MATHEMATICS IN PHYSICS

Introduction :

CONTENTS
0.1 Introduction
0.2 Algebra
0.3 Trigonometry
0.4 Logarithm
0.5 Graphs
0.6 Differential calculus
0.7 Integral calculus
0.8 General formulae for area and volume
0.9 Introduction of vector
0.10 Types of vector
Triangle law of vector addition of two
0.11
vectors
Parallelogram law of vector addition of
0.12
two vectors
0.13 Polygon law of vector addition
0.14 Subtraction of vectors
0.15 Resolution of vector into components
0.16 Rectangular components of 3-D vector
0.17 Scalar product of two vectors
0.18 Vector product of two vector
0.19 Lemi's theorem
0.20 Relative velocity
Sample Problems
Practice Problems
Answer Sheet of Practice Problems
 MATHEMATICS IN PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION:

Mathematics is the language of physics. It becomes very easier to describe, understand and apply
the physical principles, if we have a good knowledge of mathematics.

For example : Newton’s law of gravitation states that every body in this universe attracts every
other body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

m 1m 2 Gm 1 m 2
This law can be expressed by a single mathematical relationship F  2
or F 
r r2

The techniques of mathematics such as algebra, trigonometry, calculus, graph and logarithm can
be used to make predictions from the basic equation.

If we are poor at grammar and vocabulary, it would be difficult for us to communicate our
feelings, similarly for better understanding and expressing of physics the basic knowledge of
mathematics is must.

In this introductory chapter we will learn some fundamental mathematics.

0.2 Algebra.

(1) Quadratic equation : An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. Standard
quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0

Here a is called the coefficient of x2, b is called the coefficient of x and c is a constant term, x is
the variable whose value (roots of the equation) are to be determined

 b  b 2  4 ac
Roots of the equation are : x 
2a

This formula can be written as

 Coefficien t of x  (Coefficien t of x ) 2  4 (Coefficien t of x 2 )  (Constant term)

x
2(Coefficien t of x 2 )

Note :  If  and  be the roots of the quadratic equation then

b c
Sum of roots  +  = – and product of roots =
a a

1
Problem 1. Solve the equation 10 x 2  27 x  5  0

Solution : By comparing the given equation with standard equation a = 10, b = – 27, and c = 5

 b  b 2  4 ac  (27 )  (27 )2  4  10  5 27  23
x  
2a 2  10 20

27  23 5 27  23 1
 x1   and x2  
20 2 20 5

5 1
 Roots of the equation are and .
2 5

(2) Binomial theorem : If n is any number positive, negative or fraction and x is any real number,
such that x < 1 i.e. x lies between – 1 and + 1 then according to binomial theorem

n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3

(1  x )n  1  nx  x  x  .....
2! 3!

Here 2 ! (Factorial 2) = 2  1, 3 ! (Factorial 3) = 3  2  1 and 4 ! (Factorial 4) = 4  3  2  1

Note :  If |x| << 1 then only the first two terms are significant. It is so because the values of
second and the higher order terms being very very small, can be neglected. So the
expression can be written as

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx

(1 + x)–n = 1 – nx

(1 – x)n = 1 – nx

(1 – x)–n = 1 + nx

Problem 2. Evaluate (1001)1/3 upto six places of decimal.

Solution : (1001)1/3 = (1000 + 1)1/3 = 10(1 + 0.001)1/3

n(n  1) 2
By comparing the given equation with standard equation (1  x )n  1  nx  x  ......
2!

x = 0.001 and n = 1/3

 1 1  
  1   (. 001 )
2
 
1 3  3   1 
 10 (1  0 .001 )1 / 3  10 1  (0 .001 )   ....   10 1  0.00033  (0.000001 )  .... 
 3 2!   9 
 
 

 10 [1.0003301 ]  10 .003301 (Approx.)

Problem 3. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at a height h above the surface of earth is
gR 2
given by g'  . If h  R then
(R  h) 2

 h  2h   h  2h 
(a) g'  g 1   (b) g'  g1   (c) g'  g 1   (d) g'  g1  
 R  R   R  R 

2 2 2  2 
 R  h (2) (3)  h 
Solution : (b) g'  g  = g 1 
 =  1  h
  g 1  (2)     ....... 
 R h 1  h / R   R  R 2!  R  

 2h  h
g'  g1   ( if h  R then by neglecting higher power of .)
 R  R

(3) Arithmetic progression : It is a sequence of numbers which are arranged in increasing order
and having a constant difference between them.

Example : 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …… or 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …..

In general arithmetic progression can be written as a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 …….

(i) nth term of arithmetic progression an  a0  (n  1)d

a0 = First term, n = Number of terms, d = Common difference = (a1 – a0) or (a2 – a1) or (a3 – a2)

(ii) Sum of arithmetic progression S n  2a0  (n  1)d   a0  an 

n n
2 2

Problem 4. Find the sum of series 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 19 + 22 + 25

Solution : Sn 
n
a 0  an   7 7  25  = 112 [As n = 7; a0 = 7; an = a7 = 25]
2 2

(4) Geometric progression : It is a sequence of numbers in which every term is obtained by

multiplying the previous term by a constant quantity. This constant quantity is called the common ratio.

Example : 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 …… or 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, …….

In general geometric progression can be written as a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4, ….

Here a = first term, r = common ratio

a(1  r n )
(i) Sum of ‘n’ terms of G.P. S n  if r < 1
1r

a (r n  1)
Sn  if r > 1
r 1

3
 a
(ii) Sum of infinite terms of G.P. S  if r < 1
1r

a
S  if r > 1
r 1

q q q
Problem 5. Find the sum of series Q  2q     ......
3 9 27

 q q q 
Solution : Above equation can be written as Q  q  q     ...... 
 3 9 27 

 
 q  3 5
By using the formula of sum of infinite terms of G.P. Q q q q q
1  1  2 2
 3 

(5) Some common formulae of algebra

(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab

(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab

(iii) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca

(iv) (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2

(v) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)

(vi) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)

(vii) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab

(viii) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)

(ix) a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  b 2  ab)

(x) a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  b 2  ab)

a c ab cd
(6) Componendo and dividendo method : If  then 
b d ab c d
S 0.3 Trigonometry.

Arc AB S
Angle ( )    (formula true for radian only) B
Radius OA r
S

unit of angle is radian or degree O A
r

relation between radian and degree :

2 radian = 360o; 1 radian = 57.3o

(1) Trigonometric ratio : In right angled triangle ABC, the largest side AC, which is opposite to
the right angle is called hypotenuse, and if angle considered is  , then side opposite to , AB, will be
termed as perpendicular and BC is called the base of the triangle.

Perpendicu lar AB Hypotenuse AC

sin    cosec    A
Hypotenuse AC Perpendicu lar AB

Base BC Hypotenuse AC
cos    sec   
Hypotenuse AC Base BC 90o 
B C

Perpendicu lar AB Base BC

tan    cot   
Base BC Perpendicu lar AB

(2) Value of trigonometric ratio of standard angles

Angle 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o 120o 135o 150o 180o 270o 360o

sin 0 1/2 1/2 3/2 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0 –1 0

cos 1 3/2 1/2 1/2 0 – 1/2 – – –1 0 1

1/2 3/2

tan 0 1/3 1 3  – 3 –1 – 0 – 0
1/3

(3) Important points :

(i) Value of sin or cos lies between – 1 and +1, however tan and cot can have any real value.

(ii) Value of sec and cosec can not be numerically less than one.

