CHAPTER I

RIGHTS OF CHILDREN

Definitions:

CHILDHOOD

o The state or the time of being a child; especially the period from infancy to

puberty.
o An early stage of development. (Webster)
o The period in human development that extends from birth until the onset of

puberty.
o The state or quality of being a child. (Mosby’s Medical Dictionary, 8 th Edition. ©

2009, Elsevier.)
o According to United Nation, Childhood is the period of development until the 18 th

birthday.

ADOLESCENCE

o From the Latin word Adolescentia, from Adolescere means “to grow up”.
o The period of psychological and social transition between childhood and

adulthood. The transition involves biological, social and psychological changes.

o For World Health Organization (WHO), it is the period of life between 10-19 years

of age.

HUMAN RIGHTS

o Are the rights that all people have by virtue of being human beings.
 o Are derived from the inherent dignity of the human person and are defined

internationally, nationally and locally by various law making bodies.

o Is defined as the Supreme, inherent, and inalienable rights to life, to dignity, and

to self development.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 603 OF DECEMBER 10, 1974

 All children shall be entitled to the rights herein (PD 603) set forth without

distinction as to legitimacy, sex, social status, religion, political antecedents, and

other factors.

PRESIDENTIAL DECRE 603

1) Every child is endowed with the dignity and worth of a human being from the

moment of his conception, as generally accepted in medical parlance, and has,

therefore, the right to be born well.

2) Every child has the right to a wholesome family life that will provide him with love,

care and understanding, guidance and counseling, and moral and material

security.

The dependent or abandoned child shall be provided with the nearest substitute

for a home.
3) Every child has the right to a well-rounded development of his personality to the

end that he may become a happy, useful and active member of society.
 The gifted child shall be given opportunity and encouragement to develop his

special talents.
4) The emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted child shall be treated with

sympathy and understanding, and shall be entitled to treatment and competent

care.

The physically or mentally handicapped child shall be given the treatment,

education and care required by his particular condition.

5) Every child has the right to a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient shelter,

proper medical attention, and all the basic physical requirements of a healthy and

vigorous life.
6) Every child has the right to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and

rectitude for the enrichment and the strengthening of his character.

7) Every child has the right to an education commensurate with his abilities and to

the development of his skills for the improvement of his capacity for service to

himself and to his fellowmen.

8) Every child has the right to full opportunities for safe and wholesome recreation

and activities, individual as well as social, for the wholesome use of his leisure

hours.
9) Every child has the right to protection against exploitation, improper influences,

hazards, and other conditions or circumstances prejudicial to his physical,

mental, emotional, social and moral development.

10) Every child has the right to live in a community and a society that can offer him

an environment free from pernicious influences and conducive to the promotion

of his health and the cultivation of his desirable traits and attributes.
11) Every child has the right to the care, assistance, and protection of the State,

particularly when his parents or guardians fail or are unable to provide him with

his fundamental needs for growth, development, and improvement.

 12) Every child has the right to an efficient and honest government that will deepen

his faith in democracy and inspire him with the morality of the constituted

authorities both in their public and private lives.

13)Every child has the right to grow up as a free individual, in an atmosphere of

peace, understanding, tolerance, and universal brotherhood, and with the

determination to contribute his share in the building of a better world.

CONVENTION OF RIGHTS OF CHILDREN (UN)

Article 1 (Definition of the child): The Convention defines a 'child' as a person below

the age of 18, unless the laws of a particular country set the legal age for adulthood

younger. The Committee on the Rights of the Child, the monitoring body for the

Convention, has encouraged States to review the age of majority if it is set below 18

and to increase the level of protection for all children under 18.

Article 2 (Non-discrimination): The Convention applies to all children, whatever their

race, religion or abilities; whatever they think or say, whatever type of family they come

from. It doesn’t matter where children live, what language they speak, what their parents

do, whether they are boys or girls, what their culture is, whether they have a disability or

whether they are rich or poor. No child should be treated unfairly on any basis.

