AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

CONCRETE PAVER BLOCK WITH PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF

CEMENT WITH METAKAOLIN AND FINE AGGREGATE WITH
RED SOIL

REPORT ON PROJECT WORK

Submitted by

AMALA SEBASTIAN (15TA2205)

JASHIR A (15TA2216)
PRAKASH M (15TA2230)
CHITHARTH L (15TD2211)
DEEPAK ADISHANKAR P (15TD2212)

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree

Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Of
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ACHARIYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PUDUCHERRY -605110
APRIL 2019
 ACHARIYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
PUDUCHERRY - 605 110
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
APRIL 2019

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE PAVER BLOCK WITH PARTIAL
REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH METAKAOLIN AND FINE AGGREGATE WITH
RED SOIL bonafide work done by AMALA SEBASTIAN (15TA2205), JASHIR A (15TA2216),
PRAKASH M (15TA2230), CHITHARTH L (15TD2211), DEEPAK ADISHANKAR P
(15TD2212) in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR
OF TECNOLOGY in CIVIL ENGINEERING of the Pondicherry University. The content of this
project work has been submitted for the award of any other degree of this university.

(Mr.T.KARTHIKEYAN)
Assistant Professor (Mr.R.CHANDRASEKARAN)
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Submitted for the University Examination Held on __________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us immense pleasure to acknowledgement the assistance and contribution of great

people to this effort. We find great pleasure in thanking our Managing Director, Dr.J.ARAVINDHAN,
M.E., Ph.D., for all his support and encouragement and providingus with a better environment for
studying as well as to equip our self to learning environment.

It gives us a great delight of pleasure to express our deep and heartfelt thanks to our principal,
Dr.L.RAMACHANDRAN, M.E., Ph.D., for having given us permission to take up this project and
for his kind support.

We wish to extend our sincere gratitude to the Head of the Department of civil Engineering &
Faculty In-charge, Mr.R.CHANDRASEKARAN, M.Sc., M.Tech, Ph.D., Professor who has always
a constant source inspiriting and encouragement to us.

It is with a feeling of great pleasure that I would like to express my most sincere heartfelt gratitude
to my guide, Mr. T.KARTHIKEYAN, M.E, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering for
his encouragement, advice, mentoring and support throughout our project.

It is our profound duty to thank all the teaching and non-teaching staff of the Department of Civil
Engineering for all sorts of help received from them.

Finally, yet importantly, we would like to thank my parents and all the friends for their constant
support and encouragement in bringing out this project successfully in time.
 ABSTRACT

Concrete being the second most used material after water in the world is prone to many damages
due to its low tensile strength. Concrete made with Portland cement has certain characteristics; it is
relatively strong in compression and weak in tension and tends to be brittle. These two weaknesses have
limited its use. The demand for concrete as a construction material has increased due to its durability,
low cost, the growth of world’s population and the rapid development of the construction industry. The
increased use of concrete consequently increases the use of Portland cement and leads to high emissions
and energy consumption.
From our comprehensive literature review we came to a conclusion that metakaolin and red soil
can be replaced in a partial amount up to 15-20% and 20% respectively in order to give the same strength
as conventional concrete. In our research we aim to come up with a correct ratio of replacing metakaolin
and red soil in concrete to achieve optimal level of strength. We conducted Compressive test, flexural
strength test and split tensile strength to find the correct amount of metakaolin and red soil that can be
partially replaced in the preparation of concrete. It has been concluded that the partial replacement of
cement with metakaolin and red soil gives optimum result at 20-5%.

KEYWORDS- Metakaolin, Red soil, compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PG.NO
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General 1
1.1.1 Impact on modern concrete use 2
1.1.1 Paver blocks 3
1.1.2 Advantages of paver blocks 4
1.1.3 Limitation of paver blocks 4
1.1.4 Use of metakaolin and red soil in concrete 4
1.1.5 Production of metakaolin and red soil 5
1.1.6 Utilization of red 7
1.1.7 Demand 7
1.1.8 Problems in disposal of metakaolin and red soil 8
1.1.9 Advantages of metakaolin and red soil 8
1.1.10 Applications of metakaolin 9
1.1.11 Uses of red soil 9
1.2 Objective 10
1.3 Scope 10
1.4 Needs of study 10

CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General 11
2.2.1 Partial replacement of cement mortar by using red
soil and rice husk ash 11
2.2.2 Effects of coal metakaolin on the properties of cement
Sandy soil in its mechanism 11
2.2.3 Durability of properties of self- compacting concrete
Incorporating metakaolin and rice husk 12
2.2.4 An experimental study on enrichment of concrete strength

ii
 By partial replacement of cement by metakaolin and
Replacement of fine aggregate by m-sand 12
2.2.5 Evaluation of the properties of red soil concrete. 13
2.2.6 Effect of mechanical activation of red soil on the strength
strength of geopolymer binder 14
2.2.7 Influence of the organ of metakaolin on pozzolanic reactivity
mortar 14
2.2.8 Effect of partial replacement of crushed fine aggregates with
red soil on chloride of concrete 15
2.2.9 Effect replacement of cement by red soil on the properties
of concrete 15
2.2.10 Performance of metakaolin concrete in bond and tension 16
2.2.11 The compressive strength of one –part alkali activated fly ash
using red soil as alkali supplier 17
2.2.12 Performance enhancement of porous asphalt pavement
using red soil as alternative filler 17
2.2.13 Influence of metakaolin as supplementary cementing
and durability of concrete 18
2.2.14 Effect of red soil on properties of self- compacting mortars 18
2.2.15 Experimental study on utilization of red soil and quarry dust
in cement mortar and concrete 19
2.2.16 Effect of metakaolin on compressive strength of concrete 19
2.2.17 Compressive strength of concrete by partial replacement of
cement with metakaolin 20
2.2.18 Effects of vacuum dehydration on gel structure and properties
based geopolymer 20
2.2.19 Investigation on optimum possibility of replacing cement partially
By red soil in concrete 21
2.2.20 Effects of red soil and alkali activated slag cement on efflorescence
Cement mortar 22
2...2.21 Long term durability properties of concrete modified with metakaolin
and polymer 22
2.2.22 Effect of metakaolin dispersion on fresh and hardened state
Properties of concrete 23

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 2.2.23 Properties of concrete with red soil as partial replacement of
Cement with hydrated lime and super platizers 24
2.2.24 Experimental studies on concrete utilizing red soil as a partial
Replacement of cement 24
2.2.25 Strength properties of metakaolin admixed concrete 24

2.3 Summary of the literature 26

CHAPTER - 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 General 27
3.2 Materials 28
3.3 Cement
3.3.1 Fineness of cement 29
3.3.2 Specific gravity of cement 29
3.3.3 Initial setting Time and final setting time of cement 32
3.4.1 Fine aggregate 36
3.4.1 Specific gravity of fine aggregate 29
3.4.2 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate 35
3.4.3 Water absorption of fine aggregate 36
3.5 Coarse aggregate 37
3.5.1 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate 37
3.5.2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate 38
3.5.3 Water absorption of fine aggregate 39
3.6 Metakaolin 40
3.6.1 High reactivity metakaolin 40
3.6.2 Advantages 40
3.6.3 Specific gravity of metakaolin 40
3.6.4 Initial setting and final setting time of metakaolin 40
3.7 Red soil 41
3.7.1 Specific gravity of red mud 42
3.7.2 Water absorption 42

iv
3.8 Test on concrete
3.8.2 Compressive test 43
3.8.3 Flexural strength of concrete 45
3.8.4 Split tensile strength of concrete 47

CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 GENERAL 52
4.2 PRILINIMARY TEST RESULTS 52
4.2.1 Cement test 52
4.2.2 Fine aggregate test 53
4.2.3 Coarse aggregate test 53
4.2.4 Metakaolin test 54
4.2.5 Red soil 54
4.3 Results for compressive strength 55
4.4 Results for flexural strength 59
4.5 Results for split tensile strength 62

CHAPTER- V
CONCLUSION 68

APPENDIX - I 69

REFERENCE 78

v
 LIST OF TABLES

TITLE PG.NO.
1.1.6 Chemical composition of metakaolin 6
1.1.7 Chemical composition of red soil 7
1.1.7 Utilization of red soil 7
3.1.1 Details of specimen 51
4.2.1 Physical properties of cement 52
4.3.1 Properties of fine aggregate 53
4.4.1 Properties of coarse aggregate 54
4.5.1 Properties of metakaolin 54
4.6.1 Properties of red soil 54
4.7.1 (a) Compressive strength of paver blocks 55
4.7.1 (b) Compressive strength of paver blocks 55
4.8.1 (a) Flexural strength of paver blocks 59
4.8.1 (b) Flexural strength of paver blocks 59
4.9.1 (a) Split tensile strength of paver blocks 62
4.9.1 (b) Split tensile strength of paver blocks 62

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES
TITLE PG. NO.
1.1.2 Paver blocks 03
3.2 Methodology of flowchart 27
3.2.1 Cement 28
3.2.2 Le chatelier’s flask 30
3.2.3 Vicar’s Apparatus 31
3.2.4 Fineness 32
3.4 .1 Specific gravity of fine aggregate 33
3.4.2 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate 33
3.5.1 Coarse aggregate 37
3.5.2 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate 37
3.6 .1 Metakaolin 39
3.7.1 Red soil 42
3.8.2 Compressive test 44
3.8.3 Flexural strength of concrete 45
3.8.4 Split tensile strength of concrete 46
4.7.1 (a) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days 58
4.7.1 (b) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days 58
4.7.1 (c) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days 59
4.7.1 (d) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days 59
4.7.1 (e) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days 60
4.8.1 (a) Flexural strength of paver blocks for 15 days 61
4.8.1 (b) Flexural strength of paver blocks for 15 days 61
4.8.1 (c) Flexural strength of paver blocks for 15 days 62
4.9.1 (a) Graph for split tensile strength 64
4.9.1 (b) Graph for split tensile strength 64
4.9.1 (c) Graph for split tensile strength 65
A1 Compaction by tamping rod 73
A2 Casted paver blocks 73
A3 Testing of compressive strength of paver block 74

vii
A4 Testing of compressive strength of paver block 74
A5 Testing of flexural strength 75
A6 Compressive testing machine 75
A7 Testing of flexural strength 76
A8 Testing of split tensile strength 76
A9 Casted paver blocks 77
A10 Mixing of concrete 77

viii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

f'ck = target average compressive strength at 28 days 70

fck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days 70

s = standard deviation 70

V = absolute volume of fresh concrete 71

W = Mass of water (kg) per m3 of concrete 71

C = Mass of cement (kg) per m3 of concrete 71

Sc = Specific gravity of cement 71

P = Ratio of FA to total aggregate by absolute volume 71

fa, Ca = Total masses of FA and CA (kg) per m3 of concrete respectively and 71

Sfa, Sca = Specific gravities of saturated, surface dry fine aggregate and coarse

aggregate 71

P = Ratio of FA to total aggregate by absolute volume 71

fa, Ca = Total masses of FA and CA (kg) per m3 of concrete respectively 72

ix
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Cement in general sense of world can be described as the material with an adhesive and
cohesive properties which make it capable bonding mineral fragments in to a compact mass. For
constructional purposes meaning of the term cement is restricted to bonding material used with stones,
bricks, blocks etc… Cement is the most important material in structural construction at it is used at
different stages of construction in form of concrete block and concrete. When these ingredients are
mixed together, they from a solid mass. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest
of the materials together into durable. In this chapter, an attempt where made to use the metakaolin and
red mud as a partial replacement of cement. In the last decade production of aluminium in spite of some
stagnancy and set back periods have shown a study rise of about one percentage. The ecological
consequences of aluminium production are well known. Threatening of surface and underground water
and air pollution by waste gasses from aluminium electrolysis plant and rolling mills. The degree of
damage inflicted to ground water and air during the single production stages from bauxite to aluminium
depends on couple of tact of which those connected with alumina winning and red mud disposal.

1.1.1 IMPACT ON MODERN CONCRETE USE

Concrete is widely used for making architectural structures, foundations, brick/block walls,
pavements, bridges/overpasses, highways, runways, parking structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, pipes,
footings for gates, fences and poles and even boats. Concrete is used in large quantities almost
everywhere mankind has a need for infrastructure. The amount of concrete used worldwide, ton for ton,
is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined. Concrete's use in the modern world is
exceeded only by that of naturally occurring water. Concrete is also the basis of a large commercial
industry. Globally, the ready-mix concrete industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is
projected to exceed $100 billion in revenue by 2015. In the United States alone, concrete production is
a $30-billion-per-year industry, considering only the value of the ready-mixed concrete sold each year.
Given the size of the concrete industry, and the fundamental way concrete is used to shape the
infrastructure of the modern world, it is difficult to overstate the role this material plays today. In
modern times, researchers have experimented with the addition of other materials, like metakaolin and
red mud are used for concrete production.

Concrete is a mix of cement, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stone),
and water. Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. Concretes are similar
in composition to mortars which are used to bond unit masonry. Mortars, however, are normally made
with sand as the sole aggregate, whereas concretes contain both fine aggregates and much larger size

1
aggregates and thus usually have greater strength. Concretes therefore have a much wider range of
structural applications, including pavements, footings, pipes, unit masonry, floor slabs, beams, columns,
walls, dams, and tanks. There are many different types of concrete. Important properties of concrete,
governing design of a concrete mix, are strength, durability, workability, economy. Durability of
concrete means capability of concrete to resist its disintegration and decay. Workability is a measure of
the ease with which a fresh mix of concrete or mortar can be mixed, subsequently handled, transported,
placed, and finished with a minimum loss of homogeneity and without bleeding or segregation in the
finished product. It depends on water in the mix, ratio of coarse and fine aggregates, particle interference
and interlocking etc. Mixing of concrete can be done by hand mixing or machine mixing. Concrete
should be thoroughly compacted during the operation of placing and should be properly placed around
reinforcement. Concrete may be compacted manually by rodding, tamping, and sometimes Internal or
immersion vibratos, external or form vibrator, surface vibrator can be used for compaction purpose.
Concrete should be properly cured for gaining its strength and hardness.

In good concrete the ingredients must be of right proportioned, cohesive enough to be

transported, placed in such a way that ingredients must not segregated from each other. Moreover the
good concrete must be workable and can be compacted. In mixing of fresh concrete and in curing of
hardened concrete water is necessary. Potable water, fit for human consumption, is generally considered
to be suitable for concreting. Concrete must be workable in fresh state, and must have permeability and
durability in hardened state.

