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Africa is not historically an isolated continent, but rather has been interacting with the
broader world for an extraordinarily long time. This interaction involved not only the
exchange of trade items and intellectual ideas, but also an ecological exchange of plant and
animal species dating back at least thirty million years. Africans incorporated many species
from elsewhere and made them their own. Domesticated cattle were adapted to local African
environments perhaps seven thousand years ago, and not long after that wheat and barley
were worked into African agriculture. Perhaps two thousand years ago, Africans borrowed
bananas from Southeast Asia and made them a staple of many African diets. More recently,
important crops such as manioc (cassava) and maize (corn) were brought to Africa from
across the Atlantic Ocean. African peoples used all of these ecological exchanges to
dramatically modify their landscapes and the biodiversity of their environments. Africans
also interacted with their environment through the different ways in which they organized
their social and economic lives. Precolonial Africa consisted of a vast network of
communities in diverse environmental settings, linked together by markets, urban centres,
and far-flung trading routes. In addition, different communities were often linked by ties of
reciprocal obligation, through kinship or marriage alliances. All of these economic,
political, and social connections provided ways by which Africans could cope with
environmental adversity and shape the landscapes they inhabited. During times of severe
ecological stress, such as famines or outbreaks of disease, these complex networks of human
interaction were often disrupted and restructured, so that environmental history is closely
intertwined with the history of African political and social institutions. Historians have even
suggested that the development of many of Africa’s powerful empire states, such as Mali,
Aksum, and Great Zimbabwe, might have been deeply affected by the influence of long-
term climate changes. At the same time, these kingdoms in turn played a large part in
modifying, sometimes dramatically, the environment of precolonial Africa.
INTERACTION is the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another
community.
OR, INTERACTION is a state in which people from one community got into contact with one another.
The contacts among African people resulted from their various struggles to meet their daily requirements
and further social and economic development. Before colonialism, African communities had social
interactions (which involve political and cultural), economic interactions as well as ecological
interaction (interaction of African people with their environment to meet their own needs). However, in
this topic the discussion will be of the two main interactions, namely, social and economic interaction,
which they may fuse or sometimes affected by the third type of ecological or environmental interactions.
A) SOCIAL INTERACTION:
Social interactions involved all activities that brought people together. These activities seem to be the
earliest forms of African cultural activities that in one way or another identified certain community that
made some people to socialized for the sake of enjoyment, learning or worshiping. In some cases, it
seems people were interacted as a result of war or social conflicts as a way to make an identity or
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL.
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expanding their territorial boundaries. Under this category we shall examine in detail on social interaction
in the form of migration, religion, war, music, medicine and marriage.
1. MIGRATION.
East Africa belongs to four main language groups
namely the Khoisan, the Cushites, the Nilotes and the
Bantu. Historical evidences show that the earliest
inhabitants of East Africa were of Khoisan origin.
Their speech is described as had “click” sound. It was
similar to the language of present day KhoiKhoi and
San of South Africa. They were nomadic hunters and
gatherers. These early large groups interacted with the
larger Cushites, Bantu and the Nilotes communities
that began settling in East Africa from the first century
A.D. The remnants of them include Sandawe and
Hadzabe of Tanzania and the Okiek (Dorobo) of
Kenya. The origin home kind of the Nilotes was in the
Nile valley in Sudan. Some Bantu communities of East
Africa included Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Chagga and Pare
of Tanzania, kikuyu, Kamba. Luhya of Kenya and
Buganda, Basoga and Banyoro of Uganda. Through
interaction of one community practiced medicine
interacted with another led to some changes such as
introduction of iron technology in East Africa.
2. RELIGION.
Religion played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were taken seriously and affected
every phase of life. There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa. These included
burial rites purifications, rituals naming of ceremonies and prayers to bless soldiers before they went to
war. Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level and community
level e.g. The Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt, as they believed that God was the
source of all food. Among the Asante people of West Africa, the king of Asante (Asantehene) based his
right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden stool, Asantehene was regarded as the chief
priest. Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was to please the spirits and
legendary heroes for example, the juju practiced in Western Africa the Shona held a cult called Mwani.
The king of Shona (Mwanamtapa) was regarded as divine.
3. WARS.
Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora the area located around Southern Khartoum and
by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi religion in the modern-day Uganda.
Another example of the old wars is witnessed in history as the defeat of the wagogo people in central
Tanzania. "In about 1830 a raid by the `Wa-kwafi' into Ugogo met with defeat, with 'great numbers' of
warriors slaughtered. Fifty years later they suffered another major setback at the hands of the Hehe".
Some communities found where they are today as part of the hideout due to fear of some strong army
that could either made them their subjects or killed them then possibility of their annihilation could be
guaranteed. A good example of the strong worriers in east Africa were the Masai (Maasai) people. One
says, "Masai fighting tactics were best suited to the open plains, so wherever their enemies could find a
refuge in difficult country they managed to hold their own. Thus, the Kikuyu, Kamba and Chaga held
out in the mountains and forests on the edges of Masai land until the colonial period".
4. MUSIC AND DANCES.
African music and dances brought people together; communities’ rites and ceremonies were accompanied
by songs and dances. Every African society developed songs for work, Laborers sang while clearing
fields, sowing and harvesting goods example of dances were Mdundiko among the Zaramo and Sindimba
of Makonde. The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music where by other songs praised or
condemned certain characteristics including leadership and relation with neighbors. Dance were also
performed for different purposes; some dance was open to everyone while others restricted to some
certain secret society professional and artisans example Chagga men and women performed a dance
called Rring during wedding ceremonies and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.
Through dance, African people celebrate, worship, educate, and express social organization. Styles vary
greatly from culture to culture, but most African dance shares some common features. In particular, it
emphasizes rhythm. Elements of traditional dance and music often blend with contemporary or foreign
styles to create new kinds of African dance.
In traditional societies with hierarchical organizations, dance can be an expression of leadership. A ruler
is expected to proclaim his authority in formal dances. If he fails to meet the required standard of
performance, his subjects may lose some respect for him. A ruler’s wives and lesser chiefs also have their
own specific forms of dance to show their position in society. Followers may pledge loyalty and honour
their leaders through still other dances. One example of a royal dance is that of the ASANTE kings
of Ghana, who wave ceremonial swords while dancing.
For worshiping: For many traditional African religious leaders, dance is a vital part of their role. Priests
and priestesses use movement to describe the gods they serve. In Nigeria, YORUBA priests who serve
the thunder god Shango show his wrathful nature with fast arm motions that represent lightning. They
roll their shoulders and stamp their feet to indicate thunder. The leaders of many women’s religious
societies in western Africa use dance as therapy. They employ songs and dances to cure women of
various disorders.
Pointing the swords toward the sky symbolizes the kings’ dependence on the gods and the ancestors.
Pointing the swords toward the earth represents the king’s ownership of the land.
Africans include music in many aspects of their lives, from religious ceremonies to social gatherings to
landmarks in the life cycle. For example, some societies hold initiation rites for adolescents when they
reach puberty. Boys and girls in these societies learn and perform certain songs as part of the rites. Music
also plays an important role in many traditional methods of healing. Peoples across the continent; from
the Hamadsha of north Africa to the kung of south Africa; use music and dance to bring on states of
meditation, ecstasy, trance, or spirit possession that are believed to cure illness. In Nigeria, the Hausa
play a lute and rattle to summon spirits that heal the sick
Words play an important role in African music. In many African societies, music is closely linked to
the oral tradition of spoken or recited literature. Storytelling frequently includes songs, and some forms
of music mimic the spoken word. “talking drum” music uses drumbeats with different tones to echo the
sounds of language. Many musical forms are based on the singing and storytelling, and musicians
sometimes use their instruments as voices that speak a language.
African music is rarely just for instruments. Musicians and listeners alike take great interest in the lyrics.
Singing styles range from solo performances to large group participation. When singing in a group,
individuals may sing the same words together. However, in a style known as polyphonic, each person
voices a different phrase or syllable to create a variety of vocal patterns and combinations.
5. MEDICINE.
Africans had medicine men and women who played important role both spiritually and medically. Those
who practice medicine interacted with many members of the society as patient visited some of the well-
known medicine men and women. According to Allan. J (2005) in the art of medicine in ancient Egypt,
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 4
“In Egypt, the men are more skilled in Medicine than any of human kind.” Because of their belief in the
importance of preserving the body, Egyptians invented the practice of embalming (practice of preserving
the dead/mummifying). Since the process involved removing internal organs, Egyptian embalmers
learned a great deal about human anatomy and were able to correctly identify the function of all the
organs, except for the brain and heart. They believed that the heart was the source of knowledge, but that
the brain served no purpose.