(iii) (90o – ) will lie in first quadrant

(90o + ) will lie in second quadrant

5
 (180o – ) will lie in second quadrant
Second quadrant First quadrant
(180 + ) will lie in third quadrant
o (Only sin and cosec (All T-ratio positive)
are positive)

(270o + ) and (0o – ) will lie in fourth quadrant. Third quadrant Fourth quadrant
(Only tan and cot are (Only cos and sec  are
positive) positive)

(4) Fundamental trigonometrical relation

sin  1 1 1
(i) tan   (ii) cosec  (iii) sec   (iv) cot  
cos  sin  cos  tan 

(v) sin 2   cos 2   1 (vi) sec 2   tan 2   1 (vii) cosec 2  cot 2   1

(5) T-Ratios of allied angles : The angles whose sum or difference with angle  is zero or a
multiple of 90° are called angle allied to .

(i) sin( )   sin cos( )  cos tan( )   tan 

(ii) sin(90 o   )  cos  cos(90 o   )  sin  tan(90 o   )  cot 

(iii) sin(90 o   )  cos  cos(90 o   )   sin  tan( 90 o   )   cot 

(iv) sin(180 o
  )  sin  cos(180 o
  )   cos  tan(180 o
  )   tan 

(v) sin(180 o
  )   sin  cos(180 o
  )   cos  tan(180 o
  )  tan 

(vi) sin(270 o
  )   cos  cos(270 o
  )   sin  tan( 270 o
  )  cot 

(vii) sin(270 o
  )   cos  cos(270 o
  )  sin  tan( 270 o
  )   cot 

(viii
sin(360 o
  )   sin  cos(360 o
  )  cos  tan( 360 o
  )   tan 
)

(ix) sin(360 o
  )  sin  cos(360 o
  )  cos  tan( 360 o
  )  tan 
Note : Angle ( 2n   ) lies in first quadrant, if  in an acute angle. Similarly (2n   ) will lie in
fourth quadrant. Where n  0, 1, 2, 3, 4

 Angle ( ) is presumed always lie in fourth quadrant, whatever the value of  .

 If parent angle is 90° or 270° then sin  change to cos  , tan  change to cot  and sec 
change to cos ec  .

 If parent angle is 180° or 360° then no change in trigonometric function

Problem 6. Find the values of (i) cos(60 o ) (ii) tan 210 o (iii) sin 300 o (iv) cos120 o (v) sin(1485 o )

1
(i) cos( 60 )  cos 60 
o o
Solution :
2

1
(ii) tan( 210 )  tan(180  30 o )  tan 30 o 
o o
3

 3
(iii) sin(300 )  sin(360  60 o )   sin 60 o 
o o
2

1
(iv) cos(120 )  cos(90  30 )   sin 30 
o o o o
2

1
(v) sin(1485 )   sin(3  360  45 o )   sin 45 o  
o o
2

(6) Addition formulae

(i) sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

(ii) cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

tan A  tan B
(iii) tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

Putting B = A in these formulae, we get

(iv) sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A

(v) cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A  1  2 sin 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1

2 tan A
(vi) tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A

7
Problem 7. If A  60 o then value of sin 2 A will be

3 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2 3 2

3 1 3
Solution : (a) sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A  2 sin 60 cos 60  2   
2 2 2

(7) Difference formulae

(i) sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

(ii) cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

tan A  tan B
(iii) tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

(8) Transformation formulae

sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)  2 sin A cos B

cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)  2 sin A sin B

sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)  2 cos A sin B

cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)  2 cos A cos B

If we put ( A  B)  C and ( A  B)  D then on adding and subtracting, we get

CD CD
A and B 
2 2

Putting these values in the above equation we get

CD CD
(i) sin C  sin D  2 sin cos
2 2

CD CD
(ii) cos C  cos D  2 cos cos
2 2

CD CD
(iii) sin C  sin D  2 cos sin
2 2

CD CD
(iv) cos C  cos D  2 sin sin
2 2
 (9) The sine and cosine formulae for a triangle : In a triangle ABC of sides a, b, c and angles A,
B and C, the following formulae hold good.

a b c
(i)  
sin A sin B sin C

(ii) a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A

(iii) b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca cos B

(iv) c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C

(v) Area of a triangle ABC  S (S  a)(S  b)(S  c) ; where, S  (a  b  c) / 3

0.4 Logarithm.

Logarithm of a number with respect to a given base is the power to which the base must be raised
to represent that number.

If a x  N then log a N  x

Here x is called the logarithm of N to the base a.

There are two system of logarithm : Logarithm to the base 10 are called common logarithms
where as logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithm. They are written as ln.

Conversion of natural log into common log : log e x  2 .3026 log 10 x

Important formulae of logarithm :

(i) log a (mn )  log a m  log a n (Product formula)

(ii) log a    log a m  log a n (Quotient formula)

m
n

(iii) log a m n  n log a m (Power formula)

(iv) log a m  log b m log a b (Base change formula)

Note :  Antilogarithm is the reverse process of logarithm i.e., the number whose logarithm is x is
called antilogarithm of x. If log n  x then n = antilog of x

9
0.5 Graphs.

A graph is a line, straight or curved which shows the variation of one quantity w.r.t. other, which
are interrelated with each other.

In a relation of two quantities, the quantity which is made to alter at will, is called the independent
variable and the other quantity which varies as a result of this change is called the dependent variable.
Conventionally, in any graph, the independent variable (i.e. cause) is represented along x-axis and
dependent variable (i.e. effect) is represented along y-axis.

For example, we want to depict V  IR graphically, in which R is a constant called resistance, V is

the applied voltage (cause) and I (effect) is the resulting current. We will represeYnt voltage on x-axis
and current on y-axis.

Some important graphs for various equations

Y Y


 C
X X
O O
y = mx y = mx + c

m = tan = slope of line with x-axis c = Positive intercept on y-axis and positive
slope

Y Y

C 
X X
O O
C  y = mx – c y = – mx + c

Negative intercept and positive slope Positive intercept and Negative slope
 Y Y

y2 = kx y2 = – kx
X X
O O

Symmetric parabola about positive X-axis Symmetric parabola about negative X-axis

Y
Y

x2 = ky O x2 = – ky
X
X
O

Symmetric parabola about positive Y-axis Symmetric parabola about negative Y-axis

Y Y

y = ax + bx2 y = ax – bx2
X
O
X
O

Asymmetric parabola Asymmetric parabola

Y Y
x2 + y2 = a2

X
O
a
X
O
xy = constant

11
 Rectangular hyperbola Circle of radius 'a'

Y x 2 y2
 1 Y
a2 b 2
b y = e–kx
X
O
a
X
O

Ellipse of semi-major axis a and semi-minor

axis b. Exponential curve

+1 +1
180o 450o 180o
 360o

y = sin y = cos
0 90o 270o 360o 540o 0 90o 270o 450o
–1 –1

sine curve cosine curve

0.6 Differential Calculus.

The differential coefficient or derivative of variable y with respect to variable x is defined as the
dy
instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x. It is denoted by Y y = f (x)
dx

Geometrically the differential coefficient of y  f (x ) with respect to x at
any point is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve representing y  f (x )
X
at that point

dy
i.e.  tan  .
dx

dy
Note :  Actually is a rate measurer.
dx

dy
 If is positive, it means y is increasing with increasing of x and vice-versa.
dx

dy
 For small change x we use y  . x
dx
 ds
Example: (1) Instantaneous speed v =
dt

dv d 2 x
(2) Instantaneous acceleration a  = 2
dt dt

dp
(3) Force F 
dt

d
(4) Angular velocity  
dt

d
(5) Angular acceleration  
dt

dW
(6) Power P 
dt

dL
(7) Torque  
dt

(1) Fundamental formulae of differentiation :