Grade of concrete is represented in terms of a number preceded by the letter ‘M’. M refers to
“mix” viz. aggregate, sand, cement. And The number denotes characteristic compressive strength of
150mm cubes at 28 days in MPA (N/mm^2).The “mix” for a specified grade involves the economical
selection of relative proportion of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water(admixture, if
any).To modify property of concrete some chemical & mineral admixture are used. Chemical
admixtures are – retarders, accelerators (such as calcium chloride, used in cold weather) water-reducers,
superplastcizers, air-entraining agents (such as animal/vegetable fats & oils), bonding admixtures.
Mineral admixtures i.e. very fine-grained inorganic materials having pozzolanic or latent hydraulic
properties are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete. Some mineral admixtures
are Fly ash, Silica fume, Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS), High reactivity
Metakaolin (HRM) etc.

1.1.2 PAVER BLOCKS

Block paving also known as brick paving is a commonly used decorative method of creating a
pavement or hard standing. The main benefit of bricks over other materials is that individual bricks can
later be lifted up and replaced. This allows for remedial work to be carried out under the surface of the
paving without leaving a lasting mark once the paving bricks have been replaced. Typical areas of use

2
would be for driveways, pavement, patios, town centres, and precincts and more commonly in road
surfacing. Pavers manufactured from concrete go well with flag, brick and concrete walkways or patios.
If you reside in climates wherever winter temperatures dip below zero, concrete pavers are an honest
selection. They are ready to stoppage well in extreme temperatures. Opt for pavers in shades like ochre,
pink, bisque, white or sand. Pavers are available in whole, x-shape, y-shape, pentagon, polygon and fan
styles.

Concrete paver blocks were first introduced in Holland in the fifties as replacement of paver
bricks which had become scarce due to the post-war building construction boom. These blocks were
rectangular in shape and had more or less the same size as the bricks. During the past five decades, the
block shape has steadily evolved from non-interlocking to partially interlocking to fully interlocking to
multiply interlocking shapes. Consequently, the pavements in which non-interlocking blocks are used
are designated as Concrete Block Pavement (CBP) or non-interlocking CBP, and those in which
partially, fully or multiply interlocking blocks are used are designated as 'Interlocking Concrete Block
Pavement (ICBP).The block joints are filled using suitable fine material. A properly designed and
constructed CBP/ICBP gives excellent performance when applied at locations where conventional
systems have lower service life due to a number of geological, traffic, environmental and operational
constraints. Many number of such applications for light, medium, heavy and very heavy traffic
conditions are currently in practice around the world.

FIGURE 1.1.2: PAVER BLOCK

3
1.1.3 ADVANTAGES OF PAVER BLOCKS

1. There is a wide range of styles, types, colours and sizes of block pavers hence there are also
many design possibilities.
2. Block paving is considered to be more attractive than basic, plain tarmacadam surfaces for
driveways.
3. No specialist machinery is required (as there is with tarmacadam surfaces) hence small areas
should not be proportionately more expensive per square metre, as when there are high set-up
costs.
4. Concrete block paving is cost effective when compared to clay pavers or natural stone blocks
such as granite setts.

1.1.4 LIMITATION 0F PAVER BLOCKS.

1. Concrete block paving is cost effective when compared to clay pavers or natural stone blocks
such as granite setts.
2. Concrete block paving is cost effective when compared to clay pavers or natural stone blocks
such as granite setts.
3. Concrete block paving is cost effective when compared to clay pavers or natural stone blocks
such as granite setts.

1.1.5 USE OF METAKAOLIN AND RED SOIL IN CONCRETE

The use of pozzolanic for making concrete is considered efficient, as it allows the reduction of
the cement consumption while improving the strength and durability properties of the concrete.
Metakaolin when used as partial replacement substance for cement in concrete, it reacts with CA(OH)2
one of the by-products of hydration reaction of cement and results in additional C-S-H gel which results
in increased strength. Metakaolin is obtained by thermal activation of kaolin clay. This activation will
cause a substantial loss of water in its constitution causing a rearrangement of its structure. To obtain
an adequate thermal activation, the temperature range should be established between 600 to
750ºC.Metakaolin is used in oil well cementing to improve the compressive and flexural strength of the
hardened cement. Metakaolin also reduces the hardened cement permeability to liquids and gases.
Hence by partially replacing Portland cement with Metakaolin not only reduces carbon dioxide
emissions but also increases the service life of buildings.

Red soil is a solid waste residue of the digestion of bauxite ores with caustic soda for alumina
production. Its disposal remains a worldwide issue in terms of environmental concerns. During the past
decades, extensive work has been done by a lot of researchers to develop various economic ways for

4
the utilization of red soil. One of the economic ways is using red soil in cement production, which is
also an efficient method for large-scale recycling of red soil. Disposal of large quantities of red soil, a
solid waste generated at aluminium plants all over the world, poses increasing problem of storage, land
cost and pollution. The economic utilization of red soil has evaded practical solutions because of its
complex physico -chemical properties. This paper examines the effect of neutralization with
hydrochloric acid on the flocculation and settling rate of red soil. The properties of ordinary Portland
cement replaced by equal weight of neutralized red soil in proportions ranging from 0 to 15 percent
were studied. The strength characteristics of concrete using cement-red-soil mixtures are also presented.

In the present work, it is aimed at developing a new building material from, red soil an industrial
waste as a replacement material of fine aggregate in concrete. By doing so, the objective of reduction
of cost of construction can be met and it will help to overcome the problem associated with its disposal
including the environmental problems of the region. Substitutions of alternate materials can result in
changes in the performance characteristics that may be acceptable for high performance concrete. Use
of chemical admixtures usually super plasticiser reduces the water content, thereby reducing the
porosity within the hydrated cement paste (Bharatkumar et al., 2001). Silica fume, fly ash and blast
furnace slag are generally called as mineral admixtures and called as cement replacement materials.
These are pozzolanic in character and develop cementing properties in a similar way as normal Portland
cement when they come in contact with free lime. Use of these materials individually or in combination
with cement and proper dosage of super plasticiser improves the strength and durability of products.
The admixtures can be added to cement concrete as a partial replacement of cement along with super
plasticiser as a water reducer to get the high performance.

The red soil has good reactivity when used as a partial substitute for cement. These are
prominent in countries where the production is abundant. The properly red soil are found to be active
within the cement paste. So, the use and practical application of red soil is used for application of
concrete.

1.1.6 PRODUCTION OF METAKAOLIN AND RED SOIL

Metakaolin is the anhydrous claimed form of the clay mineral kaolinite. Minerals that are rich
in kaolinite are knows as china clay or kaolin, traditionally used in manufacture of porcelain. The
particle seize of metkaolin is smaller than cement particle but not as fine as silica fume. The reactivity
of met kaolin is based on chemical composition and reactive surface. Highly reactive met kaolin has
become available as a considerably reactive pozzolanic material in concrete.

A process for producing high grade metakaolin directly from kaolinzed sands ore body. In one
embodiment, a source of kaolin ore is reduced in the size to a size distribution of between −2 inches
and 10 mesh.

5
 The ore is then dried in a dryer at a temperature of not greater than 180° C to a moisture content
of not greater than 0.5% by weight to liberate kaolin and calcined at a temperature of not greater than
875° C. to produce metakaolin. The production of high grade kaolin contains a number of steps and
these lead to complex and expensive processes to obtain good quality kaolin necessary as a feedstock
to produce metakaolin.

The properties of concrete hardened concrete containing metakaolin are:

i) Strength development of concrete made with highly reactive metakaolin.

ii) Drying shrinkage of metakaolin concrete.

Chemical composition Percentage (%)

Sio2 54.3
Al2o3 38.3
Fe2o3 4.28
Cao 0.39
Mg0 0.08
Na2o 0.12
K2O 0.50

Table 1- Chemical composition of metakaolin

Metakaolin in concrete tend to reduce the size of pores which consequently lead to obtain more
strength, higher density, and more resistance to acid. Furthermore, metakaolin improves concrete
resistance to alkali silicate reactions and sulphate attack.

Red soil is the iron ore residue from the digestion of bauxite. It is one of the major by product
coming from Bayer process of alumina production. In general, about 2-4 tons of bauxite required for
production of each ton of alumina Al2o3 and about one ton is generated. Since the red soil is generated
in bulk it has to be stored in large confined and impervious ponds, therefore the bauxite refining is
gradually encircled by the storage ponds. At present about 60 million tons of red mud is generated
annually worldwide which is not being disposed or recycled satisfactorily.

There are over 60 manufacturing operations across the world using the Bayer process to make
aluminium from bauxite ore. Bauxite ore is mined, normally in open cast mines, and transferred to an
alumina refinery for processing. To extract the alumina, the soluble part of the bauxite ore is dissolved
using sodium hydroxide under conditions of high temperature and pressure. The insoluble part of the
bauxite (the residue) is removed, giving rise to a solution of sodium aluminate, which is then seeded
and allowed to cool and aluminium hydroxide precipitates from the solution. Though some of the

6
aluminium hydroxide is then returned and used to seed the next batch, the remainder is calcined (heated)
at over 1000 °C in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to produce aluminium oxide (alumina). The
alumina content of the bauxite used is normally about 50% but ores with a much wider range of
alumina contents can be used; the aluminium compound may be present as gibbsite (Al (OH) 3),
boehmite (AlOOH) or diaspora (AlOOH). The tailings/residue invariably has a high concentration of
iron oxide which gives the product a characteristic red colour.

Component Weight (%)

Al2O3 20-22
Sio2 12-15
Fe2O3 40-45
Tio2 1.8-2.0
Cao2 1.0-2.0
Na2o 4.0 -5.0

Table 2- Composition of Red soil

1.1.7 UTILIZATION OF RED SOIL

As to the utilization of red soil, alumina companies have been carrying out many technical
researches on production of construction material, especially cement production, glass production and
production of road base. And they have made some progress, especially in the production of cement
using red mud.

1.1.8 DEMAND

World cement demand at a glance (million metric tons).

ANNUAL
ITEM 2010 2015 2016 GROWTH
05/00 10/05
Cement demand 1630.0 2250.0 2830.0 6.7 4.7
North America 149.6 170.0 196.0 2.6 2.9
Western 208.5 233.0 233.0 1.1 2.2
Asia/pacific 954.5 1470.0 9.0 9.0 5.2
Other region 328.2 401.5 4.1 4.1 4.7

Table 3- World Cement Demand

7
1.1.9 PROBLEMS IN DISPOSAL OF METAKAOLIN AND RED SOIL

The metakaolin waste generated by the industry has accumulated over years, and it has been
dumped unscrupulously resulting in environmental problem This is due to the enormous increase in the
quantity of disposable materials, the continuing storage of dumping sites, increase in the cost of
transportation and its disposal. The rate of waste generation in developed countries is so high that
the conventional ways of recycling the waste, i.e., sub base filling, land reclamation, etc., are not
sufficient to tackle the problem of waste disposal As it is a fine material, it will be easily carried away
by the air and will cause nuisance causing health problems and environmental pollution. The major
effect of air pollution are lung diseases, inhaling problems, the people who are living in and around are
suffering from these problems. The waste disposal problem is becoming serious.

A major problem of pollution from Aluminium industry begins with the Bayer process of
refining of Bauxite to produce Alumina. The slurry insoluble waste produced during the Bayer process
is referred as Red soil. The disposal of red soil remains an environmental concern all around in the
alumina- aluminium producing countries. Its disposal is a major problem for these industries as this is
highly caustic and causes ground water contamination, leading to health hazards.

1.1.10 ADVANTAGES OF METAKAOLIN AND RED SOIL

The following properties of the concrete are altered with the addition of metakaolin:

1. Increased compressive and flexural strengths.

2. Reduced potential for efflorescence, which occurs when calcium is transported by water to the
surface where it combines with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make calcium
carbonate, which precipitates on the surface as a white residue.
3. Enhanced workability and finishing of concrete.
4. Improved colour by lightening the colour of concrete making it possible to tint lighter integral
colour.

The following properties of the concrete are altered with the addition of red mud:

1. Cement manufacture, use in concrete as a supplementary cementations material.

2. The increasing concern for the environment is a promising factor for a higher activity in the
field and a revaluation of the economic aspects.
3. Raw material recovery of specific components present in the tailings/residue: iron, titanium,
steel and REE (rare-earth element) s production.
4. Use of the bauxite residue as a component in building or construction materials.

8
1.1.11 APPLICATIONS OF METAKAOLIN

The metakaolin is a supplementary material that has applications in small to large scale. It can
be used for waterproofing. It is also used as the admixture for concrete.

The main applications of rice husk ash in the construction are:

1. High performance, high strength, and lightweight concrete

2. Precast and poured-mould concrete.
3. Fibres cement and Ferro -cement products.
4. Mortar and stucco.
5. Glass fibre reinforced concrete.

1.1.12 USES OF RED SOIL

1. Red soil generated by aluminium industries can be used for low cost building materials.
2. It can replace a part of clay in brick manufacture.
3. Mixture of red mud and ash is used as fertiliser to improve the productivity of land.
4. Ceramics products are also attractive proposition from red mud but at a present is not a
visible proposition.

9
1.2 OBJECTIVE:

Objective of the project are as follows:

1. The use of industrial by product in place of conventional raw material will help to decrease the
environmental pollution and also conserve our natural resources.
2. The development of alternative low- cost and ecologically suitable building material from the
agricultural and industrial by product is an economic necessity.
3. To study the production technique of alkali -activated metakaolin aggregate.
4. An investigation will be carried out to establish its application potential as a natural yellow sand
replacement material in concrete.
5. To identify various industrial by product suitable for utilization in cement manufacture.
6. Properties of fresh concrete containing red soil up to 100%by mass of fine aggregate,
mechanical and durability properties will be determined.

1.3 SCOPE:

1. To utilize metakaolin in an effective environment friendly manner.

2. There is a scope for further research to develop self-compacting concrete using industrial
wastes and by products and high volume ultrafine flash with super pozzolona.
3. Study on china clay (porcelain) waste can open new horizons in use of use of blended
cement.
4. The increasing concern of the environment is a promising factor for a highly activity in the
field and a re-evaluation of the economical aspect.
1.4 NEEDS OF STUDY:
1. To increase strength and durability of concrete.
2. Eco friendly by reducing amount of co2 emission.
3. To increase resistance of concrete to chemicals.