Much of what is known today about Egyptian medicine comes from a number of surviving papyri that
discuss medical practices and techniques. Among the oldest of these codices is the Kahun Gynecology
Papyrus, which dates to 1825 B.C.E. (The papyrus was discovered by British Archeologist Flinders Petrie
near the town of el Lahun. Petrie misheard the name of the town as “Kahun,” and so named the papyrus
Kahun.) It discusses how to diagnose a pregnancy, how to treat various ailments unique to women, and
how to avoid conception— one technique involved a mixture of crocodile dung and fermented dough
(the acidity of the dung made it an effective spermicide).
The most famous of the medical papyri is the Edwin Smith Papyrus, which was found in the tomb of a
physician and describes a number of surgical procedures. The Smith Papyrus dates from 1550 B.C.E. and
indicates that the Egyptians had extensive knowledge of how to treat bone fractures, perhaps derived
from the injuries received by workers on the pyramids.
Another source for Egyptian medical knowledge, the Ebers Papyrus, was discovered in C.E. 1862 by
archeologist Edwin Smith but was then sold in 1872 to the German Egyptologist Georg Ebers, for whom
it is named. This 110-page medical treatise was written in 1534 B.C.E. It deals primarily with internal
medicine, including the workings of the heart, about which the ancient Egyptians were quite
knowledgeable, although they could not distinguish among blood vessels, nerves, and tendons. Therefore,
they did not completely understand circulation. However, they did understand the function of blood
vessels and the importance of taking the pulse.
The first surgical instruments were made in Egypt, including copper surgical blades and needles. A relief
carved at the Kom Ombo temple about 100 B.C.E. shows a set of surgical instruments including a probe,
forceps, saws, a retractor, a cautery (burning iron), bandages, a flask, scales, medicinal plants, a pair of
shears, a sponge, scalpels, an instrument case, and cupping vessels used for bloodletting, a common
ancient medical practice.
Many herbal and mineral remedies used by Egyptian healers have been found to be very effective by
modern doctors, even though the ancient doctors may not have understood the biological processes by
which the remedies worked. Kohl, the black eye makeup favoured by the Egyptians, in fact, not only
reflected the sun’s glare—the Egyptian equivalent of sunglasses—but it also protected the eyes from
bacteria. Egyptian doctors typically applied yeast to wounds in order to prevent infections, but they did
not understand why it worked. Modern doctors now know that yeast has an antibiotic effect.
Some medicine men and women were also
political advisors and leaders example Kinjekitile
Ngwale of Southern Tanzania. Most of the
medicine were extracted from plant roots, barks
and leaves e.g. The (name tree) Mwarobaini is
mostly used by various medicine in Matebele.
6. MARRIAGE.
Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities. Every member of the society
jugs to build their own family. In some societies, political leaders like Kings or Chiefs, were married in
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 5
many tribes or many wives to ensure stability and unity among his subjects or the community he ruled.
For example, in Buganda, the Kabaka married from different clans in order to enhance political unity in
the kingdom. Another example is in the Monomutapa Empire in southern Africa, which was founded by
Bantu speakers, the king had nine wives; of these, his sister was the most powerful and in charge of
foreign affairs. Some of the wives, in fact, were not even women but men tied to the king by symbolic
marriage. That practice harkened back to an earlier period when all the important posts were, in fact, held
by women.
In Egypt, Women married young, usually as soon as they were sexually mature; their husbands were a
few years older. Virginity in women was not considered a requirement to marriage, and marriage was not
a religious ceremony. In fact, there was usually no ceremony involved at all; people simply moved in
together. Divorce was equally easy and seemed to carry no social stigma, though it was not common.
The Akan may not marry within their clan, but as most marriages are arranged in order to preserve
systems of alliances within the larger social organization, leaders often encourage cross-cousin
marriages (A marriage between first cousins). In a cross-cousin marriage, a man marries his mother’s
brother’s daughter, a woman her father’s sister’s son. In rural areas of modern Egypt, in fact, the marriage
of cousins from the father’s side is still common. Among the San of the Kalahari, the incest taboo extends
to anyone who has the same name, even if it is clear that individuals are not related.
In some occasions, marriages were signs of peace between two rivals. For example, the people of Nubia
were converted to Christianity during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian (C.E. 527–565). The
Christian identity of the region was threatened by the spread of Islam throughout northern and eastern
Africa in the mid-seventh century C.E., but the Nubians resisted conversion for centuries. They made
treaties with Arab rulers in Egypt and coexisted peacefully with their Islamic rulers. By the fourteenth
century C.E., however, most Nubians had converted to Islam as part of a gradual and peaceful process
that was facilitated by intermarriage between Nubians and Arab traders and merchants.
Another thing that was involved in marriage and enhance the interaction in community was bride price.
This was a widespread traditional of most of African societies, in which a man gives substantial gifts to
a woman’s family to seal the marriage. Among the Ibo, for example, the payment to the parents of the
bride ensures the legitimacy of the children, including children born out of wedlock and those fathered
by the husband with another woman. The bride price also helps to ensure that marriages stay together,
because both families have a financial as well as personal interest in keeping their children together.
The institution of marriage was often used to build meaningful and enduring ties between families and
kin groups. Marriage, in this sense, increased the social capital of the joined lineage. In African parlance,
it created networks with social linkages and implied societal responsibilities. The payment of a dowry
for the wife was seen as a reflection of the honour, beauty, and righteousness of the bride, as well as the
reputation of her family. Payment and collection of the dowry was a collective responsibility that helped
maintain interrelationships among lineage members. Dowries were also a form of compensation to the
bride’s kin groups for the “loss” of a daughter and her productive capabilities. Therefore, social
interactions strengthened through marriage. At the same time, marriage led to emergence of new culture
examples Swahili culture as the result of mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.
B) ECONOMIC INTERACTION
Under economic interaction African communities met for different economic factors or activities such as
crafts such as metal working or designing tools for different economic and social activities, agriculture
(farming and pastoralism), fishing, trade, as we as hunting. Something of knowledge backup, economic
activities are all activities that involved the processes of production, distribution, exchange, and
consumption of goods and services.
1. METAL WORKING.
African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons, utensil and ornaments; some
of the widely used metals were iron, Bronze, Gold, Copper and tin. Archaeologists have discovered the
remains of early in working beneath important religious shrine in the Great lakes, religion dating back
African artists and craftspeople also make metal ornaments and jewellery. Many parts of western Africa
have a long history of producing fine gold jewellery. The country that is now Ghana was formally named
the Gold Coast. The name came from the fact that the local ASANTE kings wore so many gold necklaces,
bracelets, crowns, rings, and anklets. In Ancient Egypt, craftspeople used gold to create spectacular
jewellery, burial items, vessels, and furniture for their kings, the PHARAOHS. The TUAREG people of
north eastern Africa specialize in making silver jewellery. Today many Africans produce jewellery and
beadwork to sell to tourists.
"Central Sudanic and Eastern Sahelian speakers, together with their Bantu-speaking neighbours,
smelted iron and forged tools, weapons, and jewellery from the raw metal. Through making various metal
tools people interacted due to the need of the commodities for various activities like farming tools,
weapons and domestic appliances. This was done through trading activities where people came for an
exchange with other goods or using other medium of exchange like cowrie shells.
2. AGRICULTURE.
Economic history begins with the appearance of agriculture and the domestication of animals. These two
developments pave the way for settled communities that not only provide for their basic needs but also
produce surplus food for trade. In addition, agricultural surplus leads to the creation of specialized
groups—such as traders and artisans—who are not involved in food production. Food surpluses also
stimulate trade and commerce between neighbouring societies. Africans living in the SAHARA DESERT
had domesticated cattle as early as the 6000s B.C. African agriculture, which developed around the late
1000s B.C. in the SAHEL region, spread to southern Africa by the A.D. 100s or 200s.
Many Africans communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction took place in the
process. Agricultural communities’ people with metal tools makers so as to develop a certain type of
agriculture that could be reliable. On such kind of interaction, development of new culture, languages, or
a people, were inevitable. For example, Cushitic pastoralism predominated in the area (Western Indian
ocean mainland) from 2000 to 1000 BCE, although a form of agriculture may have also developed. It
was also during this period that contact with the Early Iron Age Bantu occurred. Between 200 and 600
CE, Cushitic pastoralists from the north of Kenya (who had settled in the Tana basin) mixed with Bantu
agriculturists and became the progenitors of the Swahili. It was during this period (of so-called Tana
Ware from the northern Swahili region) that coastal settlements were established.