Function Differentiation

If c is some constant d
(c)  0
dx

If y cx where c is a constant dy


d
(c x )  c
dx
c
dx dx dx

If y  c u where c is a constant and u is a function of dy


d
(c u)  c
du
dx dx dx
x

If y = xn where n is a real number dy

 nx n 1
dx

If y = un where n is a real number and u is a function dy

 nu n 1
du
of x dx dx

If y = u + v where u and v are the functions of x dy du dv

 
dx dx dx

If y = uv where u and v are functions of x (product dy dv du

u v
dx dx dx
formula)

13
 u du dv
If y where u and v are the functions of x v u
v dy d u  dx dx
  
(quotient formula) dx dx  v  v2

If y = f (u) and u = f (x) dy dy du

 
dx du dx

If y = (ax + b)n dy
 n (ax  b)n 1 
d
(ax  b)
dx dx

If y = sin x dy

d
(sin x )  cos x
dx dx

If y = cos x dy

d
(cos x )   sin x
dx dx

If y = tan x dy

d
(tan x )  sec 2 x
dx dx

If y = cot x dy

d
(cot x )  cosec 2 x
dx dx

If y = sec x dy

d
(sec x )  tan x sec x
dx dx

If y = cosec x dy

d
(cosec x )   cot x cosec x
dx dx

If y = sin u where u is the function of x dy


d
(sin u)  cos u
d (u)
dx dx dx

If y = cos u where u is the function of x dy


d
(cos u)   sin u
d (u)
dx dx dx

If y = tan u where u is the function of x dy


d
(tan u)  sec 2 u
d (u)
dx dx dx

If y = cot u where u is the function of x dy


d
(cot u)  cosec 2 u
d (u)
dx dx dx

If y = sec u where u is the function of x dy


d
(sec u)  sec u tan u
d (u)
dx dx dx

If y = cosec u where u is the function of x dy


d
(cosec u)   cosec u cot u
d (u)
dx dx dx

If y  log a x dy 1
 log a e
dx x
Problem 8. Differentiate the following w.r.t x

(i) x3 (ii) x (iii) ax 2  bx  c (iv) 2x 3  e x (v) 6 log e x  x  7

d
Solution : (i) (x 3 )  3 x 2
dx

1
d 1 1 1 1
(ii) (x )1 / 2  (x ) 2  (x )1 / 2 
dx 2 2 2 x

d d 2 d d
(iii) (ax 2  bx  c)  a (x )  b (x )  (c) = 2ax  b
dx dx dx dx

d d d x
(iv) (2 x 3  e x )  2 (x 3 )  (e )  6 x 2  e x
dx dx dx

d d d 1/2 d 6 1
(v) (6 log e x  x  7)  6 (log e x )  (x )  (7)  
dx dx dx dx x 2 x

Problem 9. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x

(i) sin x  cos x (ii) sin x  e x

d d d
Solution : (i) (sin x  cos x )  (sin x )  (cos x )  cos x  sin x
dx dx dx

d d d x
(ii) (sin x  e x )  (sin x )  (e )  cos x  e x
dx dx dx

Problem 10. Differentiate the following w.r.t. t

(i) sin t 2 (ii) e sin t (iii) sin(t   )

d d
Solution : (i) (sin t 2 )  cos t 2 (t 2 )  2t cos t 2
dt dt

d sin t d
(ii) (e )  e sin t (sin t)  e sin t . cos t
dt dt

d d
(iii) [sin(t   )]  cos(t   ). (t   )  cos(t   ). 
dt dt

x2 ex
Problem 11. Differentiate w.r.t. x
log x  20

x2 ex
Solution : Let y .
log x  20

15
 dy d  x 2  e x 

Then 
dx dx  log x  20 


d d
(log x  20 ) (x 2  e x )  (x 2  e x ) (log x  20 )
 dx dx
(log x  20 ) 2

1 
(log x  20 )(2 x  e x )  (x 2  e x )  0 
 x 

(log x  20 ) 2

(2) Maxima and minima : If a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown in
figure. It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at x2. Y

At these points the tangent to the curve is parallel to X-axis and

hence its slope is tan   0. But the slope of the curve equals the rate of
dy dy
change . Thus, at a maximum or minimum 0 O x1 x2
X
dx dx

Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it is zero and just after the
dy dy
maximum it is negative. Thus decreases at a maximum and hence the rate of change of is
dx dx
d  dy 
negative at a maximum. i.e.,    0 at a maximum.
dx  dx 

dy d 2y
Hence the condition of maxima :  0 and 0 (Second derivative test)
dx dx 2

Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive. The slope increases at such a
d  dy 
point and hence  0
dx  dx 

dy d 2y
Hence the condition of minima : 0 and 0. (Second derivative test)
dx dx 2

Problem 12. The height reached in time t by a particle thrown upward with a speed u is given by
1 2
h  ut  gt . Find the time taken in reaching the maximum height.
2

dh d 1 2 gt u
Solution : For maximum height 0 [ut  gt 2 ]  u   0 t 
dt dt 2 2 g
Problem 13. A metal ring is being heated so that at any instant of time t in second, its area is given by

t
A  3t 2   2 m2 .
3

What will be the rate of increase of area at t  10 sec .

dA d t 1
Solution : Rate of increase of area  (3 t 2   2)  6 t 
dt dt 3 3

 dA  1 181 m 2
   6  10   .
 dt t 10 sec 3 3 sec

1
Problem 14. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of cm / sec . Determine the rate of
2
increase in its volume when the radius is 1 cm.

4
Solution : Volume of the spherical bubble V R 3
3

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. time

dV d  4 3  4 dR dR
  R    .3 R 2 .  4R 2
dt dt  3  3 dt dt

dV 1 dR 1
at R  1cm ,  4  (1) 2   2 cm 3 / sec . [Given  cm / sec ]
dt 2 dt 2

Problem 15. Find the angle of tangent drawn to the curve y  3x 2  7x  5 at the point (1, 1) with the x-
axis.

Solution : y  3x 2  7x  5

dy
Slope of tangent   6x  7
dx

dy
at (1, 1)  1  tan   1    135 o .
dx

0.7 Integral Calculus.

The process of integration is just the reverse of differentiation. The symbol ∫ is used to denote
integration.

If f (x ) is
the differential coefficient of function F(x ) with respect to x, then by integrating f (x ) we
can get F(x ) again.

17
 (1) Fundamental formulae of integration :

x n 1
 sec x dx  tan x
2

 x n dx 
n 1
, provided n  – 1

x 0 1
 cos ec x dx   cot x
2

 dx   x 0 dx 
0 1
x

 (u  v) dx   u dx   v dx  sec x tan x dx  sec x

 cu dx  c u dx  cosec x cot x dx  cosec x

where c is a constant and u is a function
of x.

x n 1 (ax  b)n 1 (ax  b)n 1

 cx n dx  c
n 1  (ax  b )n dx 
d
(n  1) (ax  b)

a(n  1)
dx

a log e ax  b 
x x  (ax  b) dx 
1 dx a
dx   log e x  log e (ax  b)
d
(ax  b)
dx

e dx  e x e ax  b e ax  b
x
 e ax  b dx 
d
(ax  b )

a
dx

ax a cx  d a cx  d
 a x dx 
log e a  a cx  d dx 
log e a
d
(cx  d )

c log e a
dx

tan(ax  b) tan  ax  b)
 sin x dx   cos x  sec
2
(ax  b) dx 
d

a
(ax  b)
dx

 cos nx  cot (ax  b)  cot (ax  v)

 sin nx dx   cosec (ax  b) dx  
2
n d a
(ax  b)
dx

sec (ax  b) sec (ax  b)

 cos x dx  sin x  sec (ax  b) tan (ax  b) dx  d

a
(ax  b)
dx

cosec (ax  b) cosec (ax  b)

 cos nx dx 
sin nx
n  cosec (ax  b) cot (ax  b) dx  d
(ax  b)

a
dx
 (2) Method of integration : Sometimes, we come across some functions which cannot be
integrated directly by using the standard integrals. In such cases, the integral of a function can be
obtained by using one or more of the following methods.