10
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

Literature Review is the collection of various journal papers collected as a reference in order to
complete the project. These journal papers give us the idea of how pervious concrete is made and the
tests are conducted.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT MORTAR BY USING RED

SOILAND RICE HUSK

Kedar S. Shingle, Bhagyashree B. Warad , et.al.,(2015) had done experimental study

on two industrial waste materials that is residual waste called as red soil which is from aluminium
industry and other is rice husk ash from the paddy have been considered for cement replacement in
mortar. Red soil, as a solid waste, is disposed in lakes in the forms of stack in ponds as dry mud or
directly discharged into the water bodies through pipelines. The rice husk ash contains 9295% silica.
Based on test, W/C ratios used are 0.34, 0.36, 0.38 and 0.39 for 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% red soil
replacement against cement and 0.33, 0.37, 0.39 and 0.41 for 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% rice husk ash
replacement against cement. Cubes of size 70.7 mm X 70.7 mm X 70.7 mm have been prepared
compression test and for flexural test, small beams of 300 mm length and 25 mm in width and depth
have been prepared. Briquette moulds are used for samples preparation for tensile test. However, from
compressive strength point of view, rice husk ash is best alternative materials for replacement of cement
in mortar and can be used up to 10% to 15 %. Moreover, tensile and flexural strength reduced to some
extent even for 5% rice husk quantity.

2.2.2 EFFECTS OF COAL METAKAOLIN ON THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENTED

SANDY SOIL IN ITS MECHANISM

Wang Lina, Li xiangyu, Cheng Yin, et.al. (2018) Cemented soil has been accepted
worldwide as a soil improvement technology has uses cement to stabilize soils. It has been proved that
the technology is highly advantages because of the high rate of soil, low cost, convenient
construction, and flexible reinforcing forms. In this study, effect of coal metakaolin and
microstructural properties of cemented study soil were investigated. The mechanical properties were
evaluated by unconfined strength and stress strain relationship.BY incorporating CMK ,28d UCS was
improved by 1.68-2.18 times , the ultimate strain reduced to 1.63 -1.73%. Therefore this paper
summarizes the UCS results show that the incorporating of CMK had a significant reinforcing effect

11
on the UCS of cemented sandy soils for both early and final strength .There is an optimal CMK
content to partially replace cement. When the mass ratio between CMK and cement was 1:4, the
strength of the cemented sandy soil was high. The optimized UCS was 2.01, 2.18 and 1.69 times the
UCS of control sample at 7d, 28d, and 90d respectively.

2.2.3 DURABILITY OF PROPERTIES OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

INCORPORATING METAKAOLIN AND RICE HUSK ASH
Anhad Singh Gill, Raft Siddique, et.al., (2018) concrete is used in every construction work
and thus too from past so many years .This paper put forward the durability and micro-structural
properties of self- compacting concrete (SCC) made up of metakaolin (MK) and rice husk ash (RHA).
For this purpose, metakaolin (MK) was used to replace cement by weight in three different proportions
of 5, 10 and 15% and fine aggregates were replaced by rice husk ash (RHA) in proportion of 10%. A
total of four mixes, including the control mix, were designed. XRD and SEM analysis shows dense
structure for mix made with MK and RHA .Also analysis indicates towards the formation of more CSE
gel for all mixes. Slump flow, L-box, U-box, and V-funnel tests were conducted in concrete’s fresh
state. Testing of specimen in hardened state was done at age of 7, 28, 90 and 365 days and was tested
for compressive strength and durability properties such as water absorption, porosity, sulphate
resistance and RCPT. Further SEM & XRD tests were also conducted. All the mixes passed all plastic
stage tests of SCC. Furthermore hardened stage tests results were also positive. Durability properties
showed significance improvement with the use of MK and RHA. Micro-structural analysis further
confirmed the positive trend of result .A small increase in the water demand was observed with addition
MK and RHA content. Both MK and RHA affected workability but which can be improved by
increasing the slight dose of water reducing admixture. For water absorption and porosity there was
approximately 45% decrease in porosity and RHA proves to be beneficial for control mix. The use of
MK and RHA positively affected the compressive strength increasing it by 27%, 42%, and 48%at 28,
90, and 365 days respectively in relation to control mix. Use of MK and RHA in SCC proves to be
beneficial.

2.2.4 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON ENRICHMENT OF CONCRETE

STRENGTH BY PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT BY METAKAOLIN AND
REPLACEMENT OF FINE AGGREGATES BY MANUFACTURED SAND

MV.Manu Vijay, MV. Srivathsa, et.al, (2017) Concrete is the most commonly used
construction material in the world. It is basically composed of two components paste and aggregate.
The paste contains cement and water and sometimes other cementations and chemical admixtures,
whereas the aggregate contains sand and gravel or crushed stone. Manufactured sand is the quarry dust
or the crushed granite stone that is sieved and made to suite particle size of natural sand so as to be used
as fine aggregate. In the present investigation an attempt has been made to study strength characteristics

12
of M30 Grade concrete mixes with the partial replacement of cement by Metakaolin and fully
replacement of Fine aggregate by M sand. Further the replacement of Metakaolin ranging from 5-25%
by weight of cement and resulting compressive strength for M30 grade concrete using M sand was
found out to be marginally 6% - 9% higher when compared to the concrete with river sand. This report
analysis the effect of metakaolin in concrete by partial replacement of cement with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,
20% and 25% by weight. The experimental study examines the compressive strength and split tensile
strength at 7, 14 and 28 days. At the Partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement by Metakaolin
results in a better compressive strength. The compressive strength results of the concrete have revealed
that the concrete with 15% cement replacement by Metakaolin have shown a compressive strength
improvement at 28 days over the control concrete with the 100% Ordinary Portland Cement. Partial
replacement of cement by Metakaolin increases workability of fresh concrete; Further the replacement
of Metakaolin ranging from 5-25% by weight of cement and resulting compressive strength for M30
grade concrete using M sand was found out to be marginally 6% - 9% higher when compared to the
concrete with river sand.

2.2.5 EVALUATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF RED SOIL CONCRETE

Ramesh Rather, D. Memade, et.al, (2017) Red mud is a waste material generated by the
Bayer Process widely used to produce alumina from bauxite throughout the world. The aim of the
present research work was to investigate the possibility of replacing the Portland cement by red soil.
Because of storing issues, the waste negatively affects the environment. To solve this problem, Portland
cement was replaced up to 40 % RM by weight of cement. And evaluating its compressive and splitting
tensile strength of red mud concrete. This study examines the effects of red soil on the properties of
hardened concrete. In the Bayer process, the insoluble product generated after bauxite digestion with
sodium hydroxide at elevated temperature and pressure to produce alumina is known as red soil or
bauxite residue. The waste product derives its colour and name from its iron oxide content. As the
bauxite has been subjected to sodium hydroxide treatment, the red soil is highly caustic with a pH in
the range of 10.5-12.5. Bauxite posing a very serious and alarming environmental problem. Its PH is
varies in between 10.5 to 12, hence alkaline in nature. Specific gravity of red soil is found to be 2.51.
Ground water pollution-when the red soil gets mix with water. Alkali seepage in to underground water-
Underground water resources such as wells, aquifer may get polluted. Impact on plant life-Alkaline air
born dust fly with air and effects on transpiration process of plant Result in reduction of plant life. The
test results show that how its compressive strength & splitting tensile strength decreases with increase
red mud content, it is concluded that Optimum percentage of the replacement of cement by weight is
found to be 25%.By this percentage replacement we can have strength is equal to the strength of
controlled concrete. Concrete Cylinders of diam. 100mm and 200mm in length were casted by
replacing cement using red mud in varying percentages 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%. These

13
cylinders were water cured for 28days and tested. Workability of concrete may get affected with
increase of red soil but it can be improved by adding superplastcizers. It is concluded that Optimum
percentage of the replacement of cement by weight is found to be 25%.By this percentage replacement
we can have strength is equal to the strength of controlled concrete.

2.2.6 EFFECT OF MECHANICAL ACTIVATION OF RED SOIL ON THE

STRENGTH OF GEOPOLYMER BINDER

Smith Singh, R.VRanganath, et.al. (2017) The growing interest in utilization of industrial
waste and green construction has motivated the present work. Red soil is an industrial waste produced
in the process of extraction of aluminium from bauxite by Bayer's process. The paper presents the
studies conducted to assess the influence of mechanical activation of red soil and curing methods on
the strength of red mud-fly ash geopolymer paste. Utilized industrial waste like red soil, fly ash, slag
and micro silica to produce alkali activated binders Red mud was used in both unprocessed and
pulverised form and the alkali activated paste samples were cured thermally as well as in ambient
condition.

The percentage red soil varied from 0 to 90% and alkalinity from 6 M to 12 M NAOH solution.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) was carried out to identify the mineral phases in pulverised and unprocessed
red mud. SAED (selective area diffraction diagram) test was done on the red soil, along with SEM
(scanning electron microscopy), TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and HRTEM analysis (high
resolution transmission electron microscopy) to study the effect of mechanical activation and validate
the experimental findings. Mechanical activation increased the reactivity of silica and the hematite
phase of red mud as reflected in the silica reactivity and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
test results. Use of pulverized red soil enhanced the mechanical properties of ambient cured paste and
the specimen possessed maximum 7 day compressive strength of 40 MPA at 6 M alkalinity with 30%
mechanically activated red mud content. Red soil was used in both unprocessed and pulverised form
and the alkali activated paste samples were cured thermally as well as in ambient condition.

2.2.7 INFLUENCE THE ORGIN OF METAKAOLIN ON POZZOLANIC

REACTIVITY OF MORTARS

Kamal Adelphi, Mahmoud Tahiti, et.al. (2017) Cement is one of the main sources of
environmental impacts of concrete use. It is thus recognized that the most pragmatic solution for
minimizing environmental impacts of concrete is the reduction of the cement content. Supplementary
cementing materials (SCM) have become an integral part of high strength and high performance
concrete mix design. This could be achieved by replacing a part of cement with mineral additions such
as fly ash, blast-furnace slag or metakaolin (MK) during concrete mixing. In recent years, the
incorporation of MK in building materials is growing. Metakaolin (Al2Si2O2) is a material obtained by

14
calcination of kaolinite by 500 degree Celsius and 800 degree Celsius in this study Three MK issued
from three different regions in Algeria were tested. The regions are, Jamel, Gleam and Bashar. This
study aims to investigate the effects of the origin of MK blended at early age. The chemical and
metallurgies analysis (XRD, BET, SSB and SEM) show a difference in their met kaolinite content. One
mortar prepared with 15% substitution rates of cement with different MK. The early-age reactivity of
metakaolin-blended cement mortar was investigated. Isothermal calorimetric and compressive strength
tests were performed. The hydration rate and the evolution of CA (OH) 2 content of mortars were
monitored using thermo gravimetric analysis (ATG). The early age reactivity of the three MKs is very
different. It is being used very commonly as pozzolanic material in mortar and concrete, and has
exhibited considerable influence in enhancing the mechanical and durability properties of mortar and
concrete. This paper presents an overview of the work carried out on the use of MK as partial
replacement of cement in mortar and concrete. Properties reported in this paper are the fresh
mortar/concrete properties, mechanical and durability property. It is being used very commonly as
pozzolanic material in mortar and concrete, and has exhibited considerable influence in enhancing the
mechanical and durability properties of mortar and concrete.

2.2.8 EFFECT OF PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CRUSHED FINE AGGREGATES

WITH RED SOIL ON CHLORIDE PENETRATION OF CONCRETE

MP Dismuke D.D Strode, et.al, (2014) Consumption of concrete, mortar and other cement
based composites is over 20 billion tonnes per annum, globally. Natural sand/crushed fine aggregates
(CFA) are important ingredients of concrete. Aggregates contributes 60% to 80% of the total concrete
volume. The available sources of natural sand are getting exhausted because of excessive sand mining.
Bulk utilisation of crushed fine aggregates is causing a great ecological imbalance of natural system.
Hence there is an urgent need to explore a substitute material for fine aggregates in concrete. An
inventory of about 3 billion tonnes of red soil (bauxite residue) is awaiting in stock-pilling yards for its
utilization and 120 million tonnes of red mud is added every year in it. This high alkaline red soil
generated during the production of alumina is posing a serious threat to the environment. An attempt
is made here to substitute fine aggregate in concrete with raw red soil. For this, an experimental study
is carried out by casting concrete cube moulds for 0 %( control mix), 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% replacement
of crushed fine aggregates with red soil. Concrete cubes are then tested for compressive and tensile
strength. Rapid chloride permeability tests (RCPT) are also carried out to determine the effect of
addition of red soil on durability of concrete. It is observed that addition of red mud imparts better
resistance to chloride penetration. Thus, Conservation of crushed fine aggregates is achieved and a
better durable and economical concrete can be produced for sustainable developments and clean
technology. It has been observed that replacement of CFA in concrete with red mud in the range of 10-
20 % does not have significant effect reduction of concrete strength. The compressive strength

15
reduction is less than 20% as compared to control mix. Thus replacement of crushed fine aggregate
with red soil from 5-20 % of the total CFA content in concrete gives better resistance to chloride
penetration.

2.2.9 EFFECT REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT BY RED SOIL ON THE

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Suita, M. Punjab, DR. K.B. Prakash, et.al . (2014) Rapid industrialization leads to the
maximum discharge of waste products which in turn causes the environmental hazards. These wastes
can be a substitute for conventional material, when utilized in a best way. Red soil is a waste generated
by the aluminium industry (an average of 4 million tons/year) in a Bayer’s process and their disposal is
a major problem for these industries because of the complex physic-chemical properties of waste
products which are highly caustic and causes ground water contamination, leading to health hazards.
One main objective of this work is to study the effects of red soil on properties of concrete of M30
grade. The red soil percentage for replacement of cement is varied as 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%,
14%, 16%, 18% & 20%. Workability of concrete is higher at a cement re- placement level of 8% by
washed red mud. Be- yond this replacement level workability decrease- as drastically. The compressive
strength of cubes are having the strength for various curing as follows; for 7 days curing the strength
occur 18.66 MP , for days of curing the strength occur 30 MP and for 28 days of curing the strength
occur 38 MP. Thus for the first set of special concrete (replacing the cement for 30%), the strength
obtained is little higher than the conventional concrete. For the second set of special concrete (replacing
the cement for 40%), the strength obtained is higher than the conventional concrete strength. For the
third set of special concrete (replacing the cement for 50%), it gives greater than the conventional
concrete.