Between 620 and 600 BC, the people of Lydia in Asia Minor (now Turkey) came upon the idea of shaping
electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver, into bean-shaped lumps of fixed weight and purity and
stamping them with official symbols. These early coins soon became popular because of the way they
facilitated trade. By 550 BC the practice of striking coins was established in all of the primary trading
cities throughout the known world.
Now we are in the position of saying that, trade did not only brought people together but brought money
as the highest form of civilization in any part of the world. To some societies, even before the coming of
colonialists, people and their governments seize the opportunity of presence of money to the development
of their societies. In Africa in particular, most kingdoms begun to mint their own coins for internal
development as well as increasing their interaction with the external world. For example, By the third
century CE, Aksum was capital of a powerful centralized kingdom, controller of abundant resources,
ruler of extensive territories, trading extensively and, by c.270, issuing its own coinage, which circulated
both locally and internationally.
Something that stands out from such material is that all trade was in the form of barter: another good
example is in Egypt, coinage was not to appear until the very end of Pharaonic times and was not common
until the time of the Ptolemies (Dynasty of Egyptian kings that has it origin from Ptolemy Soter
"Preserver" (367? -283? BC). However, New Kingdom documents make it clear that there were by then
notional units of account relating to metals that could allow the relative value of wholly dissimilar items
to be reckoned. Back in the Middle Kingdom, (nominal) loaves of bread seem to have been used in a
similar way. Tax was levied by the state on all kinds of production. Texts relating to a biennial census of
cattle, and later gold and land, date back to before the Old Kingdom.
It can be concluded then, trade brought interaction among black people before the coming of colonialists.
All trades, long distance trade, local trade, overseas trade across Indian ocean and across Atlantic Ocean
brought people together, where many developments came about. Development of languages, invention
and evolution of money technology or coinage system, development of empires/kingdoms, are few
developments to mention that came as the result of such interaction. Trade, made black people famous
around the world thus make Africa the market of the world.
5. HUNTING
In the local economies, Anthropologists have studied herding, hunting and gathering, and shifting and
intensive agriculture and how they have influenced different forms of social organization and beliefs.
Studies of pastoralist economies are mainly grounded in African research, and studies of hunters and
gatherers such as the ‘‘bushmen’’ and ‘‘pygmies’’ figure in all current theory about social evolution.
Hunting has a very long history among African communities. Everywhere in Africa in one particular
time, people involved in hunting activities. Some communities even want to domesticate large animals
they hunted or trapped in their daily manoeuvre of hunting. Evidence for this is witnessed in cave
paintings from Sahara Desert to southern tip of south Africa.
"The great Saharan rock art tradition however came into being with the beginning of the Neolithic, in the
eighth or seventh millennium BCE. There are rock engravings, with lines carved deep in the stone, and
often later polished smooth. They represent the world of the hunter. Animals, which are for the most part
large and undomesticated—such as elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, giraffes, wild cattle, and
antelope—are represented in a naturalistic manner, and not infrequently in full size, on the rock walls of
the valleys. Hunting scenes are extremely rare. Where humans are shown together with animals, they are,
as a rule, comparatively small and depicted very schematically. Humanlike shapes appear together with
hunted or killed animals, and they carry animal masks, mostly reminiscent of the jackal heads with which
Egyptian deities would later be depicted. The weapons in use include clubs, axes, and bows".
In some places, people migrated to more skilled hunters for security and food insurance. This is portrayed
in rock paintings of south Africa where it is noted "Some paintings include images of other population
groups who migrated into the traditional hunting grounds of the Khoisan, particularly the Bantu-speaking
peoples of the eastern seaboard and the Boer commandos".
One can conclude that, hunting was among the socio-economic activity of African people before the
coming of the colonialists. They hunted for food or to protect themselves against dangerous animals, at
the same time they hunted to get some commodities for sale like, animals' horns, ivory, animals' skins or
some feathers, especially ostrich feathers, which were very valuable commodities in those times.
This topic answers a lot of question about Africa and Africans before colonialism. It brings the origin of
hatred and chaos to Africa especially during the last quarter of 19th century. It revives the true black
people of Africa and diaspora knowledge of their past. This is where one will prove that, before the
coming of colonialists in Africa, Africans were in their paradise. They were the light of the universe and
Africa was never a dark continent. Because at this juncture one is aware of what people were in the
darkness and what continent was a darkest one.
In this topic also, we came to our senses on how interaction of Africans brought different changes in the
world we are living in. Africans through ages participated fully in changing this world in many aspects
of social, economic, political, science and technology, philosophy as well as different systems that still
governing our lives today.
To the extent of calling Africa is cradle of human life, it means so deep when came to the conclusion of
African presence in every corner of the world. Because of interaction of African people to the rest of the
world, it is now obvious "Africans have lost their identities". We no longer know who we are, however,
at this point through this deep discussion, we are aware of our origin, and why we are here today. It is
just the proven fact against a lot of fallacies intentionally planted to people. This conspiracy is too much
to bear for the truth that at least in nutshell gathered in this topic. One may metaphorically conclude that,
it just started as a small fire of African’s desire to get out of the box that made us not knowing where to
run back into.
Through different gathered information from different scholars and biblical context, we all know the
position of black people to the world history. It is not aimed at making war or implanting hatred against
one race, even though if necessarily it means so it is just the continuation of what many most notable
scholars tried to propagate. We are in hatred already, that is the true fact. But reason for that hatred
especially among black people is of null hypothesized. Evidently, Africans or black people were at peace
with everyone before a bunch of haters called white supremacists came into power. Their desire to wipe
out the existence of black people physically and in historical essence of the world brought the kind of
existing hatred. This is to say, the only thing that will bring the world in the former place is for the black
people knowing their places and themselves. Since knowledge is the power, then truth shall make all of
us free.
INTRODUCTION
Two themes dominated the first half of the nineteenth century. One was the opening up of the interior
of South Africa to white settlement which had started in 1700. From 1830s this movement of white
settlers into the interior took place on a much bigger scale with the Great Trek. The other major
theme was the upheaval among African societies which took place during the first thirty years of the
nineteenth century. This upheaval was called the Mfecane by the Nguni speakers and the Difaqane
by the Sotho speakers. It led to the creation of strong African states and helped the growth of the
Zulu nation in what is now Natal.
At the end of the eighteenth century the Nguni were divided into clans. A clan is a unit consisting of
all those persons claiming descent from a common ancestor. There were a number of these lineages
(lines of descent), including the chief's central lineage. The Nguni were cattle-keepers, for whom
cattle were important for reasons of ceremony and dowry as well as providers of food and clothing.
They were also cultivators, who grew millet and maize along with other crops. This mixed economy
enabled larger numbers of Nguni to stay together.
The clan areas among the Nguni were usually small. For example, it is likely that there were about
two hundred clans in Natal, one of which was the Zulu.
WHAT IS MFECANE?
Mfecane is a Ngoni word used to refer to the wars
and disturbances which accompanied the rise of the
Zulu state under Shaka from 1818. The Mfecane can
also be defined as the time of trouble in South Africa.
It was a great upheaval which affected areas as far as
Western part of Tanzania.
1. POPULATION PRESSURE
Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg Mountains and the
Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its population tended
to increase rapidly. As the population increased either due to migration or birth rate, conflicts between
those societies became common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.
4. THE ROLE OF SHAKA OR THE RISE OF SHAKA AND HIS MILITARY GENIUS
Shaka's important victory was no accident. Born in about 1787, this remarkable man had seen much
warfare in Dingiswayo's service, and had decided that new methods were needed. Shaka made up his
mind to continue with Dingiswayo's reorganization of military training, tactics, and equipment. He taught
his soldiers to fight in order to kill and to conquer. He began by arming regiments with a short stabbing-
spear instead of the old throwing spear. He trained them to wait until their opponents had thrown their
long-handled spears, and then charge into merciless hand-to-hand battle. He made them prove their
strength in long training marches, placed them under harsh discipline, and showed no pity to any who
failed or ran away. He forged a sharp fighting instrument in these ways, and built an empire.