(i) Integration by substitution : Those functions which cannot be integrated directly can be reduced
to standard integrand by making a suitable substitution and then can be integrated by using the standard
integrals. To understand the method, we take the few examples.

(ii) Integration by parts : This method of integration is based on the following rule :

Integral of a product of two functions = first function  integral of second function – integral of
(differential coefficient of first function  integral of second function).

 du 
Thus, if u and v are the functions of x, then  uv dx  u  v dx    dx   v dx  dx
Problem 16. Integrate the following w.r.t. x

1
(i) x1/2 (ii) cot 2 x (iii)
1  sin x

x 1 / 2 1 2 3 / 2
Solution : (i)  x 1 / 2 dx 
1
1
 (x )
3
2

 cot x dx   (cosec x  1)dx   cosec x dx   dx   cot x  x

2 2 2
(ii)

 1  sin x  1  sin x
 1  sin x dx    1  sin x  1  sin x  . dx    cos
1 1 1 sin x
(iii) dx   dx
1  sin 2 x 2
x cos 2 x

=  (sec 2 x  tan x sec x )dx  tan x  sec x.

(3) Definite integrals : When a function is integrated between definite limits, the integral is called
definite integral. For example,
b
 a
f ( x ) dx is definite integral of f (x ) between the limits a and b and is written as
b
 a
f (x ) dx | F(x )| ba  F(b)  F(a)

Here a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit of integration.
b
Geometrically  a
f ( x ) dx equals to area of curve F(x ) between the limits a and b.

19
 6
 (2 x  3 x  5)dx
2
Problem 17. Evaluate
0

6 6
 2x 3  3x 2 
  5 x 0  144  54  30
6 6 6 6
 (2 x 2  3 x  5)dx   2 x 2 dx   3 x dx   5 dx    
6
Solution : = 228.
0 0 0 0  3  0  2  0

Problem 18. Integrate the following

2  /2 r2 Kq 1 q 2  /4
   
1
(i) dx (ii) cos x dx (iii) .dr (iv) tan 2 x dx
0 0 2 0
x r1 r

2
 x1/2 
 
2
2
 
1 2
Solution : (i) dx  x 1 / 2 dx     2x
1/2
0 2 2
0
x 0  1 / 2  0

 /2

(ii)  cos x dx  sin x 0 / 2  sin 1
2
0

r2 r2
1 1 1 1
r2
= kq1 q 2   1 
q1 q 2
 r
1
(iii) k dx  k q 1 q 2 dx  kq1 q 2     kq1 q 2   
 r  r1
2 2
r1
r r1  2
r r1 1
r r2 

 /4  /4

(iv)  tan
2
x dx   (sec
2
x  1)dx  tan x  0 / 4  [ x ] 0 / 4  1 
4
0 o

0.8 General Formulae for Area and Volume.

1. Area of square = (side)2

2. Area of rectangle = length  breadth

1
3. Area of triangle   base  height
2

4. Area enclosed by a circle   r 2 ; where r is radius

5. Surface area of sphere  4 r 2

6. Surface area of cube  6 L2 ; where L is a side of cube

7. Surface area of cuboid  2L  b  b  h  h  L  ; where L= length, b = breadth, h = height

8. Area of curved surface of cylinder  2 rl ; where r = radius, l = length of cylinder

9. Volume of cube  L3

10. Volume of cuboid  L  b  h

 4
11. Volume of sphere   r 3
3

12. Volume of cylinder   r 2 l

1
13. Volume of cone   r 2 h
2

0.9 Introduction of Vector.

Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vector algebra are called
vectors.

Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque,
angular momentum, angular velocity etc.

If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it does not always imply that it is a
vector. For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.

Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it
disobeys the laws of vector algebra.

0.10 Types of Vector.

(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and
same direction.

(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel when

(i) Both have same direction.

(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another vector.

(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be anti-parallel when

(i) Both have opposite direction.

(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another vector.

(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration can share the same support or have
a common support then the considered vectors are collinear.

(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a
zero vector.

(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. Unit vector for A is  (read as A
cap / A hat).

21
 Since, ˆ  A  A AA
A ˆ .
A

Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.

(7) Orthogonal unit vectors : ˆi , ˆj and k̂ are called orthogonal unit vectors. These vectors must
form a Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate system such that when we y
Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y then we must get the direction of
z along thumb). The ˆj
x
k̂
ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z î

x y z z

 x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  z kˆ

(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of application . Example displacement and
force etc.

(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
example of physical quantities of this type.

Axial vector Axis of rotation

Anticlock wise Clock wise rotation

rotation
Axis of rotation Axial vector

(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same
plane. Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.

0.11 Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors.

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in same order then the
resultant is given by the closing side of triangle in opposite order. i.e. R  A  B

 OB  OA  AB B

R  AB

O A
A
 (1) Magnitude of resultant vector

AN
In  ABN cos    AN  B cos 
B

BN
sin    BN  B sin 
B
B
In OBN , we have OB 2  ON 2  BN 2
R
B B sin
 
 R  ( A  B cos  )  (B sin  )
2 2 2
O A A N
B
 R  A  B cos   2 AB cos   B sin 
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos

 R 2  A 2  B 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  2 AB cos 

 R  A  B  2 AB cos 
2 2 2

 R A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between A and B, then

| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN , then

BN BN
tan   
ON OA  AN

B sin 
tan  
A  B cos 

0.12 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors.

If two non zero vector are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the
resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the
two vectors.

(1) Magnitude
B C

Since, R 2  ON 2  CN 2 R  AB
B B sin
B
 R  (OA  AN )  CN
2 2 2

 

O A N
 R  A  B  2 AB cos  A
2 2 2
B cos 

23
  R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

Special cases : R  A  B when  = 0o

R  AB when  = 180o

R A 2  B 2 when  = 90o

(2) Direction

CN B sin 
tan   
ON A  B cos 

0.13 Polygon Law of Vector Addition.

If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
D D C

R  ABCD E E C

E B
OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE

R B

O A
A
Note :  Resultant of two unequal vectors can not be zero.

 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not be zero

 Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be zero.

