Law of Conservation of Mass

Chapter 2: Antoine Lavoisier (late 1700’s)

Atoms, Molecules, & Ions Mass cannot be created or
destroyed, merely converted
from one form into another.

mass before rxn = mass after rxn

example: 10.62 g mercury is

allowed to react with oxygen gas
resulting in the formation of
11.47 g of mercury oxide.
Determine the mass of oxygen
gas consumed in this reaction.

Law of Definite Proportions Law of Multiple Proportions

Joseph Proust (late 1700’s - early 1800’s) John Dalton (late 1700’s - early 1800’s)
A given compound always consists of the When 2 elements form a series of compounds, the
same proportion of its constituent ratio of the mass of the 2nd element that combines
elements by mass. with 1 g of the 1st element is a small whole
number ratio.
example: sodium chloride (salt) example: Consider three different compounds
1.00g salt ! 0.394 g Na & 0.606 g Cl composed of sulfur and fluorine:
mass of sulfur mass of fluorine
100 g salt ! 39.4 g Na & 60.6 g Cl
compound A 1.000 g 1.188 g
compound B 1.000 g 2.375 g
compound C 1.000 g 3.563 g
 In 1808, John Dalton published A New System of
Chemical Philosophy.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory - 4 basic statements:
1. All matter is composed of atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical; atoms of
different elements are distinct.
- with respect to physical and chemical properties
3. A compound is a specific combination of atoms of 2 or
more elements bonded together in a specific ratio.
4. In a chemical reaction atoms are neither created or
destroyed, merely rearranged into new substances.
- Law of Conservation of Matter

Early Experiments to Establish Atomic Structure: J.J. Thomson and Cathode Rays (1897)
J.J.Thomson and Cathode Rays
Robert Millikan and the Oil Drop Experiment
Ernest Rutherford and the Nuclear Structure of the Atom
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment (1909)

Thomson’s Conclusions:
negatively charged particles (electrons, e!) are common to Millikan determined the charge of a single electron:
the internal structure of atoms of all elements 1 e! = 1.6 x 10 −19 C
charge to mass ratio of electron: coupled with Thomson’s results:
e/m = 1.76 x 108 C/g mass of e− = 9.1 x 10−28 g

Ernest Rutherford and α-Rays (1911) Rutherford: the Nuclear Structure of the Atom
the nucleus: center of mass and positive charge
very small relative to the whole atom

● beam of alpha-particles shot at thin gold film

● Rutherford expected to see very little or no deflection of
particle beam
● approximately 1 in 20,000 particles were deflected sharply
backward
 Individual atoms identified by:
Atomic Structure: Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons
name and symbol
atomic number (Z)
mass number (A)
atomic number, Z:
Z = number of protons in the nucleus
Z does not change for a given element

mass number, A:
note: an atom is charge neutral when A = number protons + number neutrons
number protons = number electrons or equals total number of nucleons
number of protons is constant for atoms of the same
element, but the number of neutrons is variable

Elements and the Periodic Table

Isotopes - atoms with the same number of protons but
elements:
differing numbers of neutrons ◆ pure substances
◆ only one type of matter
same atomic number ∴ same element ◆ cannot be broken down into simpler substances
different mass numbers ◆ 118 known; 112 named

consider 2 atoms (atom A and atom B are isotopes of one each element has a name and a symbol:
another):
◆ an element’s name should not be capitalized unless
atom A atom B it is the 1st word in a sentence
number protons 50 50
◆ for elemental symbol - 1st letter is always
number neutrons 69 73
capitalized, 2nd letter is never capitalized
number electrons 50 50
atomic number ★★★ In Chem 1711 you need to know the names (correctly
mass number spelled) and symbols for elements 1 - 56 plus W, Pt, Au, Hg, Pb, & Bi
symbol
 Periodic Table of the Elements
Organization of the Periodic Table:
Periods and Groups

horizontal rows: periods

vertical columns: groups or families
numbering of groups - IA to VIIIA; 1A to 8; 1 to 18
groups with special names -
IA (1) alkali metals
IIA (2) alkaline earth metals
VIA (16) chalcogens
VIIA (17) halogens
VIIIA (18) noble (inert) gases

Organization of the Periodic Table: You should be able to . . .