Therefore, it can be concluded that, the outbreak of the Mfecane was contributed by the role played by
Shaka to a large extent. Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom,
Zulu state. He attacked many states in the attempt of expanding his state, this action created conflicts that
contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
4. SOCIAL CALAMITIES
Massive loss of life (death), famine and destruction of properties in the areas, were the result of Mfecane
which brought Ngoni movement. Shaka and the Zulu move often attacked and fought neighbouring
communities such as the Basuto, the Tswana and Tonga. Fleering groups like the Ndebele and the Ngoni
also fiercely fought the people they encountered. Besides, the wars that were caused by the Mfecane
generated chaos, instability and panic, all of which negatively affected agricultural production prompting
visitation of famine. There was also widespread famine due to the scotched-earth (nature of destruction)
policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to
abandon farming.
The most obvious result of the Mfecane was the depopulation of large areas of Southern Africa and the
concentration of people in smaller, more easily defended, regions. These were Natal and the areas which
were later called the Orange Free State and Transvaal. They had been very under-populated yet they were
very fertile. But the open grasslands of the veld did not provide adequate security from the persistent
attacks which people began to expect.
INTRODUCTION
HUMAN LABOUR
This involves man's skills, experience, knowledge and training that one uses in performing a
purposeful activity in order to meet his/her needs. In other words, labour power/ human energy can be
defined as a conscious and purposeful activity of man that is directed towards production of his/her
needs. Thus, in attempt to get his/her needs satisfied, man engages in a certain activity that we call
MEANS OF LABOUR
These include all the things that man uses to produce material goods. These are things that help man
to perform his work other than his own labour. These include tools like hoes, axes, machines etc.
These are therefore instruments of labour or toon of work that assist man to simplify work. Therefore,
work is performed by man by using means of labour. The ability of man to control and use nature
always depends on these means of labour. When one talks of science and technology, is basically
talking of the means of labour. The use of computer for example, has simplified communication,
industrial production as well as other works.
OBJECTS OF LABOUR
These include all those things which are subjected to human labour in the process of production. By
the use of tools man acts upon the objects of labour such as land, industry, water bodies and others to
produce for his/her needs. These are therefore encountered on the environment, for example, the Mbuti
pygmies in the Congo living by hunting and gathering, thus in the forest to them is their object of
labour, they use the forest to get meat and wild fruits and nuts and other things such as honey and
eating look and herbs.
MEANS OF PRODUCTION
This is a combination of means of labour and objects of labour whereby means of labour involves
tools that assist man in labour process, while objects of labour include workable material that man act
upon such as land, forest, water bodies, and so on and so forth. thus, there can be no labour process
(production) without means of production.
PRODUCTIVE FORCES
These are means of production together with, human labour that forms the productive forces where as
productive forces are the totality of all those things that are involved in the labour process. Therefore,
productive forces are the forces which bring people into operation in order to produce materials goods
to sustain human life. Those forces include means of labour (instruments of labour), human labour
(production skills) and objects of labour. Therefore, man uses skills, knowledge, experience and
energy in support of means of labour/instruments of labour to act upon the objects of labour like land
to produce materials goods. The process of production involves productive forces which establish
means of production (objects of labour and means of labour) together with human energy or power.
The productive forces are the more mobile component of the mode of production. They are always
changing, for people are constantly improving the instruments of labour and accumulating production.
RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION
It is an automatic relation that man enters with one another in the production process. Therefore,
through production some relations among people emerge or developed and these relations are called
"Relations of production" Thus, wherever there is production, there must be these relations which
might be antagonistic or non- antagonistic ones. The relations are determined by the ownership of the
means of production as well as distribution of labour products. This is to mean; the relation of
production can be either antagonistic or non-antagonistic relationship.
Antagonistic relations mean presence of classes, which is thesis (exploiter) and antithesis (exploited).
Non antagonistic relations mean, an absence of classes and society is non antagonistic or egalitarian
society or acephalous ones like Kikuyu or Maasai community.
In short, relations of production mean, simple and direct relations which people enter to one another
in actual production process either exploitive or exploited class.
MODE OF PRODUCTION
It is an economic system (the basis of society) that exists at a particular place in time in which people
produce their material wealth for their livelihood. It is a transition economic process that constitutes
productive forces and relations of productions. The basis of society can be antagonistic or non-
antagonistic. The mode of production of the material wealth together with corresponding
SOCIAL CLASS
It is the group of people that is basically determined by the position they occupy in the society as owner
of the means of production as well as in the distribution of the social products of labour.
THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
The basis of society produces a corresponding Super structure and determines its development. The
Superstructure consists of the political, philosophical, legal, artistic, religion and other views of society
and corresponding institutions. In a class society, the Superstructure has a class creates institutions to
protect its class interests, in accordance with its views. Both the basis and the Superstructure exist only for
a specific period, when the basis change, so does the Superstructure.
1. PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM.
Primitive communalism was the first mode of production through which all human societies have passed
it (whites, yellow and blacks). It is called "primitive" because of the very low level of productive forces
and "communalism" because there was no exploitation of man by man (Non antagonistic relations). This
mode of production existed for a much longer period than any other mode. It covered the period of stone,
bronze and Iron ages, that is, it ranged from the emergence of man more than one million years ago and
in some parts of Southern Asia and equatorial Africa it went up to the beginning of the 20 th century like
the case of Dorobo in Kenya, Hadzabe or Tindiga in Tanzania, the Teuso in Uganda, Bushmen in South
Africa and the Pygmies (Mbuti and Twa people). They maintained their mode of production through
colonial era and even still now.
Apart from primitive communalism there is Advanced communalism, which during that era man
advanced in his tools through various discoveries like iron tools. It is because of this technological
advancement that is why it came to be known as advancement communalism. The non-productive
members of the society such as the elders, disabled and children were exempted from work due to their
disabilities. The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid
increases in population also encouraged people to increase their farms so as to get more food, which
could feed the growing population.
POOR TOOLS
In early stages there was very low-level development of productive forces, the only tools available were
made of stone, later on man started to use crude iron tools. With crude tools and little knowledge, man
hardly mastered his environment / surroundings. Hence through production, man satisfied his/ her basic
needs of food, clothing and shelter.
COLLECTIVE OWNERSHIP.
The members of the community jointly owned the major means of production including land,
implements, dwellings, tools and animals. This system promoted good relationship among the members
of the family or community.
LEARNING BY DOING
People in communal societies shared knowledge. This was acquired through learning by doing, youth
and children obtained knowledge and skills from their elders.
Unequal distribution of products. The land controllers appropriated the Lion's share (largest part) of
products of the non-owners of land. Over a period of time, this fully eroded communal ownership and
led to the classes or creation of classes. The life of the society, together with the new classes, could not
withstand the vibrations of change, so the rhythm of communalism underwent a full transformation to a
feudal mode of production. Due to the increasing inequality, some societies became more powerful and
conquered others. The result was prisoners and wars, the rich used their power to rule others. The existing
armies were set up to suppress the poorer who possessed nothing. Thus, the division of labour, inequality
and the expansion of innovated changes led to the collapse of communalism.
THE REASONS THAT MADE SOME SOCIETIES TO ADVANCE AND OTHERS TO FAIL
▪ That had favourable climatic conditions transform into feudal modes as they managed to produce
surplus eventually emergence of feudal land Lords who used this surplus to exploit others,
▪ There was increase in population that necessitated new methods of land tenure system in some
societies for the purpose of increasing food production to support the fearing population e.g. in the
Forest Zone of West Africa (Asante and Yoruba and East of the Drakensberg mountains among the
Zulu.
▪ There was adoption of iron technologies. Some societies, example the interlacustrine region adopted
early iron technology and improved their productive forces. Those who possessed the knowledge in
iron work owned iron tools and land. They then become feudal land lords and used common people
as labourers who produced for them.
▪ There was adoption of livestock keeping as other societies adopted this while others did not to the
extent of being able to use it as a means of accumulating wealth, the produced for immediate
consumption as no surplus was generated which could facilitate political transformation. Example of
societies that adopted livestock keeping included the Ankole in today's Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda
of the interlacustrine zone.
▪ There was influence of trade, societies which were served with trade system such as the Western
Sudanic states for the Trans-Saharan Trade and forest zone managed to transform into feudal states.
SLAVERY IN AFRICA
It is argued that slavery never existed in Africa as an independent mode of production, but Africa
experienced slave owning system in some few areas like the case of East Africa among the Ganda, Haya,
Hehe, Chagga, Kerewe, Sambaa and the coastal societies which had influence of external contact. Other
areas include ancient Ethiopia (Abyssinia), Egypt and Western Sudanic states that had influence of
external contact or the Trans Saharan Trade across the Sahara Desert in West and North Africa also Trans
Indian ocean trade that linked the people of East Africa and India and Far East.
