DYE AND PRINTING – A REVIEW

INTRODUCTION
By definition dyes can be said to be coloured, ionizing and aromatic organic compounds which
shows an affinity towards the substrate to which it is being applied. It is generally applied in a
solution that is aqueous. Dyes may also require a mordant to better the fastness of the dye on the
material on which it is applied. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin
with no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant
kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a
commercial scale.
CLASSIFICATION OF DYE ACCORDING TO APPLICATION
1. Natural dyes
2. Reactive Dyes
3. Acid Dyes
4. Premetallized Dyes
5. Direct Dyes
6. Azoic (Napthol) Dyes
7. Disperse Dyes
8. Vat Dyes
9. Sulfur Dyes
10. Basic Dyes
NATURAL DYES
Direct Printing It is the most common approach to apply a color pattern onto a fabric. If done on
colored fabric, it is known as overprinting. The desired pattern is produced by pressing dye on
the fabric in a paste form. To prepare the print paste, a thickening agent is added to a limited
amount of water and dye is dissolved in it. Earlier starch was preferred as a thickening agent for
printing. Nowadays gums or alginates derived from seaweed are preferred as they allow better
penetration of color and are easier to wash out. Most pigment printing is done without thickeners
because the mixing up of resins, solvents and water produces thickening anyway.

REACTIVE DYES
Reactive dyes are the most recent of dyes. These are the most popular in the world among fibre
and fabric artists, used at first only by surface designers, but recently by weavers as well. There
are now reactive dyes for a wide range of fibres, e.g. cotton (PROCION), silk and wool
(PROCILAN). The dye actually reacts with the fibre molecules to form colour and is, as a result,
extremely fast to both light and washing. There are hot and cold water reactive dyes, in fact there
is a dye for almost every need. They can be most successfully used for silk painting, with a much
better colour fastness than the traditional basic dyes, and are already used by batik artists. we can
identify a reactive dye by the alkali used to set off the fixation process, which requires time to
take place (silk and wool reactives uses acetic acid). Assistants used are salt, soda ash and resist
salt, and sometimes bicarbonate of soda and urea. Reactive dyes are equally suited to screen
printing polychromatic printing, fabric painting yarn and piece dyeing.

ACID DYES
These are acidified basic dyes, intended for use on protein fibres but can be used on nylon and
acrylics. They have a fair light fastness but poor wash fastness

PREMETALLIZED DYES
These are an acid dyes with the addition of one or two molecules of chromium. The dyes give
mutetonings, not unlike those of natural dyes. They are the synthetic dyes mostly used by
weavers who dye their own yarns.

DIRECT DYES
These substantive dyes colour cellulose fibres directly in a hot dye bath without a mordant, to
give bright colours. They are not very fast to light or to washing. Direct dyes are generally any
dyes which use salt as their only fixative, e.g. Dylon dyes (not to be confused with reactive dyes,
which use salt plus other chemicals).

AZOIC (NAPHTHOL) DYES

These are another sort of direct dye, but ones that are extremely fast to washing, bleach and light.
They are intended for cellulose fibres and can be used successfully on protein fibres, although
the colours are different. These dyes are widely used all over Asia and Australia for batik and
direct application. They can be used to give interesting texture colour effects on fabric, thread or
paper. Their use for straight silk painting is minimal because of the difficulty in achieving
evenness of painted colour.

DISPERSE DYES
Originally developed for acetate fibres, these are now the major dyes for synthetics. They are not
soluble in water, but in the actual fibres themselves. They require a carrier to swell the fibres so
that the finely ground particles can penetrate. They are dyed hot, like direct dyes, but do not use
salt. Disperse dyes are widely used for heat transfer printing (Polysol). Dye is printed or painted
onto paper and heat pressed onto fabric. Prints have excellent light and wash fastness and strong
bright colours. Their major disadvantage is that only synthetic fabrics can be used.
VAT DYES
Vat dyes are the fastest for cellulose fibres. The dye is made soluble with alkali, put in a 'vat'
with a reducing agent, usually sodium hydrosulphite, which removes all oxygen from the liquid,
and the fabric is dyed, then oxidized in the air to achieve the true colour. Synthetic indigo is a
characteristic vat dye, but there are many colours available
BASIC DYES
The colours are very bright, but not very fast to light, washing, perspiration. Fastness is
improved if they are given an after-treatment or steaming, e.g. French Silk dyes are basic dyes
and should be steamed to fix.
PROPERTIES OF DYES
BASIC DYE:
Basic dyes are called so since they are salts of organic bases. Basic dyes are also called cationic
dyes because in solution the basic dye molecule ionizes, causing its colored component to
become an action of positively charged radical. Basic dyes are used for dyeing wool, silk, and
acrylic and mod-acrylic fibres.