2.2.10 PERFORMANCE OF METAKAOLIN CONCRETE IN BOND AND TENSION

Vipat AR , Kulkarni PM ,et.al., (2016) Bond performance of reinforced concrete is of

prime importance in the study of load transfer mechanism from concrete to inner reinforcing bar and
vice versa .Interaction between concrete and reinforcing bar is due to chemical adhesion, friction,
mechanical interlock and shear along cylindrical concrete surface between adjacent ribs. This paper
presents the results of an experimental investigations carried out to find the suitability of metakaolin in
production of concrete. In the present work, the results of a study carried out to investigate the effects
of Metakaolin on strength of concrete are presented. The referral concrete M30 was made using 53
grade OPC and the other mixes were prepared by replacing part of OPC with Metakaolin. The
replacement levels were 5%, 10%, 15% up to 20 %( by weight) for Metakaolin. The various results
which indicate the effect of replacement of cement by metakaolin on concrete are presented in this paper
to draw useful conclusions. The results were compared with reference mix. The increase in metakaolin

16
content improves the compressive strength, Split Tensile Strength and Flexural Strength up to 15%
replacement. The results encourage the use of Metakaolin, as pozzolanic material for partial cement
replacement in producing high strength concrete.

2.2.11 THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ONE-PART ALKALI ACTIVATED

FLY ASH USING RED MUD AS ALKALI SUPPLIER

H.Choo,S.Lim,C.Lee ,et.al.,(2016) Because both fly ash with high unburned carbon
particles and red soil are waste materials with very low reuse rates, the reuse of these two waste
materials is environmentally and economically beneficial. This experimental investigation aims at
developing one-part mix alkali activated materials using only waste materials. Therefore, this study
uses fly ash with high unburned carbon particles (or high loss on ignition) as an alumina silicate
precursor and uses red mud as a NaOH supplier in the geopolymerization of fly ash. The results of this
study demonstrate that the unconfined compressive strength of the developed one-part fly ash inorganic
polymers activated with red mud increases with an increase in red soil content because of the active
dissolution of silica and aluminium with an increase in red soil and a consequent promotion of the
polycondensation process. The comparison between the inorganic polymers activated with red soil and
NaOH pellets reveals that the relation between compressive strength and the Na/Si ratio of the tested
inorganic polymers activated with red soil is almost the same as that of the tested inorganic polymers
activated with NaOH, reflecting that all solid NaOH (or Na2O) in red soil can be dissolved to form
highly alkaline solutions. Therefore, one-part alkali activated fly ash can be synthesized using red mud
as a solid alkali activator.

2.2.12 PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF POROUS ASPHALT PAVEMENT

USING RED MUD AS ALTERNATIVE FILLER

Hengii Zhang, Hui Li, Yi Zhang, et.al. (2017) Porous asphalt pavement material is a
special asphalt mixture with a void content of 18% or more. The porosity is essential to the ecological
functions of porous asphalt pavement, i.e., water drainage, noise reduction, water purification.
However, the porous structure of pavement also has caused some structural defects. Rutting, ravelling
and void clogging hindered its popularization in heavy-load and high-speed field. The major cause of
the ravelling and rutting is the temperature sensitivity and a lack of adhesion of asphalt mortar,
especially under repeated heavy load from vehicles. Firstly, this study prepares six types of asphalt
mortar including two types of fillers (limestone powder and red mud) and three filler bitumen ratios
(0.3, 0.6, and 0.9). Secondly, the rheological properties of asphalt mortar are investigated through
Brookfield Viscosity, super pave high temperature binder criteria Multiple Stress Creep Recovery and
Bending Beam Remoter. Thirdly, this study investigated the effect of filler type and filler-bitumen ratio
(FB ratio) on the air void, permeability, adhesion performance and ravelling resistance. Finally,

17
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test and three types of Cantabria Tests (standard, water immersion and
aging) are performed to confirm that the ravelling and rutting resistance performance of red mud is
better compared to the widely used limestone powder. The results indicate that the performance of
porous asphalt with red soil filler at 0.9 FB ratio exhibited enhanced performance for ravelling and
rutting resistance.

2.2.13 INFLUENCE OF METAKAOLIN AS SUPPLEMEMTARY CEMENTING

MATERIAL ON STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

A.Ramezaniampour, H.Bahrami jovien, et.al. (2012)Durability of concrete is an

important issue for predicting the service life of concrete structures. Supplementary cementing materials
(SCM) have become an integral part of high strength and high performance concrete mix design. Local
kaolin with high kaolinite content was thermally treated by a special furnace at 800 [degrees] C and 60
rain burning time to produce metakaolin. This study investigates the performance of concrete mixtures
containing local metakaolin in terms of compressive strength, water penetration, sorptivity, salt
ponding, Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) and electrical resistivity at 7, 28, 90 and 180 days.
In addition, microstructure of the cement pastes incorporating metakaolin was studied by XRD and
SEM tests. The percentages of metakaolin that replace PC in this research are 0%, 10%, 12.5% and
15% by mass. The water/binder (w/b) ratios are 0.35, 0.4 and 0.5 having a constant total binder content
of 400 kg/ [m.sup.3]. Results show that concrete incorporating metakaolin had higher compressive
strength and metakaolin enhanced the durability of concretes and reduced the chloride diffusion.

2.2.14 EFFECT OF RED SOIL ON PROPERTIES OF SELF-COMPACTING

MOTARS

Re-Sign Liu, chi-sun Poon, (2016) Red soil is a waste material derived from alumina
refineries through the Bayer process. In this paper, the red soil is used to replace fly ash at various
replacement ratios in the production of self-compacting mortars. Two series of mix proportions (series
I and II) are designed to investigate the fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting mortars
(SCM). In series I, the replacement ratios of red mud range from 0% to 50% by weight; in series II fly
ash is replaced by red mud at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% by weight. The results show that the
fluidity is reduced as red soil is used to replace fly ash; meanwhile, a trend towards mitigation of
bleeding is observed due to red soil porosity. An increase in red soil content also brings a slight decrease
of hardened density, an increase of water absorption and permeable voids. In the case of mechanical
properties, red soil is effective in enhancement of the compressive and flexural strength; the
compressive and flexural strength of SCM mixture samples prepared with red soil at 50% of
replacement ratio are higher than those of other samples. As for the drying shrinkage and autogenously
strains, all drying shrinkage values are increased as red soil is used to replace fly ash; however, a

18
decrease of autogenously strains is observed with an addition of red soil, and the trend is more
pronounced when the replacement ratio is 50. It has been observed that the compressive strength of
self-compacting concrete produced with the combination of admixtures such as (SP+VMA) goes on
increasing up to 2% addition of red soil. After 2% addition of red, the compressive strength starts
decreasing compacting is the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete produced with
(SP+VMA) is maximum when 2% red soil is added. The percentage increase in compressive strength
at 2% addition of red soil is 9.11 thus, it is observed that maximum compressive strength of self-
compacting with the combination of admixtures (may be obtained by adding 2% red soil.

2.2.15 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON UTILIZATION OF RED SOIL AND QUARRY

DUST IN CEMENT MORTAR AND CONCRETE

Karan Kumar MS, Raghavendra Nail ,et.al. (2016)curing concrete with replacement
of red soil and quarry dust was compared with the .The main aim of this investigation is to study the
strength and durability properties of concrete using water-soluble Polyethylene Glycol as self-curing
agent. The function of self-curing agent is to reduce the water evaporation from concrete, and hence
they increase the water retention capacity of concrete compared to the conventionally cured concrete.
The use of self-curing admixtures is very important from the point of view that saving of water is a
necessity every day. In this investigation, the use of water-soluble polyethylene glycol of molecular
weight 400 with a dosage of 0.5% to the weight of cement added to the mixing water as self-curing
agent for concrete of M40 grade. The concrete was casted by replacing cement with red soil by 0%,
10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% and fine aggregate by varying quantity of Quarry dust by 0%, 50%,
40%, 30%, 20% and 10% accordingly. In this study, compressive strength, split tensile strength, Non-
Destructive testing and flexural strength of self-conventional concrete specimens. From the study it is
concluded that quarry dust can be used as a substitute for sand. It is identical the 40% replacement of
sand by quarry dust give good result in strength for M40 mix concrete. Thus the environmental effects
and waste can be significantly reduced. It is observed that 50% replacement of sand with quarry dust is
not workable for M40 design mix .Increase in percentage of quarry dust will cause decrease in the
degree of workability.

2.2.16 EFFECT OF METAKAOLIN ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

CONCRETE

Satyendra Dubai, Ratiochampak, et.al . (2015) This study presents the effect of
incorporating metakaolin (MK) on the mechanical and durability properties of high strength concrete
for a constant water/binder ratio of 0.3. MK mixtures with cement replacement of 5, 10 and 15 % were
designed for target strength and slump of 90 MP and 100 ± 25 mm. From the results, it was observed
that 10 % replacement level was the optimum level in terms of compressive strength. Beyond 10 %

19
replacement levels, the strength was decreased but remained higher than the control mixture.
Compressive strength of 106 MP was achieved at 10 % replacement. Splitting tensile strength and
elastic modulus values have also followed the same trend. In durability tests MK concretes have
exhibited high resistance compared to control and the resistance increases as the MK percentage
increases. This investigation has shown that the local MK has the potential to produce high strength and
high performance concretes. Using MK as a partial replacement for cement decreased the plastic density
of the mixtures. The results shows that by utilizing local MK and cement designed for a low
water/binder ratio of 0.3, high strength and high performance concretes can be developed and
compressive strengths of more than 100 MP can be realized. The optimum replacement level of OPC
by MK was 10 %, which gave the highest compressive strength in comparison to that of other
replacement levels; this was due to the dilution effect of partial cement replacement. These concretes
also exhibited a 28 day splitting tensile strength of the order of 5.15 % of their compressive strength
and showed relatively high values of modulus of elasticity. Splitting tensile strengths and elastic
modulus results have also followed the same trend to that of compressive strength results showing the
highest values at 10 % replacement.

2.2.17 COMPRESSICE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BY PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH METAKAOLIN

S.V. Ganesh, D.S.V Prasad et.al. (2017) Metakaolin or calcined kaolin, other type of
pozzolan, produced by calcination has the capability to replace silica fume as an alternative material.
Supplementary cementations materials have been widely used all over the world in concrete due to their
economic and environmental benefits; hence, they have drawn much attention in recent years. Mineral
admixtures such as fly ash, rice husk ash, silica fume etc. are more commonly used SCMs. They help
in obtaining both higher performance and economy. Metakaolin is also one of such non - conventional
material, which can be utilized beneficially in the construction industry. This paper presents the results
of an experimental investigations carried out to find the suitability of metakaolin in production of
concrete. In the present work, the results of a study carried out to investigate the effects of Metakaolin
on compressive strength of concrete are presented. The referral concrete M30 was made using 43 grade
OPC and the other mixes were prepared by replacing part of OPC with Metakaolin. The replacement
levels were 5%, 10%, 15% and 20 %( by weight) for Metakaolin. The various results, which indicate
the effect of replacement of cement by metakaolin on concrete, are presented in this paper to draw
useful conclusions.

20
2.2.18 EFFECTS OF VACCUM DEHYDRATION ON GEL STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES OF METAKAOLIN BASED GEOPOLYMERS

Wei Li,Partrick Ni Lemougna ,et.al.,(2017) In aluminosilicate mineral materials, water

plays a significant role during the process of geopolymer reaction and is related closely to the
development of the strength and structure. In this work, a geopolymer is synthesized via the reaction of
metakaolin with alkaline silicate solutions, including water glass and a NaOH2 solution. This study
investigated the effect of water on the gel structure and properties of metakaolin-based geopolymer.
Geopolymer samples were found to fast release water under vacuum and allowed the development of
low-defect porous materials. After 3 days of curing in suitable conditions, the samples were treated
under vacuum, during which the compressive strength did not decrease. Under vacuum at 120 °C, the
residual water of the sample produced using water glass was 8.31% and that of the sample produced
using NaOH solution was only 1.08%. The results of XRD and FTIR demonstrated that the sample
produced using NaOH solution consisted primarily of Naas zeolite. SEM analysis indicated that the
pores in sample growled with increasing H2O/Na2O molar ratio. Additionally, vacuum dehydration can
suppress the formation of micro cracks and reduce the shrinkage of the samples. The study results show
that, generally, adding cement improves all fly ash based geopolymer properties except workability.
The increase of fly ash content enhances geopolymer concrete properties. Using 30 min resting solution
has a significant effect on geopolymer properties compared with using 24 h resting solution.
Geopolymer concrete properties significantly affected by curing approaches which are represented in
curing time and temperature. The evaluated properties of (GPC) were workability, compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, absorption and thermal gravimetric analysis.

2.2.19 INVESTIGATIONS ON OPTIMUM POSSIBILITY OF REPLACING

CEMENT PARTIALLY BY RED SOIL IN CONCRETE.

Suk-poking, Sung-Jun kwon, et.al. (2016) Red soil is an industrial waste material
generated during production of alumina from bauxite by Bayer process. These industrial wastes hold
some heavy metals which are hazardous in nature. The aim of the paper is to investigate the possibility
of partially replacing Portland cement in concrete by red soil and evaluating its compressive and
splitting tensile strength. This study examines the effect of red soil on the properties of hardened
concrete and compares with the conventional concrete. The test results revealed that 15% of cement can
be optimally replaced by red mud beyond which compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural
strength starts decreasing. Cement replacement by red soil up to 15% yields characteristic strength
greater than the conventional cubes. Further increase in percentage of red soil by 20, 25 and 30% tends
to decrease the compressive strength. However, the optimum replacement level was observed as 15%
without decrease in strength. From experimental work it was found that increase in red soil content
decreases the compressive as well as tensile strength of concrete. Optimum percentage of the

21
replacement of cement by weight is found to be 25%.By this replacement results got are nearly equal
to the results of controlled concrete. Concrete prepared by using red soil is suitable in ornamental works
and gives aesthetically pleasant appearance. Workability of concrete may get affected with increase of
red soil but it can be improved by adding superplastcizers. We use mixture of red soil & cement for
non-structural work. There is future scope for the use of red soil concrete. The test results show that
how its compressive strength & splitting tensile strength decreases with increase red soil content, it is
concluded that Optimum percentage of the replacement of cement by weight is found to be 25%.By this
percentage replacement we can have strength is equal to the strength of controlled concrete.