3. AFRICAN FEUDALISM
This was an economic system/social economic formation in which land and cattle was the major means of
production, owned and controlled by those who were superior in term of socioeconomic or political power
who exploited the inferior. Unlike the Medieval Ages Europe, feudalism in Africa developed into local
names and different forms. It developed in societies which had highly advanced in productive forces
depending on the environment and economic occupation of a particular society. For examples feudal states
were found in the interlacustrine area with different local names such as Mvunjo/Nvunjo and Busulo (in
Buganda and Bunyoro), Nyarubanja (in Buhaya among the Bahaya and Nyambo in Karagwe), Ubugabire
(in Rundi and Rwanda among the Hutu and Tutsi), Kihamba (Northern highland of Tanganyika among the
Wachagga). This mode also developed along the coast of East Africa as Umwinyi of which at the top of the
social hierarchy was the great lord called Mwinyi Mkuu. It was also common in ancient Egypt since 5th
century, Ethiopia, the Sudanic Zone and among the Zulu of South Africa.
NYARUBANJA SYSTEM
In this form of feudalism, the major means of production was land. Under Nyarubanja system in Buhaya
and Karagwe there was two classes, that is the Batwazi (ruler) and Batwana (serfs). These two classes
had to pay rent in kind and rent in labour services to the property owners.
❖ In Buganda Nyarubanja system known as Mvunjo and Busulo, there were two classes that is Bataka
(chiefs) and the poor people who rendered labor service and paid of their products to the property
owners known as Bakopi. Under the system labor services provider was known as Akasamvu and
part of their products was provided to the ruling class known as Obusulu. Bunyoro was the kingdom-
practiced feudalism in East Africa. The kingdom was divided into provinces known as Saza’s under
chiefs.
In addition, there was caste system in East Africa under this feudal system, there was two classes; which
were Bahima (pastoralists), and Bairu (agriculturalists). Bahima who were pastoralists dominated and
employed the Bairu who were agriculturalists. It was common in Rwanda, Burundi and Buhaya.
UMWINYI SYSTEM
This was another form of feudalism found along the coast of East Africa. Wamwinyi controlled the
productive forces such as land, serfs and tenants; also monopolized the political and economic power.
The serfs and tenants were given land by Wamwinyi (feudal lords) to live on them in return of labor
services and tributes which were paid to Wamwinyi. Before Arabs colonization, The Mwinyimkuu was
the greatest property owners and ruled Zanzibar with the help of Shehe in Unguja and Diwani in Pemba.
UBUGABIRE SYSTEM
It was another form of feudalism practiced among the Tutsi and Hutu in Rwanda and Burundi. The Tutsi
(donor) also known as SEBUJA could transfer their cattle to the Ifutu (recipient) as sometimes known
as BUGABIRE. The Omugabire and his family were obliged to perform several duties for the masters
including house-building cultivating.
NTEMI SYSTEM
This was practiced among the Nyamwezi and Sukuma. The power of ruler was based on the control of
land The Mtemi organized his people to open up new land wherever it was available. The process of
opening up new land was known as Kutema.
MERITS OF FEUDALISM
1. The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.
2. The weaker people in the society were protected by the king or the rich land owners. For example,
among the Rwandans, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants, the Hutu.
3. The landowners gave all poor people in the society a piece of land to cultivate.
4. The society was highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their position and role.
5. There was peace in the state as the rich classes-maintained law and order.
DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM
1. The rich exploited labour force of the poor.
2. Only a few people in society owned land.
3. There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor.
4. The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their property
owners.
5. It encouraged inter-community warfare as property owners fought in order to increase their land and
vassals.
The story of the African in the external world has three parts: dispersion (spreading out), settlement
abroad, and return to Africa. In the spreading out, people left Africa for other parts of the world. Some
moved voluntarily, but many did not. The spreading out was driven by a SLAVE TRADE conducted by
Arabs, Europeans, and Americans, who forced enslaved Africans to leave their homes and move to other
areas. The second part of the African in the external world, settlement abroad, concerns the lives of
Africans and their descendants in their new countries; including their relationships with people of other
races and their legal, social, and economic position in society. On the return of African from abroad is
still going on, therefore, it will not be a part of the story I want to tell you.
In this topic one will learn about the contact between people of Africa with external world, namely
Europe, Asia and Americas. How Africans found themselves in these new lands today? What was the
relationship between those Africans with the peoples of other continents? What were the reasons for the
contacts and what were the impacts of such contacts? Before that, let pass through general history of the
contact between people of Africa and the external world.
Asia. In ancient times Africans travelled across the Red Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Indian Ocean
as merchants, sailors, soldiers, adventurers, and slaves. Ethiopian traders settled on the Arabian Peninsula
and in the Persian Gulf region long before those areas became part of the Roman Empire. Africans were
taken as slaves to Arabia and Persia. In the A.D. 500s, the Ethiopian king Ella-Asbaha occupied parts of
Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula and left some people behind.
People of African slave descent living in Arabia, the Persian Gulf region, and India became known as
Siddis and Habshis. Some modern historians have found evidence that the Arabs and Persians of those
regions had strong feelings of contempt for Africans and treated them as inferiors. Several men of African
origin became poets known as the Crows of the Arabs. One of them, an African slave named Abu Dulama
whose poetry was well known throughout the Arab world in the 700s, described Arabic society’s view
of his fellow blacks: “We are alike in colour; our faces are black and ugly, our names are shameful.”
Africans sometimes rebelled against their lowly status. In the part of the Arab world that is now Iraq,
enslaved Africans led freedom movements in 694 and again in 868. The second revolt led to the founding
of an independent state called Dawlat al-Zanj that survived for 15 years.
Over time, communities of free and enslaved Africans emerged in many Arabian and Indian towns and
cities. Africans worked as merchants, dock workers, clerks, and agricultural laborers. Enslaved Africans
also appeared in China, taken there by Arab traders in the 650s. The largest number of enslaved Africans
in Asia, however, were resettled in India, where they worked as guards, soldiers, and sailors. A few rose
to high positions in the armies or governments of various Indian states.
The life stories of some Africans in Asia are known. One of them, Malik Ambar, was captured in Ethiopia
by Muslim Arab slave traders and sold in Baghdad, Iraq. There he learned Arabic and became a clerk.
Later he was sold to Indians who took him to central India. He became a soldier, organized a revolt, and
seized control of the Indian state of Ahmadnagar. He ruled from 1601 to 1626, employing Africans,
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 30
Arabs, Persians, and Indians at his court. During his reign Ambar founded towns, built canals and roads,
and encouraged trade, scholarship, and the arts. He also joined forces with other Siddis against Indian
and European foes.
By the 1500s Europeans were competing with Arabs to trade both goods and slaves in Asia. Arab vessels
carried Africans to the farthest reaches of Asia, including Indonesia, China, and Japan. The Europeans
began abolishing the slave trade in the 1800s, but Arab traders continued to carry slaves from ports such
as ZANZIBAR in East Africa to Arabian and Asian markets. By 1830 the city of Karachi in present day
Pakistan was importing about 1,500 African slaves each year.
Some of these Africans gained fame. Zahur Shah Hashmi and Murad Sahir became noted poets, and
Mohamed Siddiq Mussafar wrote a compelling eyewitness account of the slave trade and the lives of
enslaved Africans in Pakistan. Mussafar praised the achievements and hopes of African Americans such
as Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington, who fought for black freedom and dignity. His poem
“Africa’s Gift” recognized the global presence of people of African descent and their contributions to
other societies.
During the early 1800s, free Africans continued to settle in Asia. Some were merchants. Others
accompanied Asians for whom they had worked in East Africa. Like earlier African migrants, they
adopted various aspects of Asian culture while maintaining some of their own as well. In parts of
Pakistan, Habshis still celebrate the Waghu Mela, or Crocodile Festival, which has African roots. In
scattered areas of India, people speak SWAHILI, the trade language of East Africa.
Europe. In ancient times trade relations between Europeans and Africans developed around North African
cities, attracting merchants from the SUDAN, the Sahara region, and the Nile River valley. These early
commercial contacts led to the migration of Europeans to Africa and of Africans to Europe. Enslavement
also played a role in the movement of Africans to the Mediterranean region. The ancient Greeks and
Romans, like the Egyptians, held Africans in bondage.
The African presence in Europe increased after the A.D. 700s, when Muslim Arabs from North Africa
invaded and occupied Spain. The Muslims dominated the Mediterranean Sea until the 1400s. Throughout
this time, Arabs and Europeans traded in African slaves. During the medieval period, a number of
Africans were settled along stretches of the northern Mediterranean coast and on Mediterranean islands
such as Sicily. (medieval referring to the Middle Ages in western Europe, generally considered to be
from the A.D. 500s to the 1500s).