Article 3 (Best interests of the child): The best interests of children must be the

primary concern in making decisions that may affect them. All adults should do what is

best for children. When adults make decisions, they should think about how their

decisions will affect children. This particularly applies to budget, policy and law makers.
Article 4 (Protection of rights): Governments have a responsibility to take all available

measures to make sure children’s rights are respected, protected and fulfilled. When

countries ratify the Convention, they agree to review their laws relating to children. This

involves assessing their social services, legal, health and educational systems, as well

as levels of funding for these services. Governments are then obliged to take all

necessary steps to ensure that the minimum standards set by the Convention in these

areas are being met. They must help families protect children’s rights and create an

environment where they can grow and reach their potential. In some instances, this may

involve changing existing laws or creating new ones. Such legislative changes are not

imposed, but come about through the same process by which any law is created or

reformed within a country. Article 41 of the Convention points out the when a country

already has higher legal standards than those seen in the Convention, the higher

standards always prevail.

Article 5 (Parental guidance): Governments should respect the rights and

responsibilities of families to direct and guide their children so that, as they grow, they

learn to use their rights properly. Helping children to understand their rights does not

mean pushing them to make choices with consequences that they are too young to

handle. Article 5 encourages parents to deal with rights issues "in a manner consistent

with the evolving capacities of the child". The Convention does not take responsibility for

children away from their parents and give more authority to governments. It does place

on governments the responsibility to protect and assist families in fulfilling their essential

role as nurturers of children.

Article 6 (Survival and development): Children have the right to live. Governments

should ensure that children survive and develop healthily.

Article 7 (Registration, name, nationality, care): All children have the right to a legally

registered name, officially recognized by the government. Children have the right to a

nationality (to belong to a country). Children also have the right to know and, as far as

possible, to be cared for by their parents.

Article 8 (Preservation of identity): Children have the right to an identity – an official

record of who they are. Governments should respect children’s right to a name, a

nationality and family ties.

Article 9 (Separation from parents): Children have the right to live with their parent(s),

unless it is bad for them. Children whose parents do not live together have the right to

stay in contact with both parents, unless this might hurt the child.

Article 10 (Family reunification): Families whose members live in different countries

should be allowed to move between those countries so that parents and children can

stay in contact, or get back together as a family. For every child Health, Education,

Equality, Protection ADVANCE HUMANITY

Article 11 (Kidnapping): Governments should take steps to stop children being taken

out of their own country illegally. This article is particularly concerned with parental

abductions. The Convention’s Optional Protocol on the sale of children, child prostitution

and child pornography has a provision that concerns abduction for financial gain.
Article 12 (Respect for the views of the child): When adults are making decisions

that affect children, children have the right to say what they think should happen and

have their opinions taken into account. This does not mean that children can now tell

their parents what to do. This Convention encourages adults to listen to the opinions of

children and involve them in decision-making -- not give children authority over adults.

Article 12 does not interfere with parents' right and responsibility to express their views

on matters affecting their children. Moreover, the Convention recognizes that the level of

a child’s participation in decisions must be appropriate to the child's level of maturity.

Children's ability to form and express their opinions develops with age and most adults

will naturally give the views of teenager’s greater weight than those of a preschooler,

whether in family, legal or administrative decisions.

Article 13 (Freedom of expression): Children have the right to get and share

information, as long as the information is not damaging to them or others. In exercising

the right to freedom of expression, children have the responsibility to also respect the

rights, freedoms and reputations of others. The freedom of expression includes the right

to share information in any way they choose, including by talking, drawing or writing.

Article 14 (Freedom of thought, conscience and religion): Children have the right to

think and believe what they want and to practice their religion, as long as they are not

stopping other people from enjoying their rights. Parents should help guide their children

in these matters. The Convention respects the rights and duties of parents in providing

religious and moral guidance to their children. Religious groups around the world have
expressed support for the Convention, which indicates that it in no way prevents parents

from bringing their children up within a religious tradition. At the same time, the

Convention recognizes that as children mature and are able to form their own views,

some may question certain religious practices or cultural traditions. The Convention

supports children's right to examine their beliefs, but it also states that their right to

express their beliefs implies respect for the rights and freedoms of others.

Article 15 (Freedom of association): Children have the right to meet together and to

join groups and organizations, as long as it does not stop other people from enjoying

their rights. In exercising their rights, children have the responsibility to respect the

rights, freedoms and reputations of others.

Article 16 (Right to privacy): Children have a right to privacy. The law should protect

them from attacks against their way of life, their good name, their families and their

homes.

Article 17 (Access to information; mass media): Children have the right to get

information that is important to their health and well-being. Governments should

encourage mass media – radio, television, newspapers and Internet content sources –

to provide information that children can understand and to not promote materials that

could harm children. Mass media should particularly be encouraged to supply

information in languages that minority and indigenous children can understand. Children

should also have access to children’s books.