0.14 Subtraction of Vectors.

Since, A  B  A  ( B) and | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )

Since, cos (180   )   cos  R su m  A  B

B
 | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
 1
2 A
B sin 
tan  1  B
180 – 

A  B cos 

B sin (180   )
and tan  2  R diff  A  ( B )
A  B cos (180   )
 But sin(180   )  sin  and cos(180   )   cos 

B sin 
 tan  2 
A  B cos 

SAMPLE PROBLEM BASED ON ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

Problem 19. A car travels 6 km towards north at an angle of 45° to the east and then travels distance of
4 km towards north at an angle of 135° to the east. How far is the point from the starting
point. What angle does the straight line joining its initial and final position makes with
the east

(a) 50 km and tan 1 (5 ) (b) 10 km and tan 1 ( 5 )

(c) 52 km and tan 1 (5 ) (d) 52 km and tan 1 ( 5 )

1
Solution : (c) Net movement along x-direction Sx = (6 – 4) cos 45° î  2   2 km
2
N

4
1
Net movement along y-direction Sy = (6 + 4) sin 45° ˆj  10   5 2 km km 6
45o km
2 W E(
O
X)

Net movement from starting point | s|  s x 2  sy 2   2   5 2 

2 2
= 52 km
S (Y
)

Y  component 5 2
Angle which makes with the east direction tan   
X  component 2

  tan 1 (5)

Problem 20. There are two force vectors, one of 5 N and other of 12 N at what angle the two vectors
be added to get resultant vector of 17 N, 7 N and 13 N respectively

(a) 0°, 180° and 90° (b) 0°, 90° and 180° (c) 0°, 90° and 90° (d) 180°, 0° and 90°

Solution : (a) For 17 N both the vector should be parallel i.e. angle between them should be zero.

For 7 N both the vectors should be antiparallel i.e. angle between them should be 180°

For 13 N both the vectors should be perpendicular to each other i.e. angle between them
should be 90°

Problem 21. Given that A  B  C = 0 out of three vectors two are equal in magnitude and the
magnitude of third vector is 2 times that of either of the two having equal magnitude.
Then the angles between vectors are given by

(a) 30°, 60°, 90° (b) 45°, 45°, 90° (c) 45°, 60°, 90° (d) 90°, 135°, 135°

25
Solution : (d) From polygon law, three vectors having summation zero should form a closed polygon.
(Triangle) since the two vectors are having same magnitude and
the third vector is 2 times that of either of two having equal 

magnitude. i.e. the triangle should be right angled triangle

C B
Angle between A and B,  = 90º 


Angle between B and C,  = 135º
A

Angle between A and C,  = 135º

Problem 22. If A  4ˆi  3ˆj and B  6ˆi  8 ˆj then magnitude and direction of A B will be

(a) 5, tan 1 (3 / 4) (b) 5 5 , tan 1 (1 / 2) (c) 10, tan 1 (5) (d) 25, tan 1 (3 / 4)

Solution : (b) A  B  4ˆi  3 ˆj  6ˆi  8 ˆj  10 ˆi  5 ˆj

| A  B |  (10) 2  (5)2  5 5

5 1 1
tan       tan 1  
10 2 2

Problem 23. A truck travelling due north at 20 m/s turns west and travels at the same speed. The
change in its velocity be

(a) 40 m/s N–W (b) 20 2 m/s N–W (c) 40 m/s S–W (d) 20 2 m/s S–W

Solution : (d) From fig.

v1 =20 m/s

v 1  20 ˆj and v 2  20 ˆi v2 =20 m/s

 O

v  v 2  v 1  20 (ˆi  ˆj)

v – v1

| v |  20 2 and direction   tan 1 (1)  45  i.e. S–W

Problem 24. If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, then magnitude of difference is

(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1/ 2 (d) 5

Solution : (b) Let n̂ 1 and n̂ 2 are the two unit vectors, then the sum is

n s  nˆ 1  nˆ 2 or n s2  n12  n 22  2n1 n 2 cos  1  1  2 cos 

Since it is given that ns is also a unit vector, therefore 1  1  1  2 cos 

 1
or cos    or   120 
2

Now the difference vector is n d  n1  n 2 or nd2  n12  n22  2n1n2 cos  1  1  2 cos(120 )

 n d2  2  2(1 / 2)  2  1  3  nd  3

Problem 25. The sum of the magnitudes of two forces acting at point is 18 and the magnitude of their
resultant is 12. If the resultant is at 90° with the force of smaller magnitude, what are the,
magnitudes of forces

(a) 12, 5 (b) 14, 4 (c) 5, 13 (d) 10, 8

Solution : (c) Let P be the smaller force and Q be the greater force then according to problem –

P + Q = 18 ......(i)

R  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos  12 .......(ii)

Q sin 
tan    tan 90  
P  Q cos 

 P  Q cos  0 .......(iii)

By solving (i), (ii) and (iii) we will get P  5, and Q  13

Problem 26. Two forces F1  1 N and F2  2 N act along the lines x = 0 and y = 0 respectively. Then the
resultant of forces would be

(a) ˆi  2 ˆj (b) ˆi  ˆj (c) 3ˆi  2 ˆj (d) 2ˆi  ˆj

Solution : (d) x = 0 means y-axis  F 1  ˆj

y = 0 means x-axis  F 2  2ˆi so resultant F  F 1  F 2  2ˆi  ˆj

Problem 27. Let A  2ˆi  ˆj, B  3 ˆj  kˆ and C  6ˆi  2kˆ value of A  2 B  3C would be

(a) 20ˆi  5ˆj  4 kˆ (b) 20ˆi  5ˆj  4 kˆ (c) 4ˆi  5ˆj  20kˆ (d) 5ˆi  4 ˆj  10 kˆ

Solution : (b) A  2 B  3C  (2ˆi  ˆj)  2(3ˆj  kˆ )  3(6ˆi  2kˆ )

 2ˆi  ˆj  6 ˆj  2kˆ  18ˆi  6kˆ

= 20ˆi  5ˆj  4 kˆ

27
Problem 28. A vector a is turned without a change in its length through a small angle d  . The value of
|  a | and a are respectively

(a) 0, a d (b) a d , 0 (c) 0, 0 (d) None of these

Solution : (b) From the figure | OA |  a and | OB |  a

B
Also from triangle rule OB  OA  AB  a  | a |  AB a
a A

Using angle 
arc
 AB = a . d d a
radius

O
So | a |  a d

a means change in magnitude of vector i.e. | OB |  | OA |  a  a  0

So a  0

Problem 29. An object of m kg with speed of v m/s strikes a wall at an angle  and rebounds at the
same speed and same angle. The magnitude of the change in momentum of the object
will be

v   v
1 2
0 0

(a) 2m v cos  (b) 2 m v sin  (c) 0 (d) 2mv

Solution : (a) P 1  m v sin  ˆi  m v cos  ˆj and P 2  m v sin  ˆi  m v cos  ˆj

y

So change in momentum P  P 2  P 1  2 m v cos  ˆj p1

p2

 
|  P |  2 m v cos  x


0.15 Resolution of Vector Into Components.

Consider a vector R in x-y plane as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors R x and R y
along x and y axes respectively, by law of vector addition, R  R x  R y

Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y

 y

so R  ˆi R x  ˆjR y .....(i)
Ry R
But from fig R x  R cos  .....(ii)

x
Rx
and R y  R sin  .....(iii)

Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the magnitude of the components of
R along x and y-axes respectively.

Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its components, the components themselves
can be used to specify the vector as –

(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.

R  R x2  R y2

(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.

tan   (R y / R x ) or   tan 1 (R y / R x )

0.16 Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector.

