Chapter 2

Related Literatures

Printed Resources

Coordinated Science (Chemistry)

Rose Marie Callagher

There are two kinds of plastic. A polymer chain that is heated it softens.
That means it can be molded into shapes. But the heat causes bonds to form
between chains. The plastic sets firmly into a new shape, this is called
thermosets that only soften once when it is heated. The second type of plastic is
called thermoplastics when a polymer chain is heated it slides to each other and
it can be molded over and over again.

Sweet Orange

University of the Philippine Los Banos (UPLB)

The demand for sweet orange is great all over the world. However,
grafting transmit transmissible diseases that limits the production. In the
Philippines sweet orange (locally known as “kahel” or “dalandan”) is among all
most preferred Fruits in the market. Knowing that the crops culture manages the
right approach to control the diseases that limit the production may improve yield

Chemistry

Steven S. Zumdahl

The age of plastic might be traced to a day in 1846 when Christian

Schoenbein, a chemistry professor at the University of Basel in Switzerland,
spilled a flask containing nitric and sulfuric acids. In his hurry to clean up the spill,
he grabbed his wife’s cotton apron, which then he then rinsed out and hung up in
front of a hot stove to dry, Instead of drying, the apron flared and burned. Very
interested on this event, Shoenbein repeated the reaction under more controlled
condition and found a new material. As he had experienced, the nitrated
cellulose was extremely flammable and, under certain circumstances, highly
explosive. In addition he found that it could be molded at moderate temperatures
to give objects that were, upon cooling, tough but elastic. Although Schoebein’s
discovery cannot be describe as truly synthetic polymer because he simply found
a way to modify the natural polymer cellulose.

Electronic Resources

Study of the Biodegradability of Degradable/Biodegradable Plastic

Material in a Controlled Composting Environment

Walter de Gruyter

The objective of this study was to determine the biodegradability of

disposable plastic bags available on the market that are labeled as
degradable/biodegradable and those certified as compost. The investigated
materials were obtained from chain stores in the Czech Republic and Poland.
Seven kinds of bags (commercially available) were used in this study. One of
them was a disposable bag made of HDPE and mixed with totally degradable
plastic additive (TDPA additive). Another was a disposable made of polyethylene
with the addition of pro-oxidant additive (d2w additive). One was labeled as
100% degradable within various periods of time, from three months up to three
years, and four were certified as compostable. The test was carried out in a
controlled composting environment. The biodisintegration degree of the obtained
pieces was evaluated following a modified version of ČSN EN 14806 Norm
"Packaging - Preliminary evaluation of the disintegration of the packaging
materials under simulated composting conditions in a laboratory scale test" and a
modified version of ČSN EN ISO 20200 "Plastics - Determination of the degree of
disintegration of plastic materials under simulated composting conditions in
laboratory-scale test" (ISO 20200:2004). The emphasis was put on determination
whether the bags are degradable/biodegradable or not.

Citric acid production from orange peel wastes by solid-state fermentation

Sao Paulo

Valencia orange (Citrus sinensis) peel was employed in this work as raw
material for the production of citric acid (CA) by solid-state fermentation (SSF) of
Aspergillus niger CECT-2090 (ATCC 9142, NRRL 599) in Erlenmeyer flasks. To
investigate the effects of the main operating variables, the inoculum
concentration was varied in the range 0.5·103 to 0.7·108 spores/g dry orange
peel, the bed loading from 1.0 to 4.8 g of dry orange peel (corresponding to 35-
80 % of the total volume), and the moisture content between 50 and 100 % of the
maximum water retention capacity (MWRC) of the material. Moreover, additional
experiments were done adding methanol or water in different proportions and
ways. The optimal conditions for CA production revealed to be an inoculum of
0.5·106 spores/g dry orange peel, a bed loading of 1.0 g of dry orange peel, and
a humidification pattern of 70 % MWRC at the beginning of the incubation with
posterior addition of 0.12 ml H2O/g dry orange peel (corresponding to 3.3 % of
the MWRC) every 12 h starting from 62 h. The addition of methanol was
detrimental for the CA production. Under these conditions, the SSF ensured an
effective specific production of CA (193 mg CA/g dry orange peel), corresponding
to yields of product on total initial and consumed sugars (glucose, fructose and
sucrose) of 376 and 383 mg CA/g, respectively. These results, which
demonstrate the viability of the CA production by SSF from orange peel without
addition of other nutrients, could be of interest to possible, future industrial
applications

Bioplastic from Orange Peelings and Coffee

3D Printing Business Directory

Orange peeling Contains cellulose, which is an important structural

component of the primary cell wall of green plants. It is also happens to be the
most abundant organic polymer on earth. Cellulose has a high molecular chain
length, or degree of polymerization. This high chain length relates to high tensile
strength. Compared to starch celluse is more crystalline, meaning it can take
higher temperatures before becoming amorphous in water. The team performed
a series of material experiment on the bio-plastic to understand how and to what
degree the material would transform when subjected to various strains and
stresses. The study that was conducted successfully made a bio-plastic from
orange peelings and coffee.
Related Study

The Feasibility Study of Using Nata de Coco

As Material for Biodegradable Plastic

Fountain International School

Every year, around 500 billion plastic bags are used worldwide. These
plastic bags are synthetic, which means they are not broken down easily and
tend to accumulate in the environment and cause serious litter problem. Plastic
bags are a true menace to our ecosystems and our waste diversion goals. Once
discarded, they either enter our landfills or our marine ecosystem. Being
synthetic, plastics do not decompose easily, causing them to be major land and
water pollutants. This study focused on the feasibility of using Nata de coco, jelly-
like fermented coconut water by Acetobacter xylinus, a microbial cellulose, in the
production of biodegradable plastic sheet. This will eventually help in lessening
or removing synthetic waste. Three types of plastic sheets were made and
tested; sheets A, B, and C. The sample were soak in a mixture of alum and
calamansi extract, then sundry A for 40 hours, setup B for 50 hours ad setup C
for 60 hours. Prepared samples were tested for characteristics such as resistivity,
clarity, flammability, strength and biodegradability. Commercial plastics labeled
as setup D were also utilized as a control setup. Based on the experiment, it is
possible to make a plastic from Nata de coco. As confirmed by the different test
there is no significant difference between the best made proportion of Nata de
coco plastic sheet, setup C, and the commercially available plastic, setup D
except in the resistivity test. Setup C is less clear than D which is good for
opaque packaging. It is also less flammable and stronger as shown in the result
of the flammability and tensile strength tests. It is also degradable, lessening the
volume of litter.
Summary of Review

The feasibility study that focuses on making biodegradable plastic from

Nata de coco, jelly-like fermented coconut water by Acetobacter xylinus, a
microbial cellulose. That will eventually help in lessening or removing synthetic
waste. There were three types of plastic sheets were made and tested; sheets A,
B, and C. The sample were soak in a mixture of alum and calamansi extract,
then sundry A for 40 hours, setup B for 50 hours ad setup C for 60 hours.
Prepared samples were tested for characteristics such as resistivity, clarity,
flammability, strength and biodegradability. The product was made and
successful in characteristics test as resistivity, clarity, flammability, strength and
biodegradability. So orange peeling can also make plastic because it contains
cellulose that has a high molecular chain length, or degree of polymerization.