Article 18 (Parental responsibilities; state assistance): Both parents share

responsibility for bringing up their children, and should always consider what is best for
each child. Governments must respect the responsibility of parents for providing

appropriate guidance to their children – the Convention does not take responsibility for

children away from their parents and give more authority to governments. It places a

responsibility on governments to provide support services to parents, especially if both

parents work outside the home.

Article 19 (Protection from all forms of violence): Children have the right to be

protected from being hurt and mistreated, physically or mentally. Governments should

ensure that children are properly cared for and protect them from violence, abuse and

neglect by their parents, or anyone else who looks after For every child Health,

Education, Equality, Protection ADVANCE HUMANITY them. In terms of discipline, the

Convention does not specify what forms of punishment parents should use. However

any form of discipline involving violence is unacceptable. There are ways to discipline

children that are effective in helping children learn about family and social expectations

for their behavior – ones that are non-violent, are appropriate to the child's level of

development and take the best interests of the child into consideration. In most

countries, laws already define what sorts of punishments are considered excessive or

abusive. It is up to each government to review these laws in light of the Convention.

Article 20 (Children deprived of family environment): Children who cannot be looked

after by their own family have a right to special care and must be looked after properly,

by people who respect their ethnic group, religion, culture and language.
Article 21 (Adoption): Children have the right to care and protection if they are

adopted or in foster care. The first concern must be what is best for them. The same

rules should apply whether they are adopted in the country where they were born, or if

they are taken to live in another country.

Article 22 (Refugee children): Children have the right to special protection and help if

they are refugees (if they have been forced to leave their home and live in another

country), as well as all the rights in this Convention.

Article 23 (Children with disabilities): Children who have any kind of disability have

the right to special care and support, as well as all the rights in the Convention, so that

they can live full and independent lives.

Article 24 (Health and health services): Children have the right to good quality health

care – the best health care possible – to safe drinking water, nutritious food, a clean and

safe environment, and information to help them stay healthy. Rich countries should help

poorer countries achieve this.

Article 25 (Review of treatment in care): Children who are looked after by their local

authorities, rather than their parents, have the right to have these living arrangements

looked at regularly to see if they are the most appropriate. Their care and treatment

should always be based on “the best interests of the child”. (See Guiding Principles,

Article 3)
Article 26 (Social security): Children – either through their guardians or directly – have

the right to help from the government if they are poor or in need.

Article 27 (Adequate standard of living): Children have the right to a standard of

living that is good enough to meet their physical and mental needs. Governments

should help families and guardians who cannot afford to provide this, particularly with

regard to food, clothing and housing.

Article 28: (Right to education): All children have the right to a primary education,

which should be free. Wealthy countries should help poorer countries achieve this right.

Discipline in schools should respect children’s dignity. For children to benefit from

education, schools must be run in an orderly way – without the use of violence. Any

form of school discipline should take into account the child's human dignity. Therefore,

governments must ensure that school administrators review their discipline policies and

eliminate any discipline practices involving physical or mental violence, abuse or

neglect. The Convention places a high value on education. Young people should be

encouraged to reach the highest level of education of which they are capable.

Article 29 (Goals of education): Children’s education should develop each child’s

personality, talents and abilities to the fullest. It should encourage children to respect

others, human rights and their own and other cultures. It should also help them learn to

live peacefully, protect the environment and respect other people. Children have a

particular responsibility to respect the rights their parents, and education should aim to

develop respect for the values and culture of their parents. The Convention does not

address such issues as school uniforms, dress codes, the singing of the national
anthem or prayer in schools. It is up to governments and school officials in each country

to determine whether, in the context of their society and existing laws, such matters

infringe upon other rights protected by the Convention. For every child Health,

Education, Equality, Protection ADVANCE HUMANITY.

Article 30 (Children of minorities/indigenous groups): Minority or indigenous

children have the right to learn about and practice their own culture, language and

religion. The right to practice one’s own culture, language and religion applies to

everyone; the Convention here highlights this right in instances where the practices are

not shared by the majority of people in the country.

Article 31 (Leisure, play and culture): Children have the right to relax and play, and to

join in a wide range of cultural, artistic and other recreational activities.

