it is cost-effective solution, using
locally available materials with low-cost labour, being
environmentally safe, ecologically healthy and aesthetically
pleasing. However, there is need for more scientific research
concerning the suitability and efficiency of soil bioengi-
neering techniques because the majority of published liter-
ature is based on practical experience and not on scientific
research and data about conditions and modes of failure.
Acknowledgments This study was supported by Chinese Academy
of Sciences (CAS), China, and TWAS, the academy of sciences for
the developing world (FR No.: 3240240226), and field visit was
partially supported by University Grants Commission, Nepal. We
would like to thank local community of Hariwan Village Develop-
ment Committee, Sarlahi, Nepal for their valuable information. The
authors are grateful to the anonymous referees for their constructive
comments on the original manuscript.
123
Environmental Management (2013) 51:354–364
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