R  R x  R y  R z or R  R xˆi  Ry ˆj  R z kˆ

If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis, then

Rx Rx
 cos    l Y
R R x2  R y2  R z2

Ry Ry R
 cos    m
Ry
Rx
R R x2  R y2  R z2
Rz
X

Z
Rz Rz
 cos    n
R R x2  R y2  R z2

where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R

R x2  R y2  R z2
l  m  n  cos   cos   cos  
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
R x2  R y2  R z2

29
 Note :  When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z) then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ

 When a particle moves from point (x1, y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector

r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y 1 )ˆj  (z 2  z 1 )kˆ

SAMPLE PROBLEM BASED ON REPRESENTATION AND RESOLUTION OF VECTOR

Problem 30. If a particle moves 5 m in +x- direction. The displacement of the particle will be

(a) 5 j (b) 5 i (c) – 5 j (d) 5 k

Solution : (b) Magnitude of vector = 5 y

5 î
Unit vector in +x direction is î x
O

So displacement = 5 î

Problem 31. Position of a particle in a rectangular-co-ordinate system is (3, 2, 5). Then its position
vector will be

(a) 3ˆi  5ˆj  2kˆ (b) 3ˆi  2ˆj  5kˆ (c) 5ˆi  3ˆj  2kˆ (d) None of these

Solution : (b) If a point have coordinate (x, y, z) then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ .

Problem 32. If a particle moves from point P (2,3,5) to point Q (3,4,5). Its displacement vector be

(a) ˆi  ˆj  10 kˆ (b) ˆi  ˆj  5kˆ (c) ˆi  ˆj (d) 2ˆi  4 ˆj  6kˆ

Solution : (c) Displacement vector r  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ  (3  2)ˆi  (4  3)ˆj  (5  5)kˆ  ˆi  ˆj

Problem 33. A force of 5 N acts on a particle along a direction making an angle of 60° with vertical. Its
vertical component be

(a) 10 N (b) 3 N (c) 4 N (d) 5.2 N

y
Solution : (d) The component of force in vertical direction will be F cos   F cos 60  F
F cos
60o

1 60o
 5  2.5 N
2 x
F sin 60o

Problem 34. If A  3ˆi  4 ˆj and B  7ˆi  24 ˆj, the vector having the same magnitude as B and parallel to A
is

(a) 5ˆi  20 ˆj (b) 15 ˆi  10 ˆj (c) 20 ˆi  15 ˆj (d) 15 ˆi  20 ˆj

Solution : (d) | B |  7 2  (24 )2  625  25

ˆ ˆ
Unit vector in the direction of A will be ˆ  3i  4 j
A
5

 ˆ ˆ
So required vector = 25  3i  4 j   15 ˆi  20 ˆj
 5 

Problem 35. Vector A makes equal angles with x, y and z axis. Value of its components (in terms of
magnitude of A ) will be

A A 3
(a) (b) (c) 3A (d)
3 2 A

Solution : (a) Let the components of A makes angles ,  and  with x, y and z axis respectively then
   

1
cos2   cos2   cos2   1  3 cos 2   1  cos  
3

A
 A x  A y  A z  A cos  
3

Problem 36. If A  2ˆi  4 ˆj  5kˆ the direction of cosines of the vector A are

2 4 5 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 5
(a) , and (b) , and (c) , 0 and (d) , and
45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45

Solution : (a) | A |  (2) 2  (4 ) 2  (5) 2  45

2 4 5
 cos   , cos   , cos  
45 45 45

Problem 37. The vector that must be added to the vector ˆi  3ˆj  2kˆ and 3ˆi  6ˆj  7kˆ so that the resultant
vector is a unit vector along the y-axis is

(a) 4ˆi  2ˆj  5kˆ (b)  4ˆi  2ˆj  5kˆ (c) 3ˆi  4 ˆj  5kˆ (d) Null vector

Solution : (b) Unit vector along y axis  ˆj so the required vector

 ˆj  [(ˆi  3ˆj  2kˆ )  (3ˆi  6ˆj  7kˆ )]   4ˆi  2ˆj  5kˆ

31
0.17 Scalar Product of Two Vectors.

(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between them.

Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle  between them, then their scalar product
written as A . B is defined as A . B  AB cos 

(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e.,
< 90°) and negative if angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
B
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A


(iii) It is distributive, i.e. A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C

A

(iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 

 A. B
The angle between the vectors   cos 1  
 AB 

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos   max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors
are parallel

( A . B)max  AB

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when | cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o

( A . B) min  0

i.e., if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.

(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by
( A)  A . A  AA cos   A 2
2

i.e., A  A . A

(viii) In case of unit vector n̂

nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi . ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and k̂ , ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ .ˆi  1  1 cos 90  0

(x) In terms of components A . B  (iA x  jA y  k A z ). (iB x  jB y  k B z )  [ A x B x  A y B y  A Z B z ]

 (3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work is defined as, W  Fs cos  .......(i)

But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, F. s  Fs cos 

.......(ii)

So from eqn (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar product of force with displacement.

(ii) Power P :

dW ds
As W  F.s or  F. [As F is constant]
dt dt

 dW ds 
or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with velocity.  As  P and  v
 dt dt 

(iii) Magnetic Flux  : 

ds 
B
Magnetic flux through an area is given by d   B ds cos  ......(i)

But by definition of scalar product B . d s  Bds cos  ......(ii)
O

So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have

d   B . d s or    B.ds

(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of moment p is situated in an electric

field E or a magnetic dipole of moment M in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the dipole
is given by :

U E   p . E and U B   M . B

SAMPLE PROBLEM BASED ON DOT PRODUCT

Problem 38. A  2ˆi  4 ˆj  4 kˆ and B  4ˆi  2ˆj  4 kˆ are two vectors. The angle between them will be

(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 90°

. B a1 b1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3 24  4 2 4 4
Solution : (d) cos     0
| | .| B | | | .| B | | A | .| B |

  cos 1 (0 )    90 

33
Problem 39. If two vectors 2ˆi  3ˆj  kˆ and  4ˆi  6 ˆj  kˆ are parallel to each other then value of  be

(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

Solution : (c) Let A  2ˆi  3ˆj  kˆ and B  4ˆi  6 ˆj  kˆ

a1 a2 a3 2 3 1
A and B are parallel to each other   i.e.     2.
b1 b2 b3 4 6 

Problem 40. In above example if vectors are perpendicular to each other then value of  be

(a) 25 (b) 26 (c) – 26 (d) – 25

Solution : (c) If A and B are perpendicular to each other then A . B  0  a1 b1  a 2 b 2  a3 b 3  0

So, 2(4)  3(6)  (1)()  0    26

Problem 41. If   2ˆi  3ˆj  kˆ and B  ˆi  3ˆj  4 kˆ then projection of A on B will be

3 3 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
13 26 26 13

Solution : (b) |  |  2 2  3 2  (1)2  4  9  1  14

| B |  (1)2  3 2  4 2  1  9  16  26

A . B  2 (1)  3  3  (1) (4 )  3

A. B 3
The projection of A on B  
| B| 26

Problem 42. A body, acted upon by a force of 50 N is displaced through a distance 10 meter in a
direction making an angle of 60° with the force. The work done by the force be

(a) 200 J (b) 100 J (c) 300 (d) 250 J

1
Solution : (d) W  F . S  FS cos   50  10  cos 60   50  10   250 J .
2

Problem 43. A particle moves from position 3ˆi  2ˆj  6kˆ to 14ˆi  13ˆj  9kˆ due to a uniform force of
4ˆi  ˆj  3kˆ N . If the displacement in meters then work done will be

(a) 100 J (b) 200 J (c) 300 J (d) 250 J

Solution : (a) S  r2  r1 [W  F.S  (4ˆi  ˆj  3kˆ ) . (11ˆi  11 ˆj  15 kˆ )  (4  11  1  11  3  15 )  100 J . ]

Problem 44. If for two vector A and B, sum ( A  B) is perpendicular to the difference ( A  B) . The ratio of
their magnitude is

