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EQUATIONS
© M. Ragheb
3/30/2019
INTRODUCTION
th
The early part of the 18 century saw the burgeoning of the field of theoretical
fluid mechanics pioneered by Leonhard Euler and the father and son Johann and Daniel
Bernoulli.
We introduce the equations of continuity and conservation of momentum of fluid
flow, from which we derive the Euler and Bernoulli equations. The Bernoulli equation is
the most famous equation in fluid mechanics. Its significance is that when the velocity
increases in a fluid stream, the pressure decreases, and when the velocity decreases, the
pressure increases.
The Bernoulli equation is applied to the airfoil of a wind machine rotor, defining
the lift, drag and thrust coefficients and the pitching angle.
.( V ) 0 (1)
t
We consider the vector identity resembling the chain rule of differentiation:
where the divergence operator is noted to act on a vector quantity, and the gradient
operator acts on a scalar quantity.
This allows us to rewrite the continuity equation as:
V . .V 0 (3)
t
SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE
We can use the substantial derivative:
D
(V .)Convetive (4)
Dt t Local
Derivative
Derivative
where the partial time derivative is called the local derivative and the dot product term is
called the convective derivative.
In terms of the substantial derivative the continuity equation can be expressed as::
D
.V 0 (5)
Dt
F ma (6)
A more general form describes the force vector as the rate of change of the
momentum vector as:
d
F (mV ) (7)
dt
Its general form is written in term of volume integrals and a surface integral over
an arbitrary control volume v as:
( V )
v
t
dv ( V .dS )V pdv f dv F
S v v v
viscous dv (8)
where the velocity vector is:
( u) p
v
t
dv ( V .dS )u x dv f dv ( F )
S v v
x
v
x viscous dv
( v ) p
v
t
dv ( V .dS )v y dv f dv ( F )
S v v
y
v
y viscous dv (10)
( w) p
v
t
dv ( V .dS ) w z dv f dv ( F )
S v v
z
v
z viscous dv
( V .dS ) (11)
( u) p
.( uV ) f x ( Fx ) viscous
t x
( v) p
.( vV ) f y ( Fy ) viscous (13)
t y
( w) p
.( wV ) f z ( Fz ) viscous
t z
These are known as the Navier-Stokes equations. They apply to the unsteady,
three dimensional flow of any fluid, compressible or incompressible, viscous or inviscid.
In terms of the substantial derivative, the Navier-Stokes equations can be
expressed as:
Du p
f x ( Fx ) viscous
Dt x
Dv p
f y ( Fy ) viscous (14)
Dt y
Dw p
f z ( Fz ) viscous
Dt z
EULER EQUATIONS
For a steady state flow the time partial derivatives vanish. For inviscid flow the
viscous terms are equal to zero. In the absence of body forces the fx, fy, anf fz terms
disappear. The Euler equations result as:
p
.( uV )
x
p
.( vV ) (15)
y
p
.( wV )
z
Du p
Dt x
Dv p
(16)
Dt y
Dw p
Dt z
For steady flow the partial time derivative vanishes, and we can write:
p
V .( u )
x
p
V .( v ) (18)
y
p
V .( w)
z
u u u p
u v w
x y z x
v v v p
u v w (19)
x y z y
w w w p
u v w
x y z z
Rearranging, we get:
u u u 1 p
u v w
x y z x
v v v 1 p
u v w (20)
x y z y
w w w 1 p
u v w
x y z z
ds V 0 (21)
where:
ds dx xˆ dy yˆ dz zˆ
V u xˆ v yˆ w zˆ
xˆ yˆ zˆ
ds V dx dy dz
u v w
xˆ ( w dy v dz ) yˆ (u dz w dx ) zˆ(v dx u dy ) (22)
0
The vector being equal to zero, its components must be equal to zero yielding the
differential equations for the streamline f(x,y,z) =0, as:
w dy v dz 0
u dz w dx 0 (23)
v dx u dy 0
EULER’S EQUATION
Multiplying the flow equations respectively by dx, dy and dz, we get:
u u u 1 p
u dx v dx w dx dx
x y z x
v v v 1 p
u dy v dy w dy dy (24)
x y z y
w w w 1 p
u dz v dz w dz dz
x y z z
u u u 1 p
u dx u dy w dz dx
x y z x
v v v 1 p
u dx v dy w dz dy (25)
x y z y
w w w 1 p
u dx v dy w dz dz
x y z z
The differentials of functions u = u(x,y,z), v = v(x,y,z), w =w (x,y,z) are:
u u u
du dx dy dz
x y z
v v v
dv dx dy dz (26)
x y z
w w w
dw dx dy dz
x y z
1 p
udu dx
x
1 p
vdv dy (27)
y
1 p
wdw dz
z
1 1 p
d (u 2 ) dx
2 x
1 1 p
d (v 2 ) dy (28)
2 y
1 1 p
d ( w2 ) dz
2 z
1 1 p p p
d (u 2 v 2 w2 ) ( dx dy dz )
2 x y z
(29)
1 1
d (V 2 ) dp
2
From the last equation we can write a simple form of Euler’s equation as:
dp VdV (30)
Euler’s equation applies to an inviscid flow with no body forces. It relates the
change in velocity along a streamline dV to the change in pressure dp along the same
streamline.