2.2.20 EFFECTS OF RED SOIL AND ALKALI ACTIVATED SLAG CEMENT ON

EFFLORESCENCE IN CEMENT MORTAR

Suk-poking, Sung -Jun kwon et.al. (2016) Alkali Activated Slag Cement is utilized for
construction materials in order to reduce environmental load like abundant CO2 emission. Red soil
which is a by-product from Bauxite ores process has a strong alkali component containing 10.0–15.0%
of Na2O, so that it can be used for an alkali activator or retarder for cement hydration. This work
presents an evaluation of efflorescence characteristics in cement mortar with AASC and red soil. For
the work, OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) and AASC are used as matrix binder, and varying
replacement ratios of red mud (0.0–30%) are prepared. In order to evaluate the efflorescence
characteristics in the binders with red mud, analysis of water absorption and porosity are performed.
The changing efflorescence areas with weight loss are also measured. The compounds in efflorescence
are quantitatively analysed through various techniques such as EDS, XRD, SEM, TGA, and alkali
leaching test. In the work, the accelerated efflorescence mechanism and its characteristics are
quantitatively evaluated considering the effects of binder types and red soil replacement ratios. The
efflorescence area increases with increasing replacement ratio of red soil and still appeared after 1st
cleaning of surface, however it gradually decreases with the repetition of the test. AAS is affected less
by red soil content, and there is no significance difference in porosity because of a filling effect of red
soil on matrix. The optimum replacement ratio for parking lots is evaluated to be within the range of
10%.

2.2.21 LONG TERM DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE MODIFIED

WITH METAKAOLIN AND POLYMER ADMIXTURE

Adel Al Mensch, Yu Wang, et.al., (2017) This studies show that both metakaolin (MK)
and polymer can respectively improve certain mechanical and durability properties of concrete. Also
show that a combination of MK and polymer further enhances the mechanical properties by complement
of each other. However, the knowledge of the effect on durability, a critical governing factor of concrete

22
for the applications in extreme environments such as sewage, off-shore and bridge structures, has not
been well established yet. This paper reports on a comprehensive study of the effect of metakaolin as a
supplementary cementations material together with polymer as admixture on the durability of concrete
at relatively old ages. The results confirm that replacing Portland cement with 15% metakaolin and an
additional 5% polymer provide the optimum improvement for Portland cement concrete on both
mechanical properties and durability .Concrete cubes containing different percentages of the CA and
MS by weight of cement (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 %) were cast. Compressive strength tests were carried
out after 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 56, 90, 180, 270 and 365 days of curing.

2.2.22 EFFECT OF METAKAOLIN DISPERSION ON FRESH AND HARDENED

STATE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

H.Paiva, V.M.Ferreira, et.al. (2015), the use of pozzolanic materials such as metakaolin
in mortars and concretes is growing. Their use is usually related to the promotion of hydraulic binder
reactions or to the mitigation of expansive reactions that can occur in concrete. Introduction of fine
particles such as metakaolin, can have a strong effect on fresh and hardened state properties. This paper
aims to study the effect of metakaolin in concrete formulations with a present workability and to assess
the system rheology but also its hardened state properties such as mechanical strength. The effect that
the dispersion of metakaolin particles induces on concrete microstructure, particularly in porosity, is
discussed. Formulations were prepared with several metakaolin amounts and workability was controlled
either with water or a high range water reducer admixture. The use of HRWRA can cause deflocculating
of metakaolin particles, allowing workability control in concrete and leading to better efficiency and
improved performance .The effect on the fresh state were discussed for a present range of workability
as is usually demanded in practical situations. The consequences in the hardened state were also
assessed. In In this case, water content was always the same and porosity was lower and mechanical
strength increased even with MK replacing the cement up to 30 weight percentage .using HRWRA to
control workability in concrete formulations including MK, or other fine particle systems, in order to
achieve a good dispersion and a better efficiency.

2.2.23 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE WITH RED SOIL AS PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH HYDRATED LIME AND
SUPERPLASTIZERS

Siddur Karthick CS, Panditharadhya Bj, et.al. (2016) Rapid industrialization in the
world leads to the maximum discharge of waste products which in turn causing the effects and hazards
to environment. In this project work red soil waste is partially replaced with cement and the strength
and durability parameters are evaluated by utilizing it in a best way. Red soil is a waste generated by
the aluminum industry in a Bayer’s process Availability of raw material required for manufacturing of

23
cement and production of concrete are less and require more energy for production. This increased
demand cause fast depletion in resources. To overcome this situation it is very important to utilize the
industrial waste materials and by-products for the manufacture of cement and in concrete construction.
Here in this work by considering the cementations behaviour of red soil, an experiment was carried out
to replace the Portland cement by red soil and hydrated lime for M20 grade of concrete for variable
percentages and also there effects on the strength. Present study is mainly focused on the compressive
strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength. However, when used in combination with 30% red soil,
cement and 5% lime the composites shows significant compressive strength of 27.3N/mm2 for M20.
Tensile strength of 2.60 N/mm2 for M20 grade of concrete. Selected combination of mix is later used
to produce beam of size 500 x 100 x 100mm. These beams are tested for flexural strength of results 2.4
N/mm2and 3.29 N/mm2for M20. Red soil usage with cement leads to improvement in binding quality
by showing the same setting time as conventional cement and also improves strength parameters up to
30% replacement for M20 grade concrete. After 30% replacement of red soil, the increased quantity of
red soil decreases all the strength parameters and workability of the concrete for M20grade concrete.
From this study it is revealed that 30% replacement of red soil along with 5% hydrated lime is found to
be optimum.

2.2.24 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON CONCRETE UTILIZING RED SOIL AS A

PARTIAL REPLACEMEMENT OF CEMENT

Sitar patellae, Cretan Solanki, et.al. (2017) This research investigates experimentally
behaviour of red soil with concrete. In this study, the cement replaced with various percentage of red
soil in concrete and checked out various mechanical properties. Red soil replace with cement start to 16
% to 24% .at one percent interval. That is checked for different three grades of concrete M20, M-25
and M-30. The mechanical properties investigated in current study include compressive strength, split
tensile strength, flexural strength and study on durability .The M20 grade of concrete increased with
increasing content of Red soil up to 18% replacement was about 33.95% than after compressive strength
decreasing with increasing content of Red soil. In Compressive Strength, Tensile Strength, Flexural
Strength and durability, Optimum result are obtain by using Red soil content of 18%.The M25 grade of
concrete increased with increasing content of Red soil up to 18% replacement was about 30.81% than
after compressive strength decreasing with increasing content of Red soil. In Compressive Strength,
Splitting Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength and durability, Optimum result are obtain by using Red
soil content of 18%. The M30 grade of concrete increased with increasing content of Red soil up to
18% replacement was about 9.59% than after compressive strength decreasing with increasing content
of Red soil. In Compressive Strength, Splitting Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength and durability,
Optimum result are obtain by using Red soil content of 18%.

24
2.2.25 STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF METAKAOLIN ADMIXED CONCRETE

N.shirsath, Sambhaji L. Karpet ,et.al. (2017) Supplementary cementations materials

(SCMs) have been widely used all over the world in concrete due to their economic and environmental
benefits; hence, they have drawn much attention in recent years. Mineral admixtures such as fly ash,
rice husk ash, silica fume etc are more commonly used SCMs. They help in obtaining both higher
performance and economy. Metakaolin is also one of such non - conventional material which can be
utilized beneficially in the construction industry. This paper presents the results of an experimental
investigations carried out to find the suitability of metakaolin in production of concrete. In the present
work, the results of a study carried out to investigate the effects of Metakaolin on strength of concrete
are presented. The referral concrete M30 was made using 53 grade OPC and the other mixes were
prepared by replacing part of OPC with Metakaolin. The replacement levels were 5%, 10%, 15% up to
20 %( by weight) for Metakaolin. The various results which indicate the effect of replacement of cement
by metakaolin on concrete are presented in this paper to draw useful conclusions. The strength of all
Metakaolin admixed concrete mixes overshoot the strength of OPC. Mix with 15% metakaolin is
superior to all other mixes. The increase in metakaolin content improves the compressive strength,
Split Tensile Strength and Flexural Strength up to 15% replacement. The results encourage the use of
Metakaolin, as pozzolanic material for partial cement replacement in producing high strength concrete.
The utilization of supplementary cementations material like Metakaolin in concrete can compensate for
environmental, technical and economic issues caused by cement production.

25
2.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. From the journals studied, we have come to conclusion that replacement of metakaolin and red
mud improve the strength of concrete.
2. It was found that 10-15% replacement of metakaolin appears to be optimum replacement.
3. Use of metakaolin as a pozzolanic material for partial replacement in producing high
performance concrete.
4. Compressive and flexural strength increases.
5. Use of red soil along with cement help to reduce cement consumption.
6. Based on studies, it shows that optimum replacement of red soil as fine aggregate at 20%.

26
 CHAPTER -3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

Methodology plays a vital role in the project. In this chapter, the procedure followed for entire
project has been explained. The collection of materials, properties of each material, procedure followed
for testing of each material etc... Has been discussed. Here the figure 3.1 shows the flow chart for
methodology.

Figure 3.1: flowchart

27
3.2 MATERIALS:

Materials used,

1. Cement –OPC (53 grade)

2. Fine aggregate
3. Coarse aggregate
4. Water
5. Metakaolin
6. Red soil

3.3 CEMENT

Cement is a material, generally in powder form that can be made into a paste usually by the
addition of water and, when moulded or poured, will set into a solid mass numerous organic compounds
used for adhering, or fastening materials, are called cements, but these are classified as adhesives, and
the term cement alone means a construction material. The most widely used of the construction cements
is Portland cement which shown in figure:3.3 It is a bluish grey powder obtained by finely grinding the
clinker made by strongly heating and intimate mixture calcareous and argillaceous minerals.

Figure: 3.2.1 Cement

The chief raw material is a mixture of high calcium limestone, known as cement rock, and ay
or shale. Blast furnace slag may also be used in some cements and the cement. The colour of the
cement is due chiefly to iron oxide. In the absence of impurities, the colour would be white, but
neither the colour nor the specific gravity test of quality.

28
 Physical test conducted for cement

a) Specific gravity
b) Fineness
c) Standard consistency
d) Initial and final setting time

3.3.1 Specific gravity

To determine the specific gravity of cement using Le Chattier Flask or specific gravity Bottle
as shown in figure: 3.3 has been used. The procedure for testing the cement using the apparatus is
explained below. Clean the bottle and dry Le chatlier Flask or Specific Gravity Bottle with its stopper
as (w1). Place a sample of cement up to half of the flask about 50 gm and weight with its stopper (w2).

Figure 3.9.2 Le chatlier flask

Add kerosene (polar liquid) to cement in flask till it is about half full. Mix thoroughly with
glass rod to remove entrapped air. Continue stirring and add more kerosene till it is flush with the
graduated mark. Dry the outside and weight (w3). Entrapped air may be removed by vacuum pump,
if available. Empty the flask clean it refills with clean kerosene flush with the graduated mark wipe dry
the outside and weight (W4).

Calculation:

Specific gravity = mass of cement/absolute volume of cement

29
3.3.2 Fineness

To determine the fineness of dry sieving by following procedure;

To break down any air set lumps in the cement sample with fingers. Weight accurately 100 gm
of the cement and place it on a standard 90 micron IS Sieve continuously sieve the sample for 15
minutes. Weight the residue left after 15 minutes of sieving. This completes the test.

Figure: 3.3.2 micron sieve

3.3.3 Standard consistency

To determine the standard consistency by following procedure:

Procedure:

Unless otherwise specified this test shall be conducted at a temperature 27 + 20C and the
relative humidity of laboratory should be 65 + 5%. Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement
(300gms) with weighed quantity of potable or distilled water, taking care that the time of gauging is
less than neither 3minutes nor more than 5minutes and the gauging is completed before any sign of
setting occurs as shown in both figure: 3.4 & 3.5. The gauging is counted from the time of adding water
to the dry cement until commencing to fill the mould. Fill the vacates mould with this paste resting upon
a non-porous plate. Smooth en the surface of the paste, making it level with the top of the mould.
Slightly shake the mould to expel the air. In filling the mould operator’s hands and the blade of the
gauging trowel shall only be used.

30
 Figure: 3.3.3 Standard Consistency Test

Figure: 3.3.4 Testing Consistency of Cement

Immediately place the test block with the non-porous resting plate, under the rod bearing the
plunger. Lower the plunger gently to touch the surface of the test block and quickly release, allowing it
sink into the paste. Record the depth of penetration. Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of
water and test as described above until the plunger is 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the vacates
mould.

Calculation

Consistency of cement = Weight of water added /weight of cement x100

31
3.3.5 Initial and final setting time

Unless otherwise specified this test shall be conducted at a temperature of 27 + 20C and 65 +
5% of relative humidity of the Laboratory. Prepare a paste of 300 grams of cement with 0.85 times the
water required to a give a paste of standard consistency IS: 4031 (Part 4) 1988. The time of gauging in
any case shall not be less than 3 minutes not more than 5 minutes and the gauging shall be completed
before any sign of setting occurs. Count the time of gauging from the time of adding water to the dry
cement until commencing to fill the mould. Fill the vacant mould with this paste making it level with
the top of the mould. Slightly shake the mould to expel the air. In filling the mould the operator hands
and the blade the gauging trowel shall only be used.

3.3.5.1 Initial setting time

Immediately place the test block with the non-porous resting plate, under the rod bearing the
initial setting needle. Lower the needle and quickly release allowing it to penetrate in to the mould. In
the beginning the needle will completely pierce the mould. Repeat this procedure until the needle fails
to pierce the mould for 5 + 0.5mm. Record the period elapsed between the times of adding water to the
cement to the time when needle fails to pierce the mould by 5 + 0.5mm as the initial setting time.