PROPERTIES OF BASIC DYES

 Basic Dyes are cationic soluble salts of coloured bases. Basic dyes are applied to substrate with
anionic character where electrostatic attractions are formed. Basic dyes are not used on cotton as
the structures are neither planar nor large enough for sufficient substantivity or affinity. Basic
dyes are called cationic dyes because the chromophore in basic dye molecules contains a positive
charge. The basic dyes react on the basic side of the isoelectric points. Basic dyes are salts,
usually chlorides, in which the dyestuff is the basic or positive radical. Basic dyes are powerful
colouringagents. It’s applied to wool, silk, cotton and modified acrylic fibres. Usually acetic acid
is added to the dyebath to help the take up of the dye onto the fibre. Basic dyes are also used in
the coloration of paper.
 Ionic nature:-The ionic nature of these dyes is cationic.
 Shade range:-These dyes exhibit an unlimited shade range with high tinctorial strength,
brightness and many colors are having fluorescent properties.
 Solubility:-The solubility of these dyes is very good in water, in the presence of glacial acetic
acid.
 Leveling properties: - These dyes have a very high strike rate, therefore leveling is poor.
 Exhaustion: -cationic dyes exhaust at a variable rates, K values are used to define the exhaustion
characteristics of the cationic dyes. K=1 means the fastest exhaustion, while K=5 means the
slowest exhaustion. So while making the combination shades the dyes of similar K values must
be used.
 Affinity:- These dyes shows a very affinity towards wool , silk and cationic dye able acrylic, but
have no affinity towards cellulosics. To dye cellulosics with basic dyes the material must be
treated with suitable mordanting agents.
 Fastness Properties:-
 The light fastness is poor to moderate, but wet fastness is good.