Article 32 (Child labor): The government should protect children from work that is

dangerous or might harm their health or their education. While the Convention protects

children from harmful and exploitative work, there is nothing in it that prohibits parents

from expecting their children to help out at home in ways that are safe and appropriate

to their age. If children help out in a family farm or business, the tasks they do be safe

and suited to their level of development and comply with national labour laws. Children's

work should not jeopardize any of their other rights, including the right to education, or

the right to relaxation and play.

Article 33 (Drug abuse): Governments should use all means possible to protect

children from the use of harmful drugs and from being used in the drug trade.
Article 34 (Sexual exploitation): Governments should protect children from all forms of

sexual exploitation and abuse. This provision in the Convention is augmented by the

Optional Protocol on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.

Article 35 (Abduction, sale and trafficking): The government should take all

measures possible to make sure that children are not abducted, sold or trafficked. This

provision in the Convention is augmented by the Optional Protocol on the sale of

children, child prostitution and child pornography.

Article 36 (Other forms of exploitation): Children should be protected from any

activity that takes advantage of them or could harm their welfare and development.

Article 37 (Detention and punishment): No one is allowed to punish children in a

cruel or harmful way. Children who break the law should not be treated cruelly. They

should not be put in prison with adults, should be able to keep in contact with their

families, and should not be sentenced to death or life imprisonment without possibility of

release.

Article 38 (War and armed conflicts): Governments must do everything they can to

protect and care for children affected by war. Children under 15 should not be forced or

recruited to take part in a war or join the armed forces. The Convention’s Optional

Protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflict further develops this right,

raising the age for direct participation in armed conflict to 18 and establishing a ban on

compulsory recruitment for children under 18.

Article 39 (Rehabilitation of child victims): Children who have been neglected,

abused or exploited should receive special help to physically and psychologically

recover and reintegrate into society. Particular attention should be paid to restoring the

health, self-respect and dignity of the child.

Article 40 (Juvenile justice): Children who are accused of breaking the law have the

right to legal help and fair treatment in a justice system that respects their rights.

Governments are required to set a minimum age below which children cannot be held

criminally responsible and to provide minimum guarantees for the fairness and quick

resolution of judicial or alternative proceedings.

Article 41 (Respect for superior national standards): If the laws of a country provide

better protection of children’s rights than the articles in this Convention, those laws

should apply.

Article 42 (Knowledge of rights): Governments should make the Convention known to

adults and children. Adults should help children learn about their rights, too. (See also

article 4.)

Articles 43-54 (implementation measures): These articles discuss how governments

and international organizations like UNICEF should work to ensure children are

protected in their rights.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS

A learner is a learner from 0-18 years old.

o Children are hyperactive

 Spend a lot of times playing, running, and doing other motional activities
 Enthusiastically shift from a certain activity to another without feeling tired
  Boys activities tend to be more violent that girls activities, because boys

usually depend on their muscles more than girls do.

 Girls tend to use simpler and safer toys and participate in less violate

games

PUPIL

 Physical Growth
 Engage themselves in many physical activities
 Spending their time on risky activities

 Language Development
 Mastery of vocabulary increases so does fluency
 Become more aware of the proper use of expressions and understands

grammatical usage
 Like to read much, especially about plants, animals, children of other

nations, etc
 Cherish the tendency to read about travels, journeys adventures and acts

of heroism.
 Distinguish between meanings and logical relations or reasoning

 Emotional Development
 Express feelings in words rather than motion
 Sometimes may feel frustrated because of his classmates jealousy and

competition
 Tend to play with his school fellows or with groups
 Like to play games that need mental thinking such as assembling and

disassembling toys.
 Flattery and encouragement positively affect them
 Enjoys humor and merry-making
 Reward and punishment but not physical punishment
 10 years old they develop a liking for a think acquisition, ownership and

collection such as stamps, shells and trees leaves

 Social Development
 Tend to join small groups in which they enjoy playing together
 They cooperate and participate in joint activities
  Noticeable different tendencies to leadership
 Learn modes of behavior

MIDDLE SCHOOL (approximately 11-13)

 Physical Growth
 Acceleration of growth
 Enlarged hoses, ears, arms, or legs
 Maturing much faster
 Fluctuations in their metabolism
 Extremely concerned about their appearance

 Emotional
 Girls mature both physically and emotionally faster than boys
 Self absorbed and tend to exaggerate a single occurrence as something

far more
 Sensitive and easily offended
 Can be moody and feel alienated from people around them
 Curious about the world around them