3.3.5.2 Final setting time

Replace the needle of the Vacates apparatus by the needle with an annular ring Lower the needle
and quickly release. Repeat the process until the annular ring makes an impression on the mould. Record
the period elapsed between the times of adding water to the cement to the time when the annular ring
fails to make the impression on the mould as the final setting time. In the most general sense of the
word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials
together. The cement was used in this research was PPC. OPC 53 confirming to IS 12269-1987 has
been used in casting the specimens. Properties of cement tests we conducted.

Calculation:

Initial setting time = t2 - t1

Final setting time = t3 - t1,

Where,

t1 = Time at which water is first added to cement

t2 = Time when needle fails to penetrate 5 mm to 7 mm from bottom of the mould.

t3 = Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to do so.

32
3.4 FINE AGGREGATE

Fine aggregate sand is an accumulation of grains of mineral matter derived from the
disintegration of rocks as shown in figure: 3.4.1. It is distinguished from gravel only by the size of the
grains or particles, but is distinct from clays which contain organic materials. Sands that have been
sorted out and separated from the organic material by the action of currents of water or by winds across
arid lands are generally quite uniform in size of grains. Usually commercial sand is obtained from river
beds or from sand dunes originally formed by the action of winds.

Much of the earth’s surface and these sands are usually quartz and other siliceous materials.
The most useful commercially are silica sands, often above 98% pure. Beach sands usually have
smooth, spherical to ovaloid particles from the abrasive action of waves and tides and are free of organic
matter. The white beach sands are largely silica but may also be of zircon, monazite, garnet and other
minerals and are used for extracting various elements.

Figure: 3.4.1 Fine aggregate

Sand is used for making mortar and concrete and for polishing and sandblasting. Sands
containing a little clay are used for making moulds in foundries. Clear sands are employed for filtering
water. Sand is sold by the cubic yard (0.76 m³) or ton (0.91 metric ton) but is always shipped by weight.
The weight varies from 1,538 to 1,842 kg/m³, depending on the composition and size of grain.
Construction sand is not shipped great distances, and the quality of sands used for this purpose varies
according to local supply. Standard sand is silica sand used in making concrete and cement tests.

33
 The fine aggregate obtained from river bed of coal, clear from all sorts of organic impurities
was used in this experimental program. The fine aggregate was passing through 4.75 mm Sieve and
had a specific gravity of 2.68. The grading zone of fine aggregate was zone III as per Indian Standard
specifications. The following test made to study the property of fine aggregate.

a) Specific gravity
b) Sieve analysis

3.4.1 Specific gravity

Weigh the sample to the nearest 0.1 g by total weight of sample. This weight will be used to
check for any loss of material after the sample has been graded. Select suitable sieve sizes in accordance
with the specifications. The pycnometer bottle is used for testing of specific gravity of fine aggregate
is shown in figure: 3.7. Weigh the sample to the nearest 0.1 g by total weight of sample. This weight
will be used to check for any loss of material after the sample has been graded. Select suitable sieve
sizes in accordance with the specifications. Nest the sieves in order of decreasing size from top to
bottom and begin agitating and shaking the sample for a sufficient amount of time. For fine aggregate,
round 8" (203.2 mm) or 12" (304.8 mm) sieves are commonly used. These sieves are self-nesting and
supported in a shaking mechanism at the top and bottom by a variety of clamping and/or holding
mechanisms. Small shakers of this type require shaking times of 15 minutes to adequately grade the
fine aggregate sample.

Figure: 3.4.2 Pycnometer bottle

Weigh the material retained on each sieve size to the nearest 0.1 g. Ensure that all material
entrapped within the openings of the sieve are cleaned out and included in the weight retained. This
may be done using brushes to gently dislodge entrapped materials. The 8 in. (203 mm) or 12 in. (304.8
mm) round sieves need to be handled with special care due to the delicate nature of their screen sizes.

34
As a general rule, use coarse wire brushes to clean the sieves down through the No. 50 (300 μm) sieve.
Any sieve with an opening size smaller than the No. 50 (300 μm) should be cleaned with a softer cloth
hair brush. The final total of the weights retained on each sieve should be within 0.3% of the original
weight of the sample prior to grading.

Calculations:

Apparent specific gravity = (Weight of dry sample/Weight of equal volume of water)

= W2 / (W2- (W-W1))

3.4.2 Sieve analysis

Weigh the sample to the nearest 0.1 g by total weight of sample. This weight will be used to
check for any loss of material after the sample has been graded. Select suitable sieve sizes in accordance
with the specifications. Nest the sieves in order of decreasing size from top to bottom and begin agitating
and shaking the sample for a sufficient amount of time. For coarse aggregate, the large tray shaker is
most commonly used has shown in figure: 3.8. This device provides a clamping mechanism which
holds the sieve in place during agitation. Shakers of this make need to be run 5 minutes for size 9 or
larger and 10 minutes for sizes smaller than size 9.

Figure: 3.4.3 Sieve Analysis

After the material has been sieved, remove each tray, weigh each size, and record each weight
to the nearest 0.1 g. Be sure to remove any aggregate trapped within the sieve openings by gently
working from either or both sides with a trowel or piece of flat metal until the aggregate is freed.
Banging the sieve on the floor or hitting the sieve with a hammer will damage the sieve. The final total
of the weights retained on each sieve should be within 0.3% of the original weight of the sample prior
to grading. Particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm) should be hand sieved. When passing large stones
through sieves, do not force the aggregate through the sieve openings.

35
 The sand passing through 4.75mm sieve has been used for casting the concrete specimens. Fine
aggregate used in this project is having the specific gravity of 2.65.The density of the fine aggregate is
found to be 41.9%. The zone of fine aggregate is determined by sieve analysis. As per the Indian
standards the zone obtained is zone-II. Normal weight fine aggregate clean, hard and strong free of
organic impurities and deleterious substance and relatively free of slit and clay.

Calculation:

Fineness modulus = ∑ cumulative % retained / 100

3.4.3 WATER ABSORPTION OF FINE AGGREGATE

Procedure:

1. A test sample of about 500g is taken.

2. Keep the sample in the oven at the temperature of 100-110C for 24±1/2 hrs. It shall then be
cooled and weighed (ws).
3. Place the aggregate in pycnometer and fill with water.
4. Then the aggregate shall be spread on the tray and exposed to gentle current of warm air to
evaporate surface moisture.
5. The saturated and surface dry (ws) weights are taken.

Calculation:

Percentage of water absorption = (wS - wO)/wO

3.5 COARSE AGGREGATE

Coarse aggregate having a size of 10mm were used. Its specific gravity is 2.7, .The density of
the coarse aggregate is found to be 36.6% and its impact strength is 13.3%, which is found to be
satisfied as per Indian standards.

Figure: 3.5 coarse aggregate

36
3.5.1 Specific gravity

Specific gravity is the weight of aggregate relative to the weight of equal volume of water.

Figure 3.5.1 Pycnometer bottle

Procedure:

1) Find the weight of the empty container W1.

2) Take coarse aggregate in the container up to approximately half of the container and find out the
weight W2.
3) Fill the container with water up to the level of the coarse aggregates so that all void space inside
the aggregate is filled with water. Find its weight W3.
4) Fill the container with water after emptying it from mix of coarse aggregate and water.
5) Water should be up to the mark, up to which coarse aggregate is filled. Find its weight W4
6) Repeat the same process for another trail by taking the aggregate up to the full of the container and
by filling the water up to same point.

Calculations:

Apparent specific gravity = (Weight of dry sample / Weight of equal volume of water)

= W2 / (W2- (W-W2))

37
3.5.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Procedure:

1. The sample should be prepared to an air dry condition before weighing and sieving.

2. The sample aggregate should be allowed to pass through all the sieves starting from the largest sieve:
80, 60, 40, 20, 16, 12.5, 10, 4.75mm. The machine is switched on for 10 minutes.

3. Materials should be forced through the sieve by hand pressure but on sieves coarser than 20mm,
placing is permitted.

4. The materials retained on each sieve are weighed and recoded on the completion of sieving.

Calculation:

Fineness modulus = ∑ cumulative % retained / 100

3.5.3 WATER ABSORPTION

Procedure:

1. A test sample of about 500g is taken.

2. Keep the sample in the oven at the temperature of 100-110C for 24±1/2 hrs. It shall then be cooled
and weighed (wS).

3. Place the aggregate in Pycnometer and fill with water.

4. Then the aggregate shall be spread on the tray and exposed to gentle current of warm air to evaporate
surface moisture.

5. The saturated and surface dry (wS) weights are taken.

Calculation:

Percentage of water absorption = (wS – wO) / wO

3.6 METAKAOLIN

Metakaolin is the anhydrous claimed form of the clay mineral kaolinite. Minerals that are rich
in kaolinite are knows as china clay or kaolin, traditionally used in manufacture of porcelain. The
particle seize of met kaolin is smaller than cement particle but not as fine as silica fume. The reactivity
of met kaolin is based on chemical composition and reactive surface. Highly reactive met kaolin has
become available as a considerably reactive pozzolanic material in concrete. Metakaolin is a pozzolan,

38
probably the most effective pozzolanic material for use in concrete. It is a product that is manufactured
for use rather than a by-product and formed when china clay, the mineral kaolin, is heated to a
temperature between 600 and 800ºC.

Figure 3.6: Metakaolin

3.6.1 HIGH – REACTIVITY METAKAOLIN

High-reactivity metakaolin (HRM) is a highly processed reactive alumina silicate pozzolan, a

finely-divided material that reacts with slaked lime at ordinary temperature and in the presence of
moisture to form a strong slow-hardening cement. It is formed by claiming purified kaolinite, generally
between 650–700 °C in an externally fired rotary kiln. It is also reported that HRM is responsible for
acceleration in the hydration of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), and its major impact is seen within 24
hours. It also reduces the deterioration of concrete by Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR), particularly useful
when using recycled crushed glass or glass fines as aggregate. The amount of slaked lime that can be
bound by metakaolin is measured by the modified Chappelle test.

3.6.2 ADVANTAGES

1. Increased compressive and flexural strengths

2. Reduced permeability
3. Reduced potential for efflorescence, which occurs when calcium is transported by water to the
surface where it combines with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make calcium carbonate,
which precipitates on the surface as a white residue.
4. Increased resistance to chemical attack.
5. Increased durability

39
3.6.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF METAKAOLIN

Procedure:

1. Take about 500g of sample and place it in the Pycnometer.

2. Wipe out the outer surface of Pycnometer and weigh it (W).
3. Transfer the contents of the Pycnometer into a tray, care being taken to taken.
4. Pour distilled water into it until it is full.
5. Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the Pycnometer on its side, the hole in the apex other
6. Cone being covered with a finger aggregate is transferred.
7. Refill the Pycnometer with distilled water to the same level.
8. Find out the weight (W1).
9. Drain water from the sample through a filter paper.
10. Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C for 24±0.5 hours.
11. Cool the sample and weigh it (W2).

Calculations:

Apparent specific gravity = (Weight of dry sample / Weight of equal volume of water)

= W2 / (W2- (W-W2))

3.6.4 INITIAL SETTING TIME AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF METAKAOLIN

(A) Initial setting time

1. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under the rod
bearing the needle.

2. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test block and quick release,
allowing it to penetrate into the test block.

3. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure i.e. Quickly
releasing the needle after every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block for about 5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time (t2).

(B) Final setting time

1. For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by the needle
with an annular attachment.

40
 2. The cement is considered finally set when upon applying the final setting needle gently to the
surface of the test block; the needle makes an impression thereon, while the attachment fails to
do so. Record this time (t3).

3.7 RED SOIL

Red soil is a highly alkaline waste product composed mainly of iron oxide that is generated in
the industrial production of alumina (aluminium oxide, the principal raw material used in the
manufacture of aluminium metal and also widely used in the manufacture of ceramics, abrasives and
refractories). Annually, about 77 million tons of the red special waste are produced, causing serious
disposal problem in the mining industry. The scale of production makes the waste product an important
one, and issues with its storage are reviewed and every opportunity is explored to find uses for it. Red
soil is composed of a mixture of solid and metallic oxides. The red colour arises from iron oxides,
which comprise up to 60% of the mass. The soil is highly basic with a pH ranging from 10 to 13.In
addition to iron, the other dominant components include silica, unleashed residual alumina, and titanium
oxide.

Figure: 3.7.1 Red soil

3.7.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF RED SOIL

Procedure:

1. Take about 500g of sample and place it in the pycnometer.

2. Pour distilled water into it until it is full.
3. Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole in the apex of the
cone being covered with a finger.
4. Wipe out the outer surface of pycnometer and weigh it (W).

41
 5. Transfer the contents of the pycnometer into a tray, care being taken to ensure that all the
aggregate is transferred.
6. Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level.
7. Find out the weight (W1).
8. Drain water from the sample through a filter paper.
9. Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C for 24±0.5 hours,
during which period, it is stirred occasionally to facilitate drying.
10. Cool the sample and weigh it (W2).

Calculations:

Apparent specific gravity = (Weight of dry sample/Weight of equal volume of water)

= W2/ (W2- (W-W2))

3.7.2 WATER ABSORPTION OF RED SOIL

Procedure:

1. A test sample of about 500g is taken.

2. Keep the sample in the oven at the temperature of 100-110C for 24±1/2 hrs. It shall then be
cooled and weighed (wS).
3. Place the aggregate in pycnometer and fill with water.
4. Then the aggregate shall be spread on the tray and exposed to gentle current of warm air to
evaporate surface moisture.
5. The saturated and surface dry (ws) weights are taken.

Calculation:

Percentage of water absorption = (wS - wO) / wO

3.8 TESTS ON CONCRETE

Test on concrete like compressive strength test, flexural strength test, split tensile strength are
discussed below.

3.8.1 Compressive strength of concrete

Cubes:

Compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of
concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete

42
compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and
higher in commercial and industrial structures.

For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm
depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15cm x
15cm x 15cm are commonly used.

Figure 3.8.2 : Compressive Testing Machine

Procedure:

1. Taking measurement: Take the measurement of concrete specimens (which are sent
laboratory for testing). Calculate the cross sectional area (unit should be on mm2) and
put down on paper. Do the same for each specimen.
2. Start machine: Turn on the machine. Place one concrete specimen in the centre of
loading area.
3. Lowering piston: Lower the piston against the top of concrete specimen by pushing the
Don’t apply load just now. Just place the piston on top of concrete specimen so that it’s touching
that.
4. Applying load: Now the piston is on top of specimen. It is the time to apply load. Pull the lever
into holding position. Start the compression test by pressing the zero button on the display
board. Increasing pressure: By turning pressure increasing valve counter-clockwise, adjust the
pressure on piston so that it matches concrete compression strength value. Apply the load
graduallY without shock
5. Test is complete: Observe the concrete specimen. When it begins to break stop applying load.