BERNOULLI EQUATION, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Considering the case of incompressible flow, we can use limit integration to yield:
p2 V2
dp VdV
p1 V1
p2 p1
2
V2
2
V12 (31)
1 1
p1 V12 p2 V22 constant
2 2
1
p V 2 constant (32)
2
This equation is the most famous equation in fluid mechanics. Its significance is
that when the velocity increases, the pressure decreases, and when the velocity decreases,
the pressure increases.
The dimensions of the terms in the equation are kinetic energy per unit volume.
Even though it was derived from the momentum conservation equation, it is also a
relation for the mechanical energy in an incompressible flow. It states that the work done
on a fluid by the pressure forces is equal to the change of kinetic energy of the flow. In
fact it can be derived from the energy conservation equation of fluid flow.
The fact that Bernoulli’s equation can be interpreted as Newton’s second law or
an energy equation illustrates that the energy equation is redundant for the analysis of
inviscid, incompressible flow.
i ( 0 ) i 0
(33)
i ( 0 ) 0
The value of Kp is negative for the points at the upper surface of the airfoil, and
positive for the lower surface.
The resultant thrust force FT is inclined with respect to the relative speed direction
and is given by:
1
FT CT AV 2 (35)
2
where:
A is the area equal to the product of the chord by the length of the rotor
CT is the total aeorodynamic coefficient
The force F has two components. The first component is parallel to the velocity
vector or the drag force:
1
FD CD AV 2 (36)
2
The second component is perpendicular to the velocity vector, or the lift force:
1
FL CL AV 2 (37)
2
These forces are perpendicular and we can apply the Pythagorean Theorem
leading to the thrust force as:
Consequently:
In addition:
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
CT AV CL AV CD AV
2 2 2 (40)
CT CD CL
2 2 2
AERODYNAMIC MOMENT
If M is the aerodynamic moment of the force F relative to the leading edge, we
can define a pitching moment coefficient Cm from the expression:
1
M Cm ALV 2 (41)
2
where:
L is the chord length.
The aerodynamic forces on the rotor may be represented by a lift, a drag, and a
pitching moment.
At each value of the incidence angle there exists a particular point C about which
the pitching moment of the aerodynamic force F is zero. This unique point is called the
center of pressure. The aerodynamic effects on the airfoil section can be represented by
the lift and the drag alone acting at that point.
The position of the center of pressure relative to the leading edge is calculated
from the ratio:
AC Cm
CP (42)
AB CL
REFERENCES
1. Désiré Le Gouriérès, “Wind Power Plants, Theory and Design,” Pergamon Press,
1982.
rd
2. John D. Anderson, Jr., “Fundamentals of Aerodynamics,” 3 edition, McGrawHill,
2001.
EXERCISE
1. A wind rotor airfoil is placed in the air flow at sea level conditions with a free stream
3
velocity of 10 m/s. The density at standard sea level conditions is 1.23 kg/m and the
5 2
pressure is 1.01 x 10 Newtons/m . At a point along the rotor airfoil the pressure is 0.90
5 2
x 10 Newtons/m . By applying Bernoulli’s equation estimate the velocity at this point.
1
2. The lift force on a rotor blade is given by: FL CL AV 2 . The drag force is given by:
2
1
FD CD AV 2 . Derive expressions for:
2
a) The thrust force FT,
b) The thrust coefficient CT.