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) None of these

Solution : (a) ( A  B) is perpendicular to ( A  B) . Thus

( A  B) . ( A  B) = 0 or A2  B. A  A.B  B2  0

Because of commutative property of dot product A. B  B. A

 A2  B2  0 or AB

Thus the ratio of magnitudes A/B = 1

Problem 45. A force F   K(yˆi  xˆj) (where K is a positive constant) acts on a particle moving in the x-y
plane. Starting from the origin, the particle is taken along the positive x- axis to the point
(a, 0) and then parallel to the y-axis to the point (a, a). The total work done by the forces
F on the particle is

(a)  2 Ka 2 (b) 2 Ka 2 (c)  Ka 2 (d) Ka 2

Solution : (c) For motion of the particle form (0, 0) to (a, 0)

F   K(0 ˆi  a ˆj)  F   Kaˆj

Displacement r  (a ˆi  0 ˆj)  (0 ˆi  0 ˆj)  aˆi

So work done from (0, 0) to (a, 0) is given by W  F . r  Kaˆj . aˆi  0

For motion (a, 0) to (a, a)

F  K(aˆi  aˆj) and displacement r  (aˆi  aˆj)  (aˆi  0 ˆj)  aˆj

So work done from (a, 0) to (a, a) W  F . r  K(aˆi  aˆj). aˆj  Ka 2

So total work done  Ka 2

35
0.18 Vector Product of Two Vector.

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them,
and direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in accordance with right hand screw
rule.

C  AB

Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product written as A  B is a vector C defined
by

C  A  B  AB sin  nˆ

The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane

containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right
handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector)
through the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed
screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is rotated from A to B through the
smaller angle between them, then the direction of advancement of the screw gives the direction of
A  B i.e. C

(2) Properties :

(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing
these two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and B may or
may not be orthogonal.

(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e., A  B  B  A [but   B  A]

Here it is worthy to note that

| A  B | | B  A |  AB sin 

i.e., in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite.

(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.

A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C

(iv) As by definition of vector product of two vectors A  B  AB sin  nˆ

| A  B | 
So | A  B |  AB sin  i.e.,   sin 1  
| A | | B | 
(v) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin   max  1, i.e.,   90 o

[ A  B]max  AB nˆ

i.e., vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.

(vi) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when | sin  |  minimum = 0, i.e.,
  0 o or 180 o

[ A  B]min  0

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the vectors are collinear.

(vii) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector
A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0

(viii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, kˆ in accordance with right hand screw rule :

ˆj ˆj

k̂
î î

k̂

ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj

And as cross product is not commutative,

ˆj  ˆi  kˆ kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj

ˆi ˆj kˆ
(x) In terms of components A  B  A x Ay A z  ˆi ( A y B z  A z B y )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
Bx By Bz

(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector, vector physical quantities
(particularly representing rotational effects) like torque, angular momentum, velocity and force on a
moving charge in a magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is
well – established in physics that :

(i) Torque   r  F

37
 (ii) Angular momentum L  r  p

(iii) Velocity v    r

(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by
F  q(v  B)

(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and  B  M  B

SAMPLE PROBLEM BASED ON VECTOR PRODUCT

Problem 46. If A  3ˆi  ˆj  2kˆ and B  2ˆi  2ˆj  4 kˆ then value of | A  B| will be

(a) 8 2 (b) 8 3 (c) 8 5 (d) 5 8

ˆi ˆj kˆ
Solution : (b) AB  3 1 2  (1  4  2  2)ˆi  (2  2  4  3)ˆj  (3  2  1  2)kˆ  8ˆi  8 ˆj  8kˆ
2 2 4

 Magnitude of A  B | A  B |  (8) 2  (8) 2  (8)2 8 3

Problem 47. In above example a unit vector perpendicular to both A and B will be

1 ˆ ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
(a)  (i  j  k ) (b)  (i  j  k ) (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
3 3

A B 8ˆi  8 ˆj  8 kˆ 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
Solution : (c) nˆ    (i  j  k )
| A B| 8 3 3

1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
There are two unit vectors perpendicular to both A and B they are nˆ   (i  j  k )
3

Problem 48. The vectors from origin to the points A and B are A  3ˆi  6ˆj  2kˆ and B  2ˆi  ˆj  2kˆ
respectively. The area of the triangle OAB be

5 2 3 5
(a) 17 sq.unit (b) 17 sq.unit (c) 17 sq.unit (d) 17 sq.unit
2 5 5 3

Solution : (a) Given OA  a  3ˆi  6 ˆj  2kˆ and OB  b  2ˆi  ˆj  2kˆ

ˆi ˆj kˆ
 (a  b)  3 6 2  (12  2)ˆi  (4  6)ˆj  (3  12)kˆ
2 1 2

 10ˆi  10 ˆj  15 kˆ  | a  b |  10 2  10 2  15 2  425  5 17
 1 5 17
Area of OAB  | ab|  sq.unit.
2 2

Problem 49. The angle between the vectors A and B is  . The value of the triple product A . (B  A ) is

(a) A2B (b) Zero (c) A 2 B sin  (d) A 2 B cos 

Solution : (b) Let A .( B  A)  A . C

Here C  B A Which is perpendicular to both vector A and B  A. C  0

Problem 50. The torque of the force F  (2ˆi  3 ˆj  4 kˆ )N acting at the point r  (3ˆi  2ˆj  3kˆ ) m about the
origin be

(a) 6ˆi  6ˆj  12kˆ (b) 17ˆi  6ˆj  13kˆ (c)  6ˆi  6ˆj  12kˆ (d)  17ˆi  6ˆj  13kˆ

ˆi ˆj kˆ
Solution : (b)  r F  3 2 3
2 3 4

 (2  4 )  (3  3) ˆi  (2  3)  (3  4 )ˆj  (3  3)  (2  2)kˆ  17 ˆi  6 ˆj  13 kˆ

Problem 51. If A  B  C, then which of the following statements is wrong

(a) CA (b) CB (c) C  ( A  B) (d) C  ( A  B)

Solution : (d) From the property of vector product, we notice that C must be perpendicular to the plane
formed by vector A and B . Thus C is perpendicular to both A and B and ( A  B) vector
also must lie in the plane formed by vector A and B . Thus C must be perpendicular to
( A  B) also but the cross product ( A  B) gives a vector C which can not be perpendicular
to itself. Thus the last statement is wrong.

Problem 52. If a particle of mass m is moving with constant velocity v parallel to x-axis in x-y plane as
shown in fig. Its angular momentum with respect to origin at any time t will be

(a) mvb kˆ (b)  mvb kˆ (c) mvb ˆi (d) mv ˆi

y
Solution : (b) We know that, Angular momentum m
v
ˆi ˆj kˆ b
Lr p in terms of component becomes L x y z
px py pz x
O

As motion is in x-y plane (z = 0 and Pz  0 ), so L  k (xp y  yp x )

39
 Here x = vt, y = b, px  m v and py  0

 L  k vt  0  b mv   mvb kˆ

0.19 Lami's Theorem.

180 – 


In any  A B C with sides a, b, c
c b
sin  sin  sin 
    180 – 
a b c
180 –  a
i.e., for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle containing the
side to the length of the side is a constant.

For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we establish the Lami's theorem in the
following manner. For the triangle shown

ab c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] .....(i)

 a  b  c .....(ii)

Pre-multiplying both sides by a

a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c  a  b  c  a .....(iii)

Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b

b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c   a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c .....(iv)

From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a

Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a |

 ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180   )  ca sin(180   )

 ab sin   bc sin   ca sin 

sin  sin  sin 

Dividing through out by abc, we have   
a b c
0.20 Relative Velocity.