43
 6. Recording: Record the ultimate load on paper displaying on machine’s display screen.
7. Clean the machine: When the piston is back into its position, clean the creaked concrete from
the machine.
8. Turning off machine: Match your record once again with the result on display screen. The result
should still be on display screen. And then turn off the machine.
9. Calculate concrete compressive strength: The result we got from testing machine is the ultimate
load to break the concrete specimen.

Calculation:

The compressive strength of concrete is given by:

Compressive strength = Load / Area of Cube

3.8.3 Flexural Strength Of Concrete

Figure: 3.8.3 Flexural Strength Of Concrete

44
Prism:

Beam mould of size 15 x 15x 70 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 38 mm) or of size 10
x 10 x 50 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 19 mm)

Procedure:

1. Prepare the test specimen by filling the concrete into the mould in 3 layers of approximately
equal thickness. Tamp each layer 35 times using the tamping bar as specified above. Tamping
should be distributed uniformly over the entire crossection of the beam mould and throughout
the depth of each layer.
2. Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers , and remove any loose sand
or other material from the surfaces of the specimen where they are to make contact with the
rollers.
3. Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section with diameter 38 mm will be
used for providing support and loading points to the specimens. The length of the rollers shall
be at least 10 mm more than the width of the test specimen. A total of four rollers shall be used,
three out of which shall be capable of rotating along their own axes. The distance between the
outer rollers (i.e. span) shall be 3d and the distance between the inner rollers shall be d. The
inner rollers shall be equally spaced between the outer rollers, such that the entire system is
systematic.
4. The specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal from water; whilst
they are still wet. The test specimen shall be placed in the machine correctly centered with
the longitudinal axis of the specimen at right angles to the rollers. For moulspecimens, the
mould filling direction shall be normal to the direction of loading.
5. The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the 15.0 cm specimen at a
rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.

Paver block mould:

The prism moulds shall conform to IS: 10086-1982. The standard size shall be 50×10cm.
Alternatively, if the largest nominal size of the aggregate does not exceed 19 mm. Weights and weighing
device, Tools and containers for mixing, Tamper (square in cross section) etc.

Procedure:

Flexural strength test is done as per IS: 516-19595. Prisms are tested for flexure in Universal
testing machine of capacity 100 kN as shown in figure:3.13.The bearing surfaces of the supporting and
loading rollers are wiped clean before loading. The prisms are placed in the machine in such a manner
that the load is applied to the uppermost surface along the two lines spaced 13.3 cm apart. The axis of

45
the specimen is aligned with the axis of the loading device. The load is applied at a rate of 180 kg/min
without shock. The specimen is loaded till it fails and the maximum load (P) applied to the specimen
during test is noted. After fracture the distance (a) between the crack and nearest support is measured.
The flexural strength of the specimen is expressed as the modulus of rupture

Calculation:

The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by

fb = pl/bd2 (when a > 20.0cm for 15.0cm specimen or > 13.0cm for 10cm specimen)

or

fb = 3pa/bd2 (when a < 20.0cm but > 17.0 for 15.0cm specimen or < 13.3 cm but > 11.0cm
for 10.0cm specimen.)

Where,

a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the center line
of the tensile side of the specimen

b = width of specimen (cm)

d = failure point depth (cm)

l = supported length (cm)

p = max. Load (kg)

3.8.4 SPLIT STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMENS

Cylinder:

1. It shall be made of steel, and 3 mm thick.

2. The mould shall be capable of being opened longitudinally to facilitate the removal of the Specimen
and is provided with a means of keeping it closed while in use.

3. The mean internal diameter of the mould is 15 cm ± 0.2 mm and the height is 30 +/- 0.1 cm.

4. The moulds are provided with a metal base plate mould.

5. Moulds need to be coated with a thin film of mould oil before use, in order to prevent Adhesion of
concrete.

46
Procedure

Pour concrete in moulds oiled with medium viscosity oil. Fill the cylinder mould in four layers
each of approximately 75 mm and ram each layer more than 35 times with evenly distributed strokes.
Remove the surplus concrete from the top of the moulds with the help of the trowel. Cover the moulds
with wet mats and put the identification mark after about 3 to 4 hours.

Figure:3.8.4 Load application on specimen

Remove the specimens from the mould after 24 hours and immerse them in water for the final
curing. The test are usually conducted at the age of 7-15 days. The time age shall be calculated from
the time of addition of water to the dry ingredients.

Test at least three specimens for each age of test as follows:

1. Draw diametrical lines on two ends of the specimen so that they are in the same axial plan.
2. Determine the diameter of specimen to the nearest 0.2 mm by averaging the diameters of
the specimen lying in the plane of premarked lines measured near the ends and the middle
of the specimen. The length of specimen also shall be taken be nearest 0.2 mm by averaging
the two lengths measured in the plane containing pre marked lines.
3. Centre one of the plywood strips along the centre of the lower platen. Place the specimen
on the plywood strip and align it so that the lines marked on the end of the specimen are
vertical and centered over the plywood strip. The second plywood strip is placed length
wise on the cylinder centred on the lines marked on the ends of the cylinder.
4. The assembly is positioned to ensure that lines marked on the end of specimen are vertical
and the projection of the plane passing through these two lines interest the centre of the
platen.

47
 Apply the load without shock and increase it continuously at the rate to produce a split tensile
stress of approximately 1.4 to 2.1 N/mm2/min, until no greater load can be sustained. Record the
maximum load applied to specimen. Note the appearance of concrete and any unusual feature in the
type of failure which is similar to the figure:3.14. Compute the split tensile strength of the specimen to
the nearest 0.25 N/mm2.

Calculations:

Calculate the splitting tensile strength of the specimen as follows:

T= 2P/ πLD

Where,

T = Splitting tensile strength, MPa

P = Maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, N

D = Diameter of the specimen, mm

L = Length of the specimen,mm

3.9 SPECIMEN DETAILS

TEST ON TYPE OF SIZE (MM) TOTAL NOS. OF

CONCRETE SPECIMEN SPECIMEN
Compression Cube 150x150x150 3
Paver block 230x110x170 72
Flexural strength Beam 150x150x700 3
Paver block 230x110x170 72
Split tensile strength Prism 150×150×700 3
Paver blocks 230×110×170 72

Table 3.1 Details Of Specimens

48
 CHAPTER-4

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL

Various properties of sand with partial replacement of granite powder and RHA in concrete
were studied. Tests were conducted for cement, Fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and finally the
concrete specimens are discussed in this chapter with their results.

4.2 PRILIMINARY TEST RESULTS

4.2.1 CEMENT TEST
Cement is the most important component in concrete. One of the important criteria for the
selection of cement is its ability to produce improved microstructure in concrete. Some of the important
factors which play vital role in selection of cement are compressive strength at various ages, fineness,
heat of hydration, alkali content, tri calcium aluminate (C 3A) content, tricalcium silicate (C3S) content,
dicalcium silicate (C2S) content etc. it is also necessary to ensure compatibility of the chemical and
mineral admixtures with cement. Portland Pozzolana Cement (53 grade) was used in of concrete. The
properties of cement can be seen in the Table 4.2.1.

TEST VALUES STANDARD VALUES

Specific gravity 3.11 3.15

Initial setting time 45 mins Not less than 30 mins

Final setting time 10 hrs Not greater than 600 mins

Table 4.2.1 Properties of cement

a) SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT

Specific gravity = mass of cement / absolute volume of cement
= 50 / 16.1
= 3.11

49
4.2.2 FINE AGREGATE TEST

Test conducted for Fine Aggregates are listed in table as per IS code of IS: 383-1970

Properties of fine aggregate

Test conducted for Fine Aggregates are listed in table as per IS code of IS: 383-1970. The fine
aggregate shall consist of natural sand or, subject to approval, other inert materials with similar
characteristics, or combinations having hard, strong, durable particles. Fine aggregate from different
sources shall not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor used alternately in the same class of
construction or mix, without permission from the Engineer. The properties can be shown in the below

TEST VALUES STANDARD VALUES

Specific gravity 2.60 2.73

Fineness modulus 3.37 4.66

Water absorption 1.2% 1.6%

Table 4.2.2 Properties of fine aggregate

1. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATE

Cumulative Cumulative %
Wt. Retained
S.No IS Sieve Wt.Retained Wt.Retained
(g)
(g) (g)
1. 4.75 20 2 2
2. 2.36 27 2.7 4.7
3. 1.18 113 11.3 16
4. 600 173 17.3 33.3
5. 300 487 48.7 82
6. 75 176 17.6 99.6
7. PAN 4 0.4 100

Table 4.3.3 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate

The fineness modulus of M-sand is found to be = 3.37

50
 2. WATER ABSORPTION OF FINE AGGREGATE

Percentage of water absorption = (wS - wO) / wO

= (0.5 - 0.488) x100
= 1.2%
The Percentage of water absorption of M-sand is found to be = 1.2%

4.2.3 COARSE AGGREGATE TEST

Test conducted for Coarse Aggregates are listed in table as per IS code of IS: 383-1970

Properties of Coarse aggregate

The coarse aggregate shall consist of natural sand or, subject to approval, other inert materials
with similar characteristics, or combinations having hard, strong, durable particles.

Coarse aggregate from different sources shall not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor used
alternately in the same class of construction or mix, without permission from the Engineer. The
properties can be shown in the below table 4.4

TEST VALUES STANDARD VALUES

Specific gravity 2.72 2.5 - 2.9

Fineness modulus 5.6 6.5 - 8

Water absorption 0.5% 0.1- 2%

Table.4.2.3 Properties of Coarse aggregate

51
1. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Cumulative Cumulative %
Wt. Retained
S.No IS Sieve Wt. Retained Wt. Retained
(g)
(g) (g)
1. 40 0 0 0
2. 20 1460 73 73
3. 12.5 420 21 94
4. 10 80 4 98
5. 4.75 40 2 100
6. 2.36 0 0 100
7. PAN 0 0 100

Table 4.4.2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate

The fineness modulus of for coarse aggregate is found to be = 5.6

2. WATER ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Percentage of water absorption = (wS - wO) / wO
= (0.5-0.498) x100
= 0.5%
The Percentage of water absorption of coarse aggregate is found to be 0.5

52
4.2.4 METAKAOLIN

Metakoalin is a supplementary cementitious material which enhance the strength of

concrete.All the properties of the metakaolin are mentioned in the below table 4.2.4

S.NO CHARACTERISTICS VALUE

1 Specific Gravity 2.7

2 Water absorption 3.06%

TABLE 4.2.4 Properties Of Metakaolin

4.2.5 RED SOIL

All the properties of the metakaolin are mentioned in the below table 4.2.5

S.NO CHARACTERISTICS VALUE

1 Specific Gravity 2.5

2 Fineness modulus 2.76

TABLE 4.2.5 Properties Of Red Soil

53
4.3 RESULT FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF PAVER BLOCKS AT 7 AND
15 DAYS

In this test, the values of compressive strength for different replacement levels of metakaolin
and red soil at the end of different curing periods (7 Days and 15 days) are given in Table
4.3.1

COMPRESSIVE
NO.OF PAVER
STRENGTH
PARTIAL REPLACEMENT BLOCK CASTED
OBTAINED
(N/mm2)
MIXES
CURING PERIOD CURING PERIOD
METAKAOLIN RED SOIL
% % 7 DAY 15 DAY 7 DAY 15 DAY
CC 0% 0% 3 3 29 35

M1 5% 5% 3 3 34.65 38.5

M2 5% 10% 3 3 31.4 38.07

M3 5% 15% 3 3 30.5 37.35

M4 5% 20% 3 3 27.4 33.31

M5 5% 25% 3 3 25.9 31.40

M6 5% 30% 3 3 24.5 29.74

M7 10% 5% 3 3 30.42 36.88

M8 10% 10% 3 3 29.61 35.91

M9 10% 15% 3 3 28.06 34.02

M10 10% 20% 3 3 26.81 32.51

M11 10% 25% 3 3 25.71 31.17

M12 10% 30% 3 3 24.73 29.98

Table 4.3.1(a) Compressive strength of paver blocks

54
 COMPRESSIVE
NO.OF PAVER STRENGTH
PARTIAL REPLACEMENT
BLOCK CASTED OBTAINED
(N/mm2)
MIXES CURING PERIOD CURING PERIOD
METAKAOLIN RED SOIL
% % 7 DAY 15 DAY 7 DAY 15 DAY

CC 0% 0% 3 3 29 35

M13 15% 5% 3 3 32.34 39.2

M14 15% 10% 3 3 31.51 38.2

M15 15% 15% 3 3 31.01 37.59

M16 15% 20% 3 3 31.40 38.07

M17 15% 25% 3 3 30.91 37.5

M18 15% 30% 3 3 30.81 37.35

M19 20% 5% 3 3 32.64 39.57

M20 20% 10% 3 3 31.60 38.31

M21 20% 15% 3 3 31.51 38.2

M22 20% 20% 3 3 31.2 37.83

M23 20% 25% 3 3 31.01 37.59

M24 20% 30% 3 3 30.62 37.20

Table 4.3.1(b) Compressive Strength of Paver Blocks

55
 45

40
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH(N/MM²)

35

30

25

20 7 DAYS
15 15 DAYS

10

0
CC MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%
% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.3.1(a) Compressive strength of paver block for 7 and 15 days

40

35
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (N/mm²)

30

25 7 DAYS

20 15 Days

15

10

0
CC MK10% MK 10% MK 10% MK10% MK10% MK 10%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%

% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.3.1(b) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days

56
 45
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH(N/MM²)
40

35

30
7 DAYS
25

20 15 DAYS

15

10

0
CC MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%
% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.3.1(c) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days

45

40
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH(N/MM²)

35

30

25
7 DAYS
20
15 DAYS
15

10

0
CC MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK 20% MK20%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%
% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.3.1(d) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days

57
 45
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH(N/MM²)
40

35

30 7 DAYS

25 15 DAYS
20

15

10

0
CC

M3

M10

M17

M24
M1
M2

M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9

M11
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16

M18
M19
M20
M21
M22
M23
% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.3.1 (e) Compressive strength of paver blocks for 7 & 15 days

From the above table 4.7.1 and figure:4.7.1,4.7.2,4.7.3 and 4.7.4 it is clear that the compressive
strength increases at 20 % replacement of metakaolin and 5% of Red soil where then it goes on
decreases. Where the minimum value of compressive strength is 29.74 N/mm2 . The compressive
strength of the concrete decreases with increase in metakaolin and red soil content after 15% of
replacement. Therefore, the optimum replacement of metakaolin and red soil concrete is found to be
20% and 5%.