Free and enslaved Ethiopians also visited and lived in medieval Europe. ETHIOPIA, a Christian state
since the A.D. 400s, was reaching out for connections with European Christians, and Europeans sought
an alliance with Ethiopia against the Muslims. During the Middle Ages, a number of Ethiopians visited
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, and official representatives from Ethiopia spoke at several important church
conferences in Europe.
The greatest dispersion (spreading out) of Africans into Europe started when Europeans began exploring
the world in the 1400s. Europeans formed direct links with the caravan trade in gold across the SAHARA
DESERT, which led to a larger number of Africans visiting and settling in European cities. Some of them
became interpreters and guides for Europeans exploring Africa. The Portuguese, disappointed by the
amount of gold they obtained in the African trade, began trading in African slaves in the 1440s. Soon
both enslaved and free Africans were at work in farms, mines, workshops, and armies in Portugal and
Spain.
The voyage of English mariner William Hawkins to West Africa in 1530 led to an increase in the number
of Africans in England. In 1556 Queen Elizabeth I complained that there were too many “blackamoors”
in the country and suggested that they be returned to Africa. By the 1800s the African population in
England had risen to about 15,000. Many of them were poor and unwelcome. The number of Africans
living in France increased as the French share of the slave trade grew. Officially, France did not permit
SLAVERY, but it emerged there anyway. Africans could also be found in Italy, Eastern Europe, Turkey,
and Russia, though little is known about the African diaspora to these areas.
Before that time, not all Africans in Europe had been enslaved. A few African students lived there,
especially after the mid-1700s when African rulers began sending their sons to schools in Europe to learn
the language and commercial skills needed for conducting business with Europeans. Some of these
students became involved with the European abolition movement. One, Ottoban Cugano, wrote a book
called Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the
Human Species (1787), which stirred debate about the slave trade.
African Migrations. By 1800 an estimated 10 million Africans lived in the Americas. Most were enslaved
Africans and children born to them in captivity. About 2 million African Americans were in the United
States, and this number doubled by the late 1800s. Another 2 to 3 million lived in Brazil, which continued
the slave trade until 1888. By that time, Brazil’s African population had increased by millions.
Most Africans brought to the Americas by the slave trade came from the region between present day
GHANA and CAMEROON and from the area around the mouth of the CONGO RIVER. However,
smaller numbers of Africans also arrived from the Eastern coast of the African continent, long dominated
by the Arab slave trade and colonized by the Portuguese.
Africans were usually captured by African kings, sold to slave traders, and packed on ships bound for the
Americas. Some shiploads included enslaved Africans who spoke the same or related languages, came
from the same areas, or belonged to the same ethnic groups. This made communication among the
prisoners possible and, in some cases, led to acts of resistance such as shipboard revolts. Records of these
revolts show that the prisoners sometimes spent days plotting them. Occasionally, African women who
served as cooks on the ships helped prisoners plan their revolts by passing on information gathered from
the European crew.
A New Culture. Within the horrors of the slave ships and the dangerous voyages across the Atlantic
Ocean, Africans forged friendships that lasted into the system of slavery in the Americas. These
relationships formed the beginning of a new culture, blending elements from different African homelands
that would endure and continue to develop during the slavery period and beyond.
During the 1600s and 1700s, blacks adopted the terms African and Ethiopian as identifying labels. Slave
masters renamed Africans, but many individuals tried to keep their original names. Although American
laws made it a crime to speak African languages and practice African religions and customs, many
enslaved people did so in private moments. In time, however, the Africans learned European languages
spoken in the Americas and adopted some elements of European culture.
Africans in the Americas were unified by the relationships formed on slave ships and by the continuing
use of their languages and customs. These bonds provided a strong base for freedom movements, which
sometimes led to uprisings or to the establishment of communities for fugitive slaves. In the 1500s a
black community called Coyula arose in Mexico; in 1603 black pearl divers revolted in Venezuela.
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 32
In the French colony of Haiti, the struggle of enslaved Africans for freedom reflected the combination of
African and Western cultures. It began in 1791 when an African named Boukman attracted a group of
loyal followers and succeeded in turning the Africans against the slave-holders. Toussaint L’Ouverture,
a Haitian-born African, joined Boukman and organized a guerrilla war (type of warfare involving sudden
raids by small groups of warriors). The war led to Haitian independence in 1804. The second independent
American republic in the Western Hemisphere (after the United States), Haiti became a symbol of African
freedom in the diaspora.
These freedom movements reveal the beginnings of African nationalism in the Americas. Africans did
not want just revenge or escape from slavery. They sought control over their communities to promote
their own values, goals, and traditions. Africans in the Americas made a lot of contributions to the
economic development of their countries and also fought for justice.
African culture shaped many aspects of life in black communities in the Americas. Place names, speech
patterns, proverbs and folktales, types of food preparation, decorative styles, personal adornments,
beliefs, and ritual practices are a few examples.
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ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Commercial exploration, some of the early visitors came to explore Africa and assess its
resources. They wanted to know the climatic conditions, mineral resources, wildlife and economic
activities found on the African continent. They plan to exploit resources available.
(ii) Trade, many of the early visitors were interested in products from Africa to take back to their home
countries.
A: ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Finding sea route to India, in the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had occupied a large part
of the Middle East, blocking the overland trade route between India and Europe. Therefore,
Europeans could not get much valued silk, spices and Gold from Asia. The Portuguese came
to Africa as they attempted to find a sea route through which they could trade with India.
(ii) Trade, the Portuguese wanted to trade with Africans and replace the Arab middlemen who
took African goods to Europe. Portuguese traders got valuable items such as ivory, gold and
gum from Africa and sold them profitably in Europe. In exchange, they brought European
cloth, copper and brass items to the Africans. This trade helped to strengthen the Portuguese
economy in the 15th century.
(iii) Creating Portuguese Trade Empire, Portugal wanted to dominate the trade between Asia,
Africa and Europe and creating a trading empire. To achieve this the Portuguese had to
overcome the Arab traders who dominated the trade. In addition, it was necessary to prevent
other European nations from colonizing the African coast because the world interferes with
Portuguese trading interests.
(iv) Exploiting of African resources, Portugal was a poor country, so Portuguese were in search
of resources that could bring them wealth and recognition in Europe. Therefore, they
established settlements and plantations on the Islands of Sao tome and Principle and they used
African labour to grow sugar cane there. The produced products were exported to Europe and
America.
(v) Establishment of strategic ports, along the East African coast there were many natural
harbours that could serve as stop over point for Portuguese ships. The sailors could rest and
restock their supplies at those harbours. Portuguese built forts at some of those harbour in
order to protect their trade from Arabs and other European competitors. For example, of such
forts are Elmina Castle in Modern days Ghana and Fort Jesus in Mombasa Kenya.
B: SOCIAL MOTIVES
(i) Adventure, Some Portuguese explorers visited Africa in search of Adventure, through their
advanced ships building and Navigation skills enabled them to travel everywhere in search of
new land to explore. These voyages were supported by the leader in Portugal especially Prince
Henry The navigator.
(ii) Spreading Christianity, The Portuguese felt that it was their duty to spread the Christian
faith and reduce the influence of Islam along the coast of Africa.
(iii) Search for the King Prester John, there was a rumours that this Christian King named
Prester John whose Kingdom was believed to be somewhere around Ethiopia in North East
Africa. The Portuguese wanted to find this King and form alliance with him against the
Muslim.
A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.
1. Increase of slave trade.
2. Land alienation.
3. East African people were exposed to international trade.
4. The expansion of trade.
5. Introduction of new cash crops example; coconut and cloves.
6. Establishment of feudalism where African become serfs and tenants
7. Exploitation of African resources.
B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.
1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs
2. Spread of Swahili language.
3. Development of Swahili language. E.g. Addition of Arabic words like Sali, habari etc.
4. Spread of Islamic religion.
5. Slavery activities.
THE NYAMWEZI
They were called Nyamwezi (people of the moon) because they came from the West direction in which
the new moon is first seen. Their involvement in slave trade was partly caused by the demand for slaves
in the interior. They dealt in ivory, copper, slaves and wax they wanted to acquire commodities like glass,
spices, clothes, mirrors, guns in exchange for slaves.
COMMODITIES EXCHANGED
From interior to the coast –Ivory and slaves, animal skins, minerals.
From the coast to the interior caravans brought clothes, salts wine, glass ware beads and ornaments.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
1. Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.