ACID DYES
Acid dyes are highly water soluble, and have better light fastness than basic dyes.The textile acid
dyes are effective for protein fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylics. They contain
sulphonic acid groups, which are usually present as sodium sulphonate salts. These increase
solubility in water, and give the dye molecules a negative charge. In an acidic solution, the -NH2
functionalities of the fibres are protonated to give a positive charge: -NH3+. This charge
 interacts with the negative dye charge, allowing the formation of ionic interactions. As well as
this, Van-der-Waals bonds, dipolar bonds and hydrogen bonds are formed between dye and fibre.
As a group, acid dyes can be divided into two sub-groups: acid-leveling or acid-milling.
PROPERTIES OF ACID DYES
Since these are sold as a sodium salt, therefore these form a large anion in the aqueous medium.
The main properties of acid dyes are,
 These dyes are anionic in nature.
 These dyes are suitable for wool, silk, polyamide and modified acrylics.
 These are applied from a strongly acidic to neutral pH bath.
 These dyes have no affinity for cotton cellulose’s, hence not suitable for cellulosics.
 These dyes combine with the fiber by hydrogen bonds,vanderwaals forces or through ionic
linkages.
REACTIVE DYES
Reactive dyes are water soluble dyes holding sulphonic acid groups and reactive groups like
dichloride or monochlorotniazinyl groups or sulplato ethyl sulphone groups.
The result of these dyes with the functional groups of the fibre is brought about by alkali such as
sodicens carbonate, hydroxide, silicate etc. Reactive dyes from covalent bond with the fibre and
becomes a part of the fibre. This type of dye has some reactive group, which can react with –OH
group of cellulose, and –NH2 group of proteins fibers. Due to this fact, these dyes are known as
reactive dyes.
PROPERTIES OF REACTIVE DYE
 During the dyeing process, the reactive group of the dye makes covalent bond with the fiber.
 These dyes are soluble in water.
 These dyes are normally used for dyeing cellulose and protein fibers.
 All types of shades are available from these dyes.
 The dyeing is done in alkali condition
 Wet fastness is well
 The brightness and rubbing fastness are comparatively well
 The cost of these dyes is cheap
 The dyeing process is very easy.
 This dye reactive group reacts with –OH groups of cellulose and –NH2 group of proteins fiber.
 DIRECT DYE:
Direct Dye is a class of dyestuffs that are applied directly to the substrate in a neutral or alkaline
bath. They produce full shades on cotton and linen without mordanting and can also be applied
to rayon, silk, and wool. Direct dyes give bright shades but exhibit poor washfastness. Various
aftertreatments are used to improve the washfastness of direct dyes, and such dyes are referred to
as “aftertreated direct colors.”Direct Dyes are molecules that adhere to the fabric molecules
without help from other chemicals. Direct dyes are defined as anionic dyes with substantivity for
cellulosic fibres, normally applied from an aqueous dyebath containing an electrolyte, either
sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate (Na2SO4).
 The dyeing process with direct dyes is very simple, Direct dyeing is normally carried out in a
neutral or slight alkaline dye bath, at or near boiling point, but a separate aftertreatment such as
cationic dye fixing, to enhance wet fastness has been necessary for most direct dyeing.
 Direct dyes are used on cotton, paper,leather, wool, silk and nylon. They are also used as pH
indicators and as biological stains.
PROPERTIES OF DIRECT DYES
 Direct dyes are water soluble dyes.
 It is anionic in nature
 It needs electrolyte for exhaustion
 Dyeing process is carried out in alkaline condition
 Generally applied for cellulosic as well as protein fibres
 Fastness properties are average specially wet fastness
 Fastness properties are improved buy after treatment
 It is not widely used as compared with reactive dyes
 Comparatively cheap in price
 Direct dyes are used for cheap goods for local market
It is not suitable to dye cellulosic fibre with direct dyes for this reason most of the cases reactive
dyes, basic dyes and azoic dyes is used. The use direct dyes is very limited.
AZOIC DYES
Azoic dye is that which has insoluble azo group. Azoic dyes do not get in ready-made form in
the market. It is produced by reacting two components named coupling method and diazo
component. It should be noted here that, azoic dye is different from other dye and the application
 process also different from others. It also called ice color or magic color because it needs very
low temperature.
PROPERTIES OF AZOIC DYE:
Some key properties of azoic dye have pointed out in the below:
 This type of dye is mostly used for lighter shade dyeing.
 It is directly insoluble in water.
 Insoluble azo group present in it.
 Brightness of azoic dye is good.
 Addition of salt increases substantively.
 High fastness characteristics of this dyestuff admirable.
 Brightness of shade is also admirable.
 Dyeing operation is completed by two bath arrangement such as developing bath and
impregnating bath.
 This dyestuff always contains azo groups in its chemical structure.
 Dyestuff always used in cellulosic materials.
 Wash fastness is very good here.
 Napthol dispersed in alcohol T.R.O.
 Coupling is necessary for color production.
 In alkaline solution, coupling is done.
 It is mainly applicable for cellulose fibres.
 Application time has needed more here.
 Azoic dye is comparatively cheap than other dyes.
 Dyeing process is done by using three processes here such as coupling, naptholation and
diazotization.
 Here, final color is produced within few seconds after immersing the next materials in the dye
solution.
 It is perfect for small scale industry.
 It is used for coloring small amount of textile materials dyeing.
 Azoic dye is not popular as reactive dye or disperses dye.
DISPERSE DYES
 Disperse dyes are nonionic dyes. So they are free from ionizing group.
 They are ready made dyes and are insoluble in water or have very low water solubility.
 They are organic colouring substances which are suitable for dyeing hydrophobic fibres.
 Disperse dyes are used for dyeing manmade cellulose ester and synthetic fibres specially acetate
and polyester fibres and sometimes nylon and acrylic fibres.
 Carrier or dispersing agents are required for dyeing with disperse dyes.
 Disperse dyes have fair to good light fastness with rating about 4-5.
 The wash fastness of these dyes is moderate to good with rating about 3-4.
 Of all dyestuffs disperse dyes are of smallest molecular size.
 Generally disperse dyes are derivatives of azo, anthroquinone, nitro and quinine groups.
 They do not undergo any chemical change during dyeing.
 In presence of nitrous oxide, textile materials dyed with certain blue and violet disperse dyes
with an anthraquinone structure will fade. This is called gas fading of disperse dyes which is a
defect of this dye.
VAT DYES
 Vat dyes are natural colouring dyes
 Vat dyes are insoluble in water
 Vatting process is needed for making the insoluble vat dyes into soluble form
 Final colour is developed by the oxidation process
 Vatting is done in alkaline condition
 Fastness properties of the dyes are excellent but its rubbing properties are not so good
 Sometimes it causes different types of skin disease
 Vat dyes are mainly used for coloring cellulosic fibres
 Stability of the color in the fibre is excellent
 Wide range of color can be achieved by these dyes
 Application of vat dyes is limited in practical life
 Vat dyes are expensive in price
 Properties of Sulfur Dyes
 These are water insoluble dyes and have no affinity for the cellulosics as such, but solubilised
when treated with a weak alkaline solution of sodium sulphide or any other reducing agent to
form a leuco compound. These leuco compounds are water soluble and have affinity for the
cellulosic materials such as cotton, viscose, jute and flex etc. These dyes are absorbed by the
 cellulosic material in the leuco form from aqueous solution and when oxidized by suitable
oxidizing agents, got converted into insoluble parent dye, which is fast to normal color fastness
parameters.
SULFUE DYES
 Economical dyeing with excellent tinctorial value and good build up properties.
 Good overall colorfastness properties such as wash fastness , light fastness, perspiration fastness
etc. Moderate fastness to crocking and poor fastness to chlorines bleaching agents such as
bleaching powder and sodium hypochlorite.
 Limited shade range to produce only dull shades and there is no true red dye in the range.
 These dyes can be applied by exhaust, semi continuous or continuous dyeing methods on
garment,yarn, knits, fabric as well as loose stock etc.
 Available in powder, granules and liquid forms.
 Sulphur black 1 is the major black dye used world vide for dyeing of cellulosics.
 The conventional dyeing process is not environment friendly due to pollution problems of
sodium sulphide as well as sod/pot. Dichromates.
 When dyed by using nonpolluting reducing and oxidizing agents the process is environment
friendly.