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
◆ find an element in the periodic table
Metals Nonmetals ◆ give the name, symbol, and atomic number for the
left of stair-step line in PT right of stair-step line in PT element
mostly solids in elemental can be solids, liquids, or
◆ identify the position of the element by period and
form (a few liquids) gases in elemental form
group number
metallic luster, malleable, and not ductile or malleable
ductile ◆ identify (if appropriate) group or family by name
not conductors
good conductors of heat and ◆ identify if the element is a metal (main group vs.
electricity transition), nonmetal, or metalloid
Metalloids ◆ give the proton, neutron, and electron count for the
elements along the stair-step line in PT
atom if mass number is known
B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At
intermediate properties
 Masses of individual atoms of all elements Average Atomic Mass
determined using mass spectrometry.
relative to standard: 1 atom 12C = 12 amu average atomic mass - weighted average mass (in amu)
calculated using the masses of naturally occurring isotopes,
for all elements, mass range per atom:
1 - 260 amu and their abundances
10!24 - 10!22 g
ex. Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine given the
following information:
isotope isotope mass percent abundance
35Cl 34.969 amu 75.78%
37Cl 36.966 amu

average atomic mass = [(mass of 35Cl)(%abund35Cl/100)] +

[(mass of 37Cl)(%abund37Cl/100)]

Chromium has four naturally occurring isotopes: Nomenclature

isotope isotope mass abundance
50Cr 49.9461 amu 4.350%
naming of chemical compounds
52Cr 51.9405 amu 83.79% rules for determining the IUPAC names for:
53Cr 52.9407 amu 9.500%
54Cr 53.9389 amu 2.360%
binary molecular compounds
ionic compounds
Considering only this data given (i.e. do not look at the binary acids and oxoacids
periodic table), what approximate average atomic mass
do you expect for Cr?
Then - calculate the average atomic mass of Cr and
compare your answer to the reported average atomic
mass in the periodic table.
 Molecular Compounds
◆ consist of molecules
◆ molecule - neutral group of atoms held together by
covalent bonds (shared electrons)
◆ molecular compounds are composed of nonmetals
only, or nonmetals and metalloids
◆ binary molecular compounds - 2 elements only
Naming Monatomic Cations - Type I Metals
metals tend to form cations
2 types of metals
Type I metals - metals that form cations of only one
charge
cation charge = metal’s group number
group IA, group IIA, group IIIB,
Al3+, Ga3+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Ag+
examples: Na+ sodium ion Cs+ cesium ion
Mg2+ magnesium ion Ba2+ barium ion
Al3+ aluminum ion Zn2+ zinc ion
Ionic Compounds
◆ consist of ions
◆ ions are charged species*; ions can be:
monatomic or polyatomic
cations or anions
◆ individual ions are charged, but overall an
ionic compound is charge neutral
◆ cations and anions held together by ionic
bonds (electrostatic attraction of opposite
charges)
◆ composed of metals and nonmetals
* ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons
ion charge = # protons ! # electrons
Naming Monatomic Cations - Type II Metals
Type II metals - metals that form cations with
more than one possible charge
◆ these tend to be the transition metals and
heavier main group metals
examples: Fe2+ & Fe3+, Co2+ & Co3+,
Cr3+ & Cr6+, Sn2+ & Sn4+
naming type II metal cations: use stock
system to indicate charge on cation
Cr3+ chromium (III) ion
Cr6+ chromium (VI) ion
Sn2+ tin (II) ion Sn4+ tin (IV) ion
 Naming Monatomic Anions
nonmetals tend to form anions
monatomic anions: primarily nonmentals in groups VA, VIA,
and VIIA
anion charge = group number ! 8
naming monatomic anions: _________ ! ide ion

examples:
N3! nitride ion
As3! arsenide ion
O2! oxide ion
Se2! selenide ion
F! fluoride ion
Cl! chloride ion

Naming Polyatomic Anions Naming Polyatomic Anions

◆ mostly oxoanions (i.e. contain oxygen) ◆ Some elements form more multiple
◆ need to know name, formula, and charge oxoanions, each with a different number of O’s.
name these in the following way:
to name an oxoanion, basic rule: ________-ate ion
______-ate ion for the oxoanion with more O’s
examples:
CO32! carbonate ion ______-ite ion for the oxoanion with less O’s
SO42! sulfate ion examples:
NO3! nitrate ion SO42! sulfate ion SO32! sulfite ion
PO43! phosphate ion NO3! nitrate ion NO2! nitrite ion
ClO3! chlorate ion ClO3! chlorate ion ClO2! chlorite ion
 Naming Polyatomic Anions Naming Polyatomic Anions
◆ Cl, Br, and I each form series of four different ◆ Protonated oxoanions:
oxoanions with 1 - 4 O’s. have one or more proton (H+)
to name the ions in these series: formula, charge, and name all change
per-______-ate ion (most O’s) examples:
______-ate ion (more O’s) CO32! carbonate ion HCO3! hydrogen carbonate ion
______-ite ion (less O’s)
SO32! sulfite ion HSO3! hydrogen sulfite ion
hypo-______-ite ion (least O’s)
examples: O2! oxide ion OH! hydroxide ion
BrO4! perbromate ion IO4! periodate ion
BrO3! bromate ion IO3! iodate ion PO43! phosphate ion HPO42! hydrogen phosphate ion
BrO2! bromite ion IO2! iodite ion H2PO4! dihydrogen phosphate ion
BrO! hypobromite ion IO! hypoiodite ion