(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to
which the given particle is in motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is blowing
or a person is running with a speed v, we mean that these all are relative to the earth (which we have
assumed to be fixed).

Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another moving object, consider a particle
 
P whose position relative to frame S is rPS while relative to S  is rPS  . If the position of frames S 

relative to S at any time is r S S then from fig.
Y
Y P
  
rPS  rPS   rS S
r
PS '
r
PS
Differentiating this equation with respect to time X
S
rS ' S
   X
S
drPS drPS  drS S
 
dt dt dt

    
or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ]

  
or v PS   v PS  v S S


(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P1 moving with velocity v 1 with respect
 
to another particle P2 moving with velocity v 2 is given by, v r = 12

 
v1 – v 2 v1

v2
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then :
P2

 r12  1 –  2 P1

(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction, then :

 r12   1   2

(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually perpendicular directions, then:

 r12   12   22

(iv) If the angle between  1 and  2 be , then  r  12   22 – 21 2 cos  

  1/2
12
.

41
 
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in equatorial plane with velocity v s and

a point on the surface of earth with v e relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite relative to
the surface of earth
  
v se  v s  v e

So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its
velocity relative to earth's surface will be v se  v s  v e

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the motion of earth,
v se  v s  (v e )  v s  v e


(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically with a velocity v R and an observer is

moving horizontally with speed v M
the velocity of rain
  
relative to observer will be v RM  v R  v M  – vM 
vR vR
  – vR 
which by law of vector addition has magnitude vM vM

v RM  v R2  v M
2

direction   tan 1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in fig.


(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim relative to water with velocity v and water
 
is flowing relative to ground with velocity v R velocity of man relative to ground v M will be given by:

     
v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R

So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water, v M  v  v R

And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water, v M  v  v R

(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with velocity  r . A man can swim in still
water with velocity  m . He is standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river Two cases
arise.

(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross the river straight, the man should
swim making angle  with the upstream as shown. 
A v r B

Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which 
       vr
w
OA  v m , AB   r . Their resultant is given by OB   . The 
vm
v



Upstreem O Downstree
m
direction of swimming makes angle  with upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find,

r r
cos   Also sin  
m m

where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the
river.

Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river, then time taken to cross the river will
be given by

w w
t1  
  –  r2
2
m

(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man should swim perpendicular to the bank.

The time taken to cross the river will be:


A vr B
w
t2 
m 
 vr
w vm

In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a

distance AB down stream. This distance will be given by: Upstreem O Downstree
m
w r
AB   r t 2  r or AB  w
m m

SAMPLE PROBLEM BASED ON RELATIVE VELOCITY

Problem 53. Two trains along the same straight rails moving with constant speed 60 km/hr
respectively toward each other. If at time t  0 , the distance between them is 90 km, the
time when they collide is

(a) 1 hr (b) 2 hr (c) 3 hr (d) 4 hr

Solution : (a) The relative velocity v rel.  60  (30 )  90 km / hr.

s rel. 90
Distance between the train s rel.  90 km,  Time when they collide    1 hr.
v rel. 90

Problem 54. Two cars are moving in the same direction with the same speed 30 km/hr. They are
separated by a distance of 5 km, the speed of a car moving in the opposite direction if it
meets these two cars at an interval of 4 minutes, will be

(a) 40 km/hr (b) 45 km/hr (c) 30 km/hr (d) 15 km/hr

43
Solution : (b) The two car (say A and B) are moving with same velocity, the relative velocity of one
(say B) with respect to the other A, v BA  v B  v A  v  v  0

So the relative separation between them (= 5 km) always remains the same.

Now if the velocity of car (say C) moving in opposite direction to A and B, is vC relative
to ground then the velocity of car C relative to A and B will be v rel.  v C  v

But as v is opposite to vC so v rel  v c  (30 )  (v C  30 ) km / hr.

So, the time taken by it to cross the cars A and B

d 4 5
t    v C  45 km / hr.
v rel 60 v C  30

Problem 55. A steam boat goes across a lake and comes back (a) On a quite day when the water is still
and (b) On a rough day when there is uniform current so as to help the journey onward
and to impede the journey back. If the speed of the launch on both days was same, in
which case it will complete the journey in lesser time

(a) Case (a) (b) Case (b)

(c) Same in both (d) Nothing can be predicted

Solution : (b) If the breadth of the lake is l and velocity of boat is vb. Time in going and coming back on
a quite day

l l 2l
tQ    .....(i)
vb vb vb

Now if va is the velocity of air- current then time taken in going across the lake,

l
t1  [as current helps the motion]
vb  va

l
and time taken in coming back t2  [as current opposes the motion]
vb  va

2l
So t R  t1  t 2  .....(ii)
v b [1  (v a / v b ) 2 ]

tR 1 v a2
From equation (i) and (ii)   1 [as 1   1] i.e. t R  tQ
t Q [1  (v a / v b ) 2 ] v b2

i.e. time taken to complete the journey on quite day is lesser than that on rough day.
Problem 56. A man standing on a road hold his umbrella at 30° with the vertical to keep the rain away.
He throws the umbrella and starts running at 10 km/hr. He finds that raindrops are hitting
his head vertically, the speed of raindrops with respect to the road will be

(a) 10 km/hr (b) 20 km/hr (c) 30 km/hr (d) 40 km/hr

Solution : (b) When the man is at rest w.r.t. the ground, the rain comes to him at an angle 30° with the
vertical. This is the direction of the velocity of raindrops with respect to the ground.

Here v rg  velocity of rain with respect to the ground


v mg

v mg  velocity of the man with respect to the ground. 30o



v rg
and v rm  velocity of the rain with respect to the man, v rm

We have v r g  v r m  v mg ......(i)

Taking horizontal components equation (i) gives v r g sin 30  v m g  10 km / hr

10
or vr g   20 km / hr
sin 30 

Problem 57. In the above problem, the speed of raindrops w.r.t. the moving man, will be

(a) 10 / 2 km / h (b) 5 km/h (c) 10 3 km / h (d) 5 / 3 km / h

3
Solution : (c) Taking vertical components equation (i) gives v rg cos 30  v rm  20  10 3 km / hr
2

Problem 58. Two cars are moving in the same direction with a speed of 30 km/h. They are separated
from each other by 5 km. Third car moving in the opposite direction meets the two cars
after an interval of 4 minutes. What is the speed of the third car

(a) 30 km/h (b) 35 km/h (c) 40 km/h (d) 45 km/h

Solution : (d)Let v be the velocity of third car, then relative velocity of third car w.r.t. the either car is

v – (– 30) = (v+30) km/h.

Now ( + 30)  (4/60) = 5  v = 45 km/h

Problem 59. To a person, going eastward in a car with a velocity of 25 km/hr, a train appears to move
towards north with a velocity of 25 3 km/hr. The actual velocity of the train will be

(a) 25 km/hr (b) 50 km/hr (c) 5 km/hr (d) 5 3 km/hr

45
 2
Solution : (a) v T  v TC
2
 v C2 = (25 3)  (25 ) 2 = 1875  625 = 2500 = 25 km/hr

Problem 60. A boat is moving with a velocity 3i + 4j with respect to ground. The water in the river is
moving with a velocity – 3i – 4j with respect to ground. The relative velocity of the boat
with respect to water is

(a) 8j (b) – 6i – 8j (c) 6i +8j (d) 5 2

Solution : (c) Relative velocity = (3i + 4j) – (– 3i – 4j) = 6i + 8j