FIBRE SUITABILITY
DYES FOR CELLULOSE FIBERS
VAT DYES
Vat Dyes are those dyes, applicable to the substrate in reduced, soluble form. After that, these are
oxidized to the original insoluble pigment. Quinonic dyes, Anthraquinone dyes and Indigoid
dyes are the three commonly used vat dyes. The inability of these vat dyes to dye the fibers
directly is due to their insoluble nature in water.
Alkali metal salts of these dyes can be produced by reduction in alkaline liquids. These salts are
soluble in water. This thing makes these dyes unpopular to the home dyers. Because in most of
the cases, they don't have a reducing agent.
Through oxidation, Vat dyes are obtained. When vat dyes are bleached with other dyes then
these result in more brightness. The bleaching process is very costly and therefore can be used on
high-end products.
Fast washing can be done by Vat dyes. Today, several artificial dyes have come into existence.
As these are cheap so the future of these artificial vat dyes is very bright. Both cotton and woolen
clothes can be dyed by Vat dyes. Other fibers can also be dyed by Vat dyes.
AZONINE (DIRECT) DYES
Azonine Dyes are those direct dyes which are comparatively cheaper direct dyes. These dyes
have good coloring property. These dyes are useful for those users who don't concern much
about the fastness properties of the direct dyes.
FIBER REACTIVE DYES
For dyeing cotton and any other cellulose fibers, Fiber Reactive Dyes are considered as the best
dyes. These dyes are also used for dyeing protein fibers. These dyes form the original covalent
bonds with the cellulose or protein molecules. Due to this fact, these dyes are the most
permanent of all other types of dyes. The formation of covalent bonds allow these dyes to
become an integrated part of the cellulose fiber molecule. This feature also allow the end-users to
wash white cotton clothes along with colored clothes.
VINYL SULPHONE FIBER REACTIVE DYES
One form of Fiber Reactive Dyes is Vinyl Sulphone Dyes. But, these dyes are less reactive as
comparison to Fiber Reactive Dyes.
Vinyl Sulphone Fiber Reactive Dyes can be used very friendly with cotton, silk and wool. Cotton
requires high pH scale and low heat but wool requires just the opposite elements. Vinyl Sulphone
Fiber Reactive dyes need more heat and more time to remain in soluble form in water to react
with the fibers. On the reactive part of its molecule, vinyl sulphone dye consists a masking
group. This assists it to remain non-reactive till it is not removed from the dye water. This is also
the reason for its longer lasting in the water.
DIRECT DYES
Direct Dyes are commonly used on cotton fibers. These Dyes are mixed in All Purpose dyes
along with the Acid Dyes. The color of direct dyes on cotton fibers is not bright in respect to
other dyes. The wash fastness of these dyes is not very good. The only advantage of these dyes is
that the light fastness is little better. Lightfastness means the resistant capacity against fading in
light. But, this is also in few cases only. One more benefit of using Direct Dyes is that these can
be used in the same dye bath with the Acid Dyes.