2. Insecurity and fear among the people.
3. Development of inter-states war.
4. Human torture and suffering
5. Hunger due to lack of good in areas where slave trade operated.
6. Growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.
7. Eruption of diseases among overcrowded slaves. E.g., The Spaniards introduced Syphilis.
8. Displacement of people and many became homeless.
9. Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken
in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.
10. Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread,
especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Killing of economic activities, agriculture, pastoralism and industries were killed due to lack
of manpower.
(ii) Technology stagnation, no innovation was made as all able-bodied people were taken as
slaves only children and old ones were left behind.
(iii) Underdevelopment of East Africa, slave trade increased dependence on European capitalist
countries. Generally, slave trade had negative effects in East Africa and it created many
problems.
(iv) Introduction of new foods. E.g. maize, papaws, rice, and groundnuts.
(v) The increase of farming plantations, in some areas especially the clove plantations were
slaves worked.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON ITS VICTIMS
(i) Damage of slave's self-worth.
(ii) Inferiority complex before their masters.
(iii) Sufferings due to difficult work.
(iv) Separation of families and homes.
(v) Loneliness.
(vi) Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.
(vii) Fear and Insecurity.
A TRADE ROUTE: is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the
commercial transport of cargo.
(ix) The inability of the indigenous people, at first the Europeans were using Native Americans, red
Indians to provide cheap labour on the plantations and mining centres; but these later died in huge
numbers due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of
the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.
(x) Climatic conditions of the New World, meant that Africans could easily live there since they were
used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia.
They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.
(xi) The existence of seasonal winds, like the northeast trade wind, north equatorial current, the
southwest and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the
merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Removal of African labour, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many
Africans who were taken to provide cheap labour on European plantations in America. The ones who
were taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 who made up the productive force in Africa.
(ii) Stagnation of African technology, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of
African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for
slaves.
(iii) Decline of African agricultural production, there was decline in agricultural production due to the
loss of labour. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their
removal led to shortage of labour consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.
(iv) Decline of African traditional industries, due to these goods Africans abandoned production and
exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also
destroyed African traditional industries by killing the market for African local goods.
(v) Land alienation, Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs and tenants
who had to sell off their labour to Arab landowners for their survival. Watumbatu and Waamidu provided
their labour in coconut and cloves plantations.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) Depopulation, it led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to
America as cheap labour. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000
Africans were taken as slaves.
(ii) Famine, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized
with insecurity because of slave trading activities, the insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in
agricultural production.
(iii) Destruction of African culture, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of
foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional values because Africans
were coping European culture.
POLITICAL EFFECTS
(i) Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects were captured
and sold as slaves. For example, Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent slave raids from their Yao
neighbours.
(ii) The rise of states, some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade. E.g., the
Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Buganda kingdom under Kabaka Mutesa.
A. ECONOMIC REASONS
(i) Capitalist production, this involves two classes of societies, which are the capitalists who
control the major means of production and the workers who are employed by the capitalists. For
the workers to be effectively employed, they must be free and not slaves.
(ii) Need for markets, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased production of industrial
products in Europe that lacked enough demand; this forced the British to abolish slave trade so
that markets can be created in Africa for their manufactured goods.
(iii) Need for raw materials, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased demand for raw
materials in Britain. The existing raw materials were limited to supply due to the mushrooming
of industries. This situation necessitated the abolition of the slave trade so that Africans can
produce the needed raw materials.
(iv) The use of machines, the industrial revolution was characterized by the use of machines in the
production process, these machines replaced human labour. The owners of the machines
campaigned for the abolition of the slave trade because slave labour had become redundant.
(v) French and British competition over sugar production, for so long period, the British had a
monopoly on sugar in the European market. The sugar was produced by slave labour in the British
West Indies. The British was selling their sugar at very high prices thus making huge profits.
However, by the end of the 18thC, the French West Indies and re union islands were producing
sugar in large quantities and selling at a cheaper price thus making more profits than the British.
This situation made slave labour in British West Indies useless thus forcing the British to abolish
the slave trade.
(vi) The rise of men with new ideas, Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments that
were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more
productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
(vii) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa, and began raw materials directly
from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.
B. SOCIAL REASONS
(i) Religious reasons, the religious bodies contributed to the abolition of the slave trade in Africa.
They argued that slave trade was against the will of God because he had created all people equal
but slave trade was treating Africans as an inferior class. The Christians denounced slave trade
in the name of God and argued that it must be abolished.
(ii) French revolution of 1789, the French revolution of 1789 had a role to play in the abolition of
the slave trade. The slogan of the revolution was fraternity, liberty and equality. Philosophers
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
INTRODUCTION TO CAPITALISM
Any society is capitalist if the means of production that is tools and materials belong to the employer and
not the employees and the employees produce commodities belonging to their employer. Commodity is
something produced for the main purpose of being exchanged (buying or selling). With increased wealth
the leisure class improves in structure and function. Differentiation life style or income produces rank
and class. Hence this has led to the upper class and the lower class, and the upper class depended on the
lower class for their survival giving rise to the workers and non-workers this develops into capitalism.
This topic seeks to explain the rise of industrial capitalism with one claim which serves as idea that the
rise of industrial Capitalism was a result of unequal distribution of wealth in communities giving rise to
the non-workers who owned the means of production and also the workers. This includes trade practiced
by people in the higher class, exploitation of workers, as more people in the lower class produce for them.
Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major means
of production. It first developed in Europe during the 15th century when feudalism collapsed.
Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources used in
production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching its maturity.
These stages included:
1. Commercial or mercantile capitalism
2. Industrial capitalism
3. Monopoly capitalism
2. INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
This was the period when machines begun to be used for production in industries. The transition to
industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile capitalism was giving way to industrial capitalism.
This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s and 1870s. It was marked by the
industrial revolution in Britain, when Britain was referred to as “the workshop of the world”.
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 49
Since this is the focus of our topic, let us skip it and have knowledge on the third stage of capitalism,
monopoly capitalism.
3. MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
Monopoly capitalism according is the highest stage of capitalism similar to imperialist characterized by
the existence of monopolistic association in the form of carter, syndicates, trusts and concerns, where as
its main goal being to export finance capital when the existence of raw materials, cheap labour and
markets ensure large profits for the imperialist countries
MAIN FEATURES OF MONOPOLY CAPITALISM
1. Concentration and centralization of capital in fewer hands. This involved the amalgamation of
several capitals into large capital by way of agreement or force. It was a result of economic slump of
1873 more and more enterprises died out and only a few could survive the crisis. Those which
survived were able to expand and accumulate more and more hence grew stronger and stronger.
2. Merging of bunk and industrial capital to form finance capital (the dual capital). The Banks whose
control over production has increase control industrial capital. This capital (industrial capital) comes
from these banks and banks control it, therefore, industrial capital in form of money is transformed
into bank capital that results into the merging of the two forms of capital into finance capital. This is
industrial capital that is controlled by banks. A group of bourgeoisies who own this capital (finance
capital) is called financial oligarchy. (A group of industrialists and bank owners share ownership of
capital as joint- stocks with a monopoly of capital under the supervision of Banks).
3. Export of finance capital as opposed to the domination of export of commodities in the industrial
capitalism. As capitalism advanced, it depends on external expansion by opening up new investment
abroad since capitalism was now developed not only in one nation but many. An these were
competing for raw material sources, markets and area for investment which brought about new type
of imperialism in 19th century (colonization of Africa). Thus, capital had to be exported to backward
countries to increase profit of the capitalist companies. Export of capital (finance capital) took two
forms, namely investment capital which had to be invested in various colonies for cheap labour,
markets and cheap raw materials so as to maximize profit, and the Loan extended capital to colonial
government for colonial administration in colonies.
4. Formation of big monopolistic companies and firms in term of syndicates, carter trust and concern.
As new technology emerged and intensified production, enterprises were now coming together to
form international monopolistic corporations. These were formed as associations mentioned above to
equally divide markets, labour and raw materials so as to do away with competition in production
and markets. These big monopolistic companies started to appear since 1860 to 1870's at the apex of
competitive capitalism.
A-Carter: Is an association of capitalists who agree to divide markets among themselves. They
also agree on sell prices and quality of commodities to be produced. But each business in the
carter produces and sells its commodities independently.
A-Syndicates: the members produce independently but they do not sell their commodities
independently they buy their raw materials jointly i.e. the members set up join trading apparatus
for buying and selling.
A-Trust: All enterprises are owned jointly, their former owners become shareholders. The profit
of each depends on the number of shares he or she holds.