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Cation - Anion

examples:
Write the IUPAC name for each of the following:

Na3P
(NH4)3PO4
V2(SO4)5
Fe(BrO4)3
 Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds Naming Molecular Compounds
◆ name the elements in the order that they appear
◆ add suffix !ide to stem of 2
nd element name
examples: ◆ use prefixes to indicate how many atoms of each

Write the chemical formula for each of the following element are present
given the IUPAC name: examples:
Give the name for each of the
magnesium nitrate following:
copper (I) chloride SiO2 PCl3 XeF6
cobalte (III)oxalate
silver acetate Give the chemical formula for each of
the following:
dinitrogen pentoxide
boron triiodide dichlorine oxide

Naming Acids Naming Acids

◆ Acids - one or more H+ with an anion ◆ oxoacids - anion is an oxoanion

number of H+’s in acid formula = charge on anion ◆ the name of an oxoacid is determined based on
the name of the oxoanion:
◆ binary acids - anion is a monatomic anion;
only 2 elements present if oxoanion name ends in -ate: ______-ic acid
if oxoanion name ends in -ite: ______-ous acid
to name a binary acid: hydro-______-ic acid
examples: HClO4 HNO2
examples: HI acetic acid carbonic acid
hydrosulfuric acid sulfurous acid
 Naming Hydrated Metal Salts Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Reactants ! Products
◆ ionic compounds (aka salts) that have one or substances consumed substances formed
more water molecule associated per formula unit chemical equations provide qualitative information:
◆ identity of reactants and products;
◆ “waters of hydration”
chemical formulas
name these in the following way: ◆ physical states; s, l, g, aq

◆ reaction conditions
ionic compound name + ______ - hydrate
chemical equations provide quantitative information:
examples: ◆ stoichiometric coefficients

◆ numbers of particles that combine

Mg(NO3)2•4H2O magnesium nitrate tetrahydrate
◆ ratio of how reactants combine and

CoSO4•7H2O cobalt (II) sulfate heptahydrate products form

 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical equations must be balanced before they
can provide quantitative information.
◆ atom book-keeping . . . must have equal
numbers of atoms of each element of both
sides of the arrow
Law of Conservation of Matter - matter cannot
be created or destroyed, merely converted from
one form into another
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
examples:
Molten aluminum metal and solid barium oxide are combined
and heated resulting in the formation of elemental, liquid
barium and solid aluminum oxide.
__ Ca3P2 (s) + __ H2O (l) ! __ Ca(OH)2 (aq) + __ PH3 (g)
__ SO2 (g) + __ H2S (g) ! __ S (s) + __ H2O (l)
__ CO2 (g) + __ H2O (l) ! __ C6H12O6 (s) + __ O2 (g)
__ C4H10 (g) + __ O2 (g) ! __ CO2 (g) + __ H2O (g)
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
to balance a chemical equation:
1. write the skeletal equation
◆ chemical formulas of reactants and products
note: there are 7 elements that exist as diatomic
molecules in their element form:
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
2. adjust the stoichiometric coefficients until the equation is
balanced
◆ do not change subscripts in chemical formulas
◆ trial and error
3. DOUBLE CHECK!
4. add details if you know them
◆ physical states; reaction conditions
Classes of Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions typically fall into one of the following
categories:
1. Formation: formation of a compound from its elements.
ex: 6 Na (s) + N2 (g) ! 2 Na3N (s)
2. Synthesis
3. Decomposition
4. Combustion: organic compound (compound composed of
C, H, O) reacts with oxygen to form CO2 and water
ex: CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) ! CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
 Classes of Chemical Reactions (Cont’d)

5. Precipitation: formation of an insoluble solid (precipitate)

ex: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) ! AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

6. Acid-Base Neutralization: H+ transfer

ex: NH3 (aq) + HCl (aq) ! NH4Cl (aq)

7. Oxidation - Reduction: electron transfer; changes in

oxidation numbers of elements
ex: Zn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ! ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)