SULPHUR DYES
The main characteristics of Sulphur Dyes are these have lustrous grains, make a complete black
shade having a slight reddish or greenish impact. These dyes are used for jigger, cotton and
viscose rayon. Sulphur Dyes are mainly used for dying cellulose fibers. Apart the cellulose
fibers, these can be also used for dyeing staple fibers and yarn.
Synthetic fibers come into existence due to the result of extensive research done by scientists to
increase and improve upon the supply of naturally occurring animal and plant fibers that have
been used in making cloth and rope.
Generally, synthetic fibers, or man-made fibers, are made by forcing, usually through the act of
thrusting out the fiber forming materials through holes (called spinnerets) into the air, forming a
thread.
Some common synthetic fibers Some specialty synthetic fibers
Rayon Vinyon
Acetate Saran
Nylon Spandex
Modacrylic Modal
Olefin Orlon

DYEING PROCESS OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS (FOR HELOGENIOUS FIBERS)

The process of synthetic fiber (a bundle hair, comprises halogen containing synthetic fibers)
dyeing uses a dyeing solution containing a dye, a carrier and a solvent for synthetic fiber hair at
60° to 90° C. The said carrier is used in an amount of 0.05 to 1.2% by weight based on said
dyeing solution and said solvent is used in an amount of 0.05 to 5% by weight based on said
dyeing solution.
POPULAR DYES FOR SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Name of fibers Name of common dyes that are used
Polyester Disperse Dyes
Acetate (Cellulose acetate) Doesn't take dyes ordinarily. It requires cross dyeing.
 Acrylic Disperse dyes
Modacrylic Fiber Reactive Dyes
Modal Fiber Reactive Dyes
Nylon Cationic Dyes, Acid Dyes, Disperse Dyes
Orlon Disperse Dye
Rayon Acetate Rayon Dyes
Saron RIT Dyes
Spandex Disperse Dyes
Vinalon Doesn't take Dyes (in normal condition)
Vinyon Doesn't take Dyes (in normal condition)

DEFINITION OF SOME IMPORTANT DYES

RIT Dyes are the chemical dyes which are available in both a powder dry form as well as in
liquid form. The use of the dry dyes is more preferred over the liquid dyes because the dry dyes
store better for a long period of time, both work equally as well. RIT Dyes are available at most
grocery stores.
Fiber reactive dye is the most permanent of all kind of other dyes bond with the cellulose or
protein molecules. No wonder you can safely wash a garment that has been dyed in bright fiber
reactive colors with white clothing, a hundred times, without endangering the whites in the least
- even if it is all different bright colors, or even solid black.
Basic dyes are cationic, which means that the colored part has a positive charge,at the time of
dissolving in water. They will bond to either carboxyl or sulfonic acid groups on a fiber through
the formation of salt links with these anionic groups in the fiber.