A-Concern: is an association of big trust often dealing with various enterprises such as banks,
trading firms and insurance and transport companies. They function on the basis of dependence
on a group of big financial capitalist. Trust and concern are widely used in USA, Germany and
Japan
5. The territorial division and re-division of the world among the imperialist nations. The imperialists took
vast areas of the world for colonization to fulfill their economic motives. For example, from 1876 to the
beginning of the First World War 1914 European powers seized about 25 million square km of
colonization territories mainly in Africa and Polynesia which before were uncontrolled and therefore
vacant. Capitalist powers were forced by the demand of monopoly capitalism to acquire colonies.
1. GROWTH OF POPULATION.
There was a rapid increase in population especially in Britain at the end of the 15thC; this increase was
caused by better medical facilities and early marriages. In 1485 AD, Britain had three million people.
This increase in production contributed to the rise of capitalism by providing a ready market for
manufactured goods and cheap labor in industries. Also increased population facilitated cheap labor in
industries, leaving rural areas hence decline of feudalism and rise of capitalism.
2. GROWTH OF TOWNS.
The Growth of towns for example Manchester and Liverpool contributed to the rise of industrial
capitalism. These towns attracted many people who undertook trade and commerce which contributed to
the demise of feudalism.
3. AGRARIAN REVOLUTION.
The improvement of agriculture contributed significantly to the collapse of feudalism. The changes in
agriculture for example crop rotation and the use of machines led to increase in production. The Increase
in production led to acquisition of wealth which was used to finance the industrial revolution hence rise
of capitalism.
4. POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS.
Political revolutions such as the English revolution of 1640 and the French revolution of 1789 contributed
to the rise of capitalism. These revolutions destroyed feudalism and put the major means of production
in the hands of capitalists hence leading to the rise of capitalism.
5. COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION.
Refers to fundamental changes which were characterized by the development of international trade and
the rise of merchant class. Through international trade, European countries especially Britain acquired a
lot of capital which was used to finance the industrial revolution, thus the rise of capitalism.
Industrial revolution can be defined as the sum total of radical or fundamental changes in various sectors
of the economy especially industry, transport, banking and technology. During this period new machines
for mass production were invented; large scale industries replaced cottage industries.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain because social, political, and legal conditions there were
particularly favorable to change. Property rights, such as those for patents (copyrights) on mechanical
improvements, were well established. More importantly, the predictable, stable rule of law in Britain
meant that monarchs and aristocrats were less likely to arbitrarily seize earnings or impose taxes than
they were in many other countries. As a result, earnings were safer, and ambitious businesspeople could
gain wealth, social prestige, and power more easily than could people on the European continent. These
factors encouraged risk taking and investment in new business ventures, both crucial to economic growth.
In addition, Great Britain’s government pursued a relatively hands-off economic policy. This free-market
approach or the hands-off policy permitted fresh methods and ideas to flourish with little interference or
regulation.
Britain’s nurturing social and political setting encouraged the changes that began in a few trades to spread
to others. Gradually the new ways of production transformed more and more parts of the British economy,
although older methods continued in many industries. Several industries played key roles in Britain’s
industrialization. Iron and steel manufacture, the production of steam engines, and textiles were all
powerful influences, as was the rise of a machine-building sector able to spread mechanization to other
parts of the economy.
Reasons for Britain to become the first country to undergo industrial revolution can be categorized into
two main factors, internal and external factors.
INTERNAL FACTORS
1. Growth of the internal market. This was caused by the rapid growth in population during the 18th
century. There was about 10.5Million people in 1801 and 20Million people in 1851. This growth of
population was due to better health care and sanitation. The increase in population provided ready
markets for industrial products thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
2. Improvement of the transport systems. There was improvement in the transport system through
the construction of roads, railways and canals. The good transport system supported the industrial
revolution by providing cheap and reliable transport.
3. Non-governmental interference. The British government pursued the laissez faire policy (no
government intervention) whereby the government allowed the economy to operate fairly and freely
with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged investors to increase
production thus contributing to the industrial revolution.
4. Peace and stability. The monarchy which controlled Britain provided a stable and predictable
government. This monarchy has maintained peace and stability which are conducive for industrial
activities.
5. Free trade system. Britain had the largest free trade unity in Europe completely unhampered by the
local tariffs system. Almost each part of Britain produced something and traded with others. The
absence of internal tariffs encouraged industrial activities thus leading to industrial revolution.
6. Geographical advantage. Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated
industrial revolution. There was existence of coal and iron in plenty, coal mining was important in
coastal shipping and provision of cheap fuel and later rail road construction. The existence of these
two natural resources generated more technological innovations that enabled Britain to undergo the
industrial revolution.
7. Technological advantages. Britain was the first country to undergo technological advancement in
various aspects. There were various discoveries that took place in Britain which facilitated the
industrial revolution. In 1776, James Watt discovered the steam engine and in 1775 Miller Cromb
EXTERNAL FACTORS
1. International links. The paramount cause of the industrial revolution was the Trans Atlantic slave
trade. British companies traded with all countries in Europe but most important was trade with Asia
and North America. The most profitable business acquired huge profits which were used to build
many industries.
2. Existence of many colonies. Britain had so many colonies in Africa, America and Asia. These
colonies provided raw materials and ready markets for industrial products, therefore contributing to
the industrial revolution.
In brief, the industrial revolution led to drastic economic and social changes in the lives of the British
people. It replaced agriculture as the main source of wealth and was responsible for the scramble for the
control of the rest of the world. Metamorphically, it can easily be concluded that, “Industrial revolution
in Britain, left no stone untouched and unturned.”
1. EXPLORERS.
During the nineteenth century, the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa. In east
Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant, Samuel Baker,
Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the prominent
explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa the prominent explorers
included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Blaikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie.
© EDWIN B. MASSAI, 2019. @ SANJARANDA SECONDARY SCHOOL. 55
The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was to
gather information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also
wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centres of
population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great
river systems. For example, the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and
Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics
of West Africa.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY EXPLORERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources, Clapperton reported
about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of
Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honour Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
(ii) They provided important information about the nature of African societies, they reported
about the hostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a
central role for the European colonialists during the decision-making process regarding the
colonization of Africa.
(iii) They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions,
topography, lakes and animal species in Africa. This knowledge later attracted European powers
to colonize Africa.
(iv) They provided messages to their government about the evils of slave trade, and the areas
where slave trade was still conducted. Dr. Livingstone's third journey through Tanganyika and
Lake Regions of central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the English that the
Yao's land was still characterized by slave raids and the effects of slave trade such as sufferings,
insecurity.
2. MISSIONARIES.
By the 19th century, missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were the protestant churches
of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France. The domination of
missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary society, Roman Catholic
missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA). Few Christian missionaries
were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential ingredients of the increasingly assertive
European access to Africa. However, in most cases European Christian played an important role in
promoting and shaping the advent of European capitalism.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
It is a long time saying that, “Flag followed the cross” that can be proven by the role played by the
missionaries in Africa and other parts of the world to pave the way to colonialism in those parts. With
their Bibles in their hands, with their colour (as white people), they were trusted and given opportunities
to put people in chains that lasted for more than two centuries and mental chains still stays with us. The
following is how the Missionaries played towards colonization of Africa.
(i) They introduced Western civilization to the interior through education, this aimed to
prepare people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of colonization. Through
education, Africans gradually started to abandon their culture and became dependent over the
western. For example, they established teaching curriculum basing on teaching the fabric
history of their ancestors and turned African heroes into either their heroes or bad people.
Sometimes they never wanted them to be heard at all. They taught Africans that, every good
thing is of white and black are all bad people or bad things. A good example is the teachings
that, all people in the bible are white people, and God is white.
(ii) They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making, Moffatt stayed
among the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC)
for treaty making between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula.
(iii) They acted as advisors to African chiefs, the British missionaries of the church missionary
society convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate.
(iv) They softened the minds and the hearts of Africans, their activities were influenced by
European imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasizing the spiritual beliefs such as
3. TRADERS.
Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa. They came under
the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers. Their main aim was to exploit
the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial capitalists had to invest their
capital. Examples of traders are William Mackinnon, James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl
Peters.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY TRADERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They opened a new an exploitative system, therefore, Africa became the target for European
interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations.
(ii) They introduced legitimate trade; this involved the importation of European manufactured
goods. Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts
were destroyed.
(iii) They exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy, the use of currency, banking
and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African
resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come
into Africa.
(iv) They opened communication systems; this laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure.
For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened
by traders and was used during the colonial administration.