58
4.4 RESULTS FOR FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST AT 15 DAYS

In this test, the values of flexural strength for different replacement levels of Metakaolin and
red soil at the end of specified curing period (15Days) are given in following Table 4.8.1

COMPRESSIVE
NO. OF PAVER STRENGTH
PARTIAL REPLACEMENT
BLOCKS CASTED OBTAINED
MIXES (N/mm²)

CURING PERIOD CURING PERIOD

METAKAOLIN RED SOIL
% % 15 DAYS 15 DAYS

CC 0% 0% 3 4.06

M1 5% 5% 3 4.34

M2 5% 10% 3 4.31

M3 5% 15% 3 4.27

M4 5% 20% 3 4.03

M5 5% 25% 3 4.0

M6 5% 30% 3 3.98

M7 10% 5% 3 4.24

M8 10% 10% 3 4.2

M9 10% 15% 3 4.08

M10 10% 20% 3 4.0

M11 10% 25% 3 3.9

M12 10% 30% 3 3.82

Table 4.4.1(a) Flexural Strength of Paver Blocks

59
 COMPRESSIVE
NO.OF PAVER STRENGTH
PARTIAL REPLACEMENT
BLOCKS CASTED OBTAINED
MIXES (N/mm²)

CURING PERIOD CURING PERIOD

METAKAOLIN RED SOIL
% % 15 DAYS 15 DAYS

CC 0% 0% 3 4.06

M13 15% 5% 3 4.38

M14 15% 10% 3 4.32

M15 15% 15% 3 4.29

M16 15% 20% 3 4.31

M17 15% 25% 3 4.28

M18 15% 30% 3 4.27

M19 20% 5% 3 4.40

M20 20% 10% 3 4.42

M21 20% 15% 3 4.32

M22 20% 20% 3 4.31

M23 20% 25% 3 4.32

M24 20% 30% 3 4.26

Table 4.4.1(b) Flexural Strength of Paver Blocks

60
 4.4

4.3
FLEXURAL STRENGTH (N/MM²)

4.2
7 DAYS
4.1

3.9

3.8

3.7

3.6
CC MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK10% MK10% MK10% MK10% MK10% MK10%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20 RS25% RS30% RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%
% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.4.1(a) Flexural strength of prism at 15 days

4.5

7 DAYS
4.4
FLEXURAL STRENGTH (N/MM²)

4.3

4.2

4.1

3.9

3.8
CC MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30% RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%

% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.4.1(b) Flexural strength of prism at 15 days

61
 4.5

4.4
FLEXURAL STRENGTH(N/mm²)

4.3

4.2

4.1

3.9 15 DAYS

3.8

3.7

3.6

3.5
CC

M2

M10

M13

M16

M24
M1

M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9

M11
M12

M14
M15

M17
M18
M19
M20
M21
M22
M23
% OF REPLACEMENT

Figure: 4.4.1(C ) Flexural strength of prism at 15 days

From the above Table 4.8.1 and figure:4.8.1and 4.8.2, it is clear that the flexural strength
increases at 20% replacement of metakaolin & 10% of red soil and then it goes on decreases. Where
the minimum value of flexural strength is 3.82 N/mm2 . The flexural strength of the concrete decreases
with increase in metakaolin and red soil after 20% of replacement. Therefore, the optimum replacement
of metakaolin & red soil in concrete for flexure is found to be 15 - 20%.

62
4.5 RESULTS FOR SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST AT 15 DAYS

In this test, the values of split tensile strength for different replacement levels of metakaolin
and red soil at the end of specified curing period (15Days) are given in following table 4.5. 1

NO. OF PAVER SPLIT TENSILE

PARTIAL REPLACEMENT STRENGTH
BLOCKS CASTED (N/mm²)
MIXES
METAKAOLIN RED SOIL CURING PERIOD CURING PERIOD

% % 15 DAYS
15 DAYS
CC 0% 0% 3 3.4

M1 5% 5% 3 3.86

M2 5% 10% 3 3.78

M3 5% 15% 3 3.4

M4 5% 20% 3 3.39

M5 5% 25% 3 3.38

M6 5% 30% 3 3.37

M7 10% 5% 3 3.74

M8 10% 10% 3 3.64

M9 10% 15% 3 3.54

M10 10% 20% 3 3.40

M11 10% 25% 3 3.33

M12 10% 30% 3 3.24

Table 4.5.1(a) Split Tensile Strength of Paver Blocks

63
 NO.OF PAVER SPLIT TENSILE
PARTIAL REPLACEMENT STRENGTH
BLOCKS CASTED
MIXES (N/MM²)

CURING PERIOD CURING PERIOD

METAKAOLIN RED SOIL
% % 15 DAYS 15 DAYS
CC 0% 0% 3 3.4

M13 15% 5% 3 3.91

M14 15% 10% 3 3.84

M15 15% 15% 3 3.79

jM16 15% 20% 3 3.78

M17 15% 25% 3 3.93

M18 15% 30% 3 3.33

M19 20% 5% 3 3.84

M20 20% 10% 3 3.20

M21 20% 15% 3 3.84

M22 20% 20% 3 3.81

M23 20% 25% 3 3.79

M24 20% 30% 3 3.76

Table 4.5.2(b) Split Tensile Strength of Paver Blocks

64
 4

3.9
split tensile strength(N/MM2)

3.8

3.7
15 DAYS
3.6

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2

3.1

3
CC MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK5% MK10%MK10%MK10%MK10%MK10%MK10%
RS5% RS10% RS15% RS30% RS25% RS30% RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%

% of replacement

Fig: 4.5.1(a) Split tensile test of paver blocks at 15 days

4.5

3.5
Split tensile strength(N/MM²)

2.5
15 DAY
2

1.5

0.5

0
CC MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK15% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20% MK20%
RS5% RS10 RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30% RS5% RS10% RS15% RS20% RS25% RS30%

% of replacement

Fig: 4.5.1(b) Split tensile test of paver blocks at 15 days

65
 4.5

3.5
SPLIT TENSILE(N/MM²)

2.5

2 15 DAYS

1.5

0.5

0
M1

M3

M5

M7

M9

M11

M13

M15

M17

M19

M21

M23
CC

M2

M4

M6

M8

M10

M12

M14

M16

M18

M20

M22

M24
% OF REPLACEMENT

Fig: 4.5.1(c) Split tensile test of paver blocks at 15 days

The above figure: 4.8.3 shows the increase and decrease of split tensile strength with gradual
increase in percentage of Metakaolin and red soil as a replacement for fine aggregate. From the above
table, it is clear the split tensile strength increases at 20% replacement of metakaolin & 5% of Red
soil and then it goes on decreases. Where the minimum value of split tensile strength is 3.20 N/mm2 .
The split tensile strength of the concrete decreases with increase in metakaolin content after 20% of
replacement. Therefore, the optimum replacement of metakaolin and red soil in concrete for split
tensile is found to be 20%and 5%.

66
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

It has been observed from the literatures the partial replacement of Metakaolin with up to 15%
in concrete gains strength and the replacement of Red soil with fine aggregate up to 20% also gains
strength.

Combining these two replacement together as per our thesis objective and after testing the
concrete specimens, the following have been predicted:

1. There is constant increase in strength if we increase the percentage of Metakaolin up to 20%

but there is a fall of strength if we increase the percentage of Red soil.
2. The replacement of Metakaolin and red soil shows increase in compressive strength up to 20%
to 5% of replacement. The maximum strength being 39.57 N/mm² is achieved for M35 grade
of concrete at 15 days.
3. There is an immerse gain in split tensile strength has been observed from M14 to M19 and
maximum strength is found at 20% of metakaolin and 5% of red soil that is 3.93 n/mm².
4. By comparing the strength gained by the combination of 20% of Metakaolin with 5%, 15%,
20%, 25% and 30% of red soil attain more strength than conventional concrete.
5. Maximum flexural strength being 4.42N/mm² is observed for the combination of 20% of
metakaolin and 10% of red soil.
6. The results indicates that the increasing the percentage replacement of cement by metakaolin
and fine aggregate by red soil over a certain percentage has resulted in reduction of
compressive ,flexural and split tensile strength.
7. From the study , we conclude that paver blocks made with 20% of metakaolin and 5% of red
soil shows an increase in performance of compressive ,flexural and split tensile strength when
compared with the normal mix and also other mixes
8. The application of metakolain and red soil replacement in concrete paver blocks are feasible
and can be suggested for future use.
9. As a result an innovative supplementary construction material is formed in this study.
10. Current study concluded that Metakaolin and red soil can replace fine aggregate up to 20% to
5% as optimum replacement

67
 APPENDIX - I

MIX DESIGN: (IS CODE 10262-2009)

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete is required, strength, durability and workability as
economically as possible, is termed as the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient of
concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and
hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted.
The property of workability therefore becomes of vital importance.

A-1 STIPULATIONS FOR PROPORTIONING:

a) Grade designation : M35
b) Type of cement : OPC 53 Grade
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate : 20mm
d) Minimum cement content : 320 kg/m³
e) Maximum water-cement ratio : 0.5
f) Exposure condition : Moderate
g) Degree of supervision : Good
h) Type of aggregate : Crushed angular

A-2 TEST DATA FOR MATERIALS:

Cement used : OPC 53 grade
Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
Specific gravity of fine aggregate : 2.65
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate : 2.67

A-3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONIG:

Fck = fck + 1.65 s

Where, F’ck = target average compressive strength at 28 days,

Fck = characteristic compressive compressive strength at 28 days,
S = standard deviation.
From table 1, Standard Deviation, s = 5 N/mm2
Target strength = 35 + 1.65 x 5
= 38.15 N/mm2

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A-4 SELECTION OF WATER-CEMENT RATIO:
From table 5 of IS: 456 - 2000
Maximum water cement ratio = 0.43
Based on experience adopt water cement ratio as 0.40 < 0.43, hence O.K.

A-5 CALCULATION OF WATER

From table 42, maximum water content = 186 litres (for 20 mm aggregate range)
For zone Ⅱ FA add 3.15% of water,
= 186 + [(3.15/100) ×186)]
= 191.86 kg/m³

A-6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT:

Water cement ratio = 0.43
Cement content = 191.86/0.43
= 400 kg/m3
From table 23 of IS 456, maximum cement content for
Mild exposure condition = 250 kg/m3
400 kg/m3 > 250 kg/m3
Hence O.K

A-7 CALCULATION OF FINE AGGREGATE

ca = [(1-0.315)/0.315]x fa x (2.72/2.602)
ca= 645 kg/m3
Where,
V = absolute volume of fresh concrete, which is equal to gross volume (m3) minus the
volume of entrapped air,
W = Mass of water (kg) per m3 of concrete,
C = Mass of cement (kg) per m3 of concrete,
Sc = Specific gravity of cement,
P = Ratio of FA to total aggregate by absolute volume,
Fa, Ca = Total masses of FA and CA (kg) per m3 of concrete respectively and
Sfa, Sca = Specific gravities of saturated, surface dry fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
respectively.

69
A-8 CALCULATION OF COARSE AGGREGATE

V = [W+ (C/Sc) + (1/P) (Ca/SCa)]

0.98 = [191.6 + (400/2.98) + (1/0.685) (Ca/2.7)] (1/1000)
Ca = 1165 kg/m3
Where,
P = Ratio of FA to total aggregate by absolute volume
fa, Ca = Total masses of FA and CA (kg) per m3 of concrete respectively and
Sfa, Sca = Specific gravities of saturated, surface dry fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate respectively

A-9 MIX PROPORTION

The mix proportion is as follows:
Water: Cement: FA: CA
400: 642: 116:1165
0.47: 1 : 1.6 : 2.9

A-10 TOTAL MATERIALS REQUIRED

The total volume of concrete for cube, cylinder and prism is given by:
Cube = 9 x 0.15m x 0.15m x 0.15m
= 0.030375 m3
Cylinder = π r2 h
= 2 x π x 7.52 x 30cm3
= 0.0102 m3
Prism =3xlxbxh
= 2 x 0.7 x 0.15 x 0.15
= 0.0315 m3
Total Area = 0.0721 m³
Paver Blocks = 6 × 0.002712
= 0.016272 m³

70
M11 10% 25% 7.5 9.5 24.3 0.84 3.3 3.75
M12 10% 30% 7.5 9.3 24.3 0.84 3.9 3.75
M13 15% 5% 7.0 12.6 24.3 1.29 0.66 3.8
M14 15% 10% 7.0 12 24.3 1.29 1.35 3.8
M15 15% 15% 7.0 9.9 24.3 1.29 1.98 3.8
M16 15% 20% 7.0 10.5 24.3 1.29 2.7 3.8
M17 15% 25% 7.0 9.5 24.3 1.29 3.3 3.8
M18 15% 30% 7.0 9.3 24.3 1.29 3.9 3.8
M19 20% 5% 6.6 12.6 24.3 1.68 3.9 3.8
M20 20% 10% 6.6 12 24.3 1.68 0.66 3.8
M21 20% 15% 6.6 9.9 24.3 1.68 1.35 3.8
M22 20% 20% 6.6 10.5 24.3 1.68 1.98 3.8
M23 20% 25% 6.6 9.5 24.3 1.68 2.7 3.8
M24 20% 30% 6.6 9.3 24.3 1.68 3.3 3.8

Table 5: A Proportion of Materials

71
Figure: A1 Compaction by Tamping Rod

Figure: A2 Casted Paver Blocks

72
Figure: A3 Testing Of Compressive Strength of Paver Block

Figure: A4 Testing Of Compressive Strength Of Paver Block

73
Figure: A5 Testing Of Flexural Strength

Figure: A6 Compressive Testing Machine

74
 Figure: A7 Testing of flexural strength

Figure: A8 Testing of split tensile strength

75
Figure: A9 Casted Paver Blocks

Figure: A10 Mixing Of Concrete

76
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