MAJOR DYES FOR SYNTHETIC FIBERS

 Union Dyes
 Disperse Dyes
 Cationic Dyes
COMMON METHODS OF DYEING NYLON
USING ACID DYES
Although Nylon is a synthetic fiber but due to its some unique features, it can be dyed like silk or
woolen clothes by ACID dyeing. For this, a typical recipe calls for dissolving dye and salt in
adequate water to cover the material and allow it to move freely in the pot, adding the material,
heat it to a simmer for ten minutes, add some vinegar and simmer for another ten minutes, then
allow to cool gradually and rinse out. Acid dyes are used for wool, silk, and some synthetics.
Unlike the vat and sulfur dyes, they are water-soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber.
USING FIBER REACTIVE DYES
Most fiber reactive dyes, especially those which are commonly used to dye cotton and rayon,
cannot react with nylon. But, fiber reactive dyes can be treated as Acid dyes if some acid like
vinegar is added with it with the necessary heat supply. When used with acid dye recipe, a fiber
reactive dye actually acts as an acid dye.
USING UNION DYES
Unions are materials made from two or more different kinds of fibers, such as cotton and wool or
viscose and acetate rayon.
USING NATURAL DYES
Many natural dyes are acid dyes, which work well on nylon if heated in a dye bath with an acid,
like vinegar or citric acid. Cochineal dyes nylon a good intense red with a slightly brownish tone,
whether mordanted with alum or not.
However, indigo is considered to perform poorly on all synthetic fibers, including nylon, because
the fibers lack of the internal spaces found in natural fibers into which the soluble form of the
dye may penetrate and then become trapped upon oxidation.
USING DISCHARGE DYES
The dye in nylon must not be discharged with hydrochloride (ordinary household chlorine
bleach), because the fiber itself, like wool or silk, will be severely damaged.

DYEING PROCESS OF PROTEIN FIBERS

Protein fibers can be successfully dyed with unsweetened soft-drink mixes such as Kool-Aid or
Flavor-Aid. This is an easy and foolproof process and with this process color and light fast dyed
fibers can be manufactured.
Both non-spun fibers and spun yarn can be dyed along with white colored fibers. Other colored
fibers like natural gray also produce wonderful result after dyeing. Dyeing result of white color
fibers comes in intense colors while for gray fibers died with Kool-Aid will produce intense, rich
and heathery results. Some alertness should be maintained at the time of dyeing superwash wool
because it absorbs the colors more quickly than the non-superwash wool and the color will seem
more brilliant than the non-superwash brethren.
MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEIN FIBERS AND COMMONLY USED DYES
Name Source Main dyes
WOOL From sheep Acid Dyes
Sheared Wool Natural Dyes
Puller Wool Vat dyes
Recycled Wool Aniline(Water Based) Dyes
SILK Silk larva spun the fibers Acid Dyes
Chiffon Natural Dyes
China Silk Acid Dyes
Tussah Natural Dyes
Charmeuse Natural Dyes
Noil Natural Dyes
Raw silk Natural Dyes
MOHAIR Angora goats Rit Dyes
ANGORA Angora goats/Angora rabbits Acid Dyes

COMMONLY USED DYES FOR PROTEIN FIBERS

The following dyes are the commonly used dyes for dyeing protein fibers and also non-fibrous
protein products:
ACID DYES
For dyeing protein fibers, Acid Dyes are used. It is used mainly for wool, angora, cashmere, and
silk. It is also used for milk protein fibers i.e. Silk Latte, Soy protein fibers i.e. Soy Silk etc.
NATURAL DYES
Natural Dyes are often considered not very safe as well as not very ecological friendly. Natural
Dyes are also less permanent, difficult to apply, easily washed out and usually consist highly
toxic mordants.
VAT DYES
Vat Dye is a kind of Natural dyes. It is a mordant dyes and it required others assistive substances
for attaching to the fibers.
VARIOUS STAGES OF DYEING
Dyeing can be done during any stage in the manufacture of textile product. Textiles may be dyed
as fiber, as yarn, as fabric or as garments, depending on the type of fabric or garment produced.
Dyeing will occur in the most efficient stage which will meet the requirements of the intended
end uses.
Stock and Top Dyeing
Stock dyeing refers to the dyeing of fibers, or stock, before it is spun into yarn. It is done by
putting loose, un-spun fibers into large vats containing the dye bath, which is less than heated to
proper temperature. From 500 to 3000 pounds (227 to 1364 kgs.) of fiber are dyed at one time,
and the average is about 1000 pounds (454 kgs.)

Top dyeing is also the dyeing of fiber before it is spun into yarn and serves the same purpose as
stock dyeing that is to produce soft, heather like color effects. The term top refers to fibers of
wool from which shorter fibers have been removed. Top is thus the select long fibers that are
used to spin worsted yarn. The top in the form of silver is dyed and then blended with other color
of dyed top to produce desired blended heather shades.

YARN DYEING

Yarn dyeing, as its name implies is the dyeing of yarns before they have woven or the knitted
into fabrics. The main reason for the dyeing of yarn is for the ultimate production of multi
colored designs such as plaids, stripes, and checks. Some typical yarn-dyed fabrics are multi
colored gingham, madras, brocade and multi-colored weft knits. Yarn dyeing is also used in
special cases for solid-color fabrics. Yarns may be dyed in different forms such as, Skeins,
Packages and Beams.
 SKEIN DYEING
Skein Dyeing consists of immersing large, loosely wound hands (skeins) of yarns into dye vats
that are especially designed for this purpose. Soft, lofty yarns such as hand knitting yarns are
usually skein dyed. Skein dyeing is the most costly yarn-dye method.
PACKAGE DYEING
In Package Dyeing, yarn is wound on a small perforated spool or tube called a package. many
spools fit into the dyeing machine in which the flow of the dye bath alternates from the center to
outside, and then form outside to the center of the package.
BEAM DYEING
Beam Dyeing is a much larger version of package dyeing. An entire warp beam is wound onto a
perforated cylinder, which is then placed in the beam dyeing machine where the flow of the dye
bath alternates as in package dyeing.

PIECE DYEING
The dyeing of cloth after it has been woven or knitted is known as piece dyeing. It is the most
common method of dyeing used. The various methods used for this type of dyeing include:
 Jet Dyeing
 Jig Dyeing
 Pad Dyeing
 Beam Dyeing
When heavy or densely woven fabrics or tightly twisted yarn fabrics are piece dyed sometimes
the dye does not penetrate into the centre of the yarn material. The condition known simply as
poor penetration, leaves the fibers in the center of the yarn or at the fabric interlacing, lightly
colored or un-dyed. It can be recognized by taking some yarns out of the fabric, untwisting them
and observing the non-uniform color of fibers in the twisted yarn. Fabrics such as uniform
clothing, children's wear, upholstery fabrics, and other fabrics subjected to hard used take on a
faded appearance at points of wear and white un-dyed fibers shift towards the fabric surface.
TYPICALLY PIECE DYED FABRICS
 Batiste
 Broad Cloth
 Challis
 Corduroy
 Satin
JET DYEING
In Jet Dyeing process, the fabric being dyed is circulated in a rope form through a closed system
dyeing machine on a jet flow of the dye bath. The fabric is moved by the fast moving dye bath.
Since no pressure and little tension occurs with the material, even delicate fabrics can be dyed
using this process. Most jet dyeing machines can be pressurized and are capable of achieving
dyeing temperatures exceeding the boiling point of water.

JIG DYEING

The Jig Dyeing process involved treating fabric in an open width. Fabric is not immersed in a
dye bath, but rather is passed through a stationery dye bath. Upon completion of the first pass,
the fabric reverses and is passed again through the dye bath. To produce darker colors, the fabric
must pass through the dye bath more times than when a lighter shade is desired.
PAD DYEING
Pad Dyeing is accomplished with a machine called a Dye Pad. Its appearance somewhat
resembles a giant cloth wringer. Fabric in open width first passes through the dye bath, and then
through the rollers where the dye solution is squeezed the fabric.

BEAM DYEING
Beam Dyeing for piece dyeing is practically identical to beam dyeing used for yearn. Fabric is
wound on to a perforated cylinder where the dye bath is forced through the fabric layers. The
fabric remains stationery.
GARMENT DYEING
Garment Dyeing is the dyeing of completed garments. The types of apparel that can be dyed are
mostly non-tailored and simpler forms, such as sweaters, sweat-shirts, T-shirts, hosiery, and
pantyhose. The effect on sizing, threads, zippers and snaps must be considered. Tailored items
such as suits or dresses cannot be dyed as garments because the difference in shrinkage of the
various components and linings distort and miss-shape the article.
Garment dyeing is done by placing a suitable number of garments (usually about 24 sweaters or
the equivalent, depending on weight) into a large nylon net bag. The garments are loosely
packed. From 10 to 50 of the bags are placed in large tubs containing the dye bath and are kept
agitated by a motor driven paddle in the dye tub. The machine is appropriately called a Paddle
Dyer.