 Moral Development
 Starting to have a sense of idealism
 Sense of wonder about the changes they see
 Depend on parents, church leaders and adults they trust

HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS (approximately 13-16)

 Brain Development
 Changes in the brain, affect a teens emotional and social characteristics
 Changes in the brain associated with adolescence and continue until

about age 25
 The brain has to yet to mature
 Physical Development
 Between ages 15-19; girls fully develop physically. Boys continue to

develop physically after grad school

 Hormonal changes cause increases in weight and height. Changes in

skin, growth of body hair and increases in appetite

 Social Development
  Gain social awareness as he discovers new ways to relate to parents,

peer and others

 Teens test boundaries and experiment with new behaviors
 Typically begins spending less time with their family and more time with

friends
 A high school student’s family has more influence over decision- making,

core values, and drug and alcohol use.

 Emotional Development
 Gain the ability to empathize with others
 Form a sense of self-identity as they test their newly developed

communication skills.
 Teens self esteem can remain stable, steadily get worse or steadily

improve during the high school years

SOME TEACHING PRINCIPLES (Elementary & High School)

 Engage the students (students-centered activities)

 Cooperative and collaborative learning
 Critical thinking activities
 Use of technology in learning
 Products and performance as evidence of learning
 Consideration for diversity of learners
 Opportunities for independent learning research, reflection, case studies


SITUATION OF THE FILIPINO LEARNERS

1. Malnutrition

Malnutrition Refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s intake

of energy and/or nutrients. The term malnutrition addresses 3 broad groups of

conditions:
 o Under nutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low

height-for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-age);

o Micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies (a

lack of important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess; and

o Overweight, obesity and diet-related no communicable diseases (such as

heart disease, stroke, diabetes and some cancers).

2. Sexual Exploitation

Sexual Exploitation is a sexual abuse of children and youth through the

exchange of sex or sexual acts for drugs, food, shelter, protection, other basics of

life, and/or money. Sexual exploitation includes involving children and youth in

creating pornography and sexually explicit websites.

3. Parental Care

Children without parental care are an extremely vulnerable category, because

they are subjected to various risk factors. Therefore, in order to improve health

potentials and quality of life, special measures are required in health care, psychological

care and social welfare.

4. Infant Mortality

Infant mortality is the death of an infant before his or her first birthday. The infant

mortality rate is the number of infant deaths for every 1,000 live births.

5. Lack of Education
 The simplest definition is simply "lack of access to formal education." Formal

education are things like schools, or structured home schooling which meets societal

understanding of what constitutes an education, or reading law under a lawyer's

guidance or at a law school.

6. Child Labor

Child labor is; generally speaking, work by children that harm them or exploits

them in some way - physically, mentally, morally, or by blocking their access to

education.

7. Children as Drug runners

Be used to carry drugs from cities to rural areas - most aged between 15 and 17

- and many are trapped in the growing trade by debt bondage or threats of kidnap,

violence and rape.

8. Upgrades in Media Technology

Children do not get enough exercise. They spend most of their time with their

gadgets. This lack of exercise is extremely bad for their physical and mental health

because it can slow down their development.

HUMAN RIGHTS
 Are the rights that all people have by virtue of being human beings.

 Are derived from the inherent dignity of the human person and are defined

internationally, nationally and locally by various law making bodies.

 Rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of

residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any

other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without

discrimination. (UNHR)

 Defined as the Supreme, inherent, and inalienable rights to life, to dignity,

and to self-development.

CHAPTER II
 AREAS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues

through the life span, it stops when you are dead.

Development
 It increases in quality
 Expansion of cells
 Emergence of psychological attributes, ideas, & acquisition of

motor and sensory skills

 It acquires through maturation of physical and mental capacities

and learning

Growth
 Increases in quantity
 Multiplication of cells
 Anatomical and physiological changes
 Generally refers to changes in size

2 APPROACHES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

 Traditional Approach
Believes that there is extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or

no change in adulthood and decline in old age.

 Life- Span Approach

Sees developmental changes take place from birth to death (end of life as

we know it)

THE GENERAL PATTERN OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 1) PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OR PHYSIQUE
o It involves changes in terms of height, weight, body proportions and

general physical appearance.

2) INTERNAL ORGANS
o It involves changes in the function of glands, nervous system, circulatory,

digestive, muscular, and reproductive etc.

DOMAINS IN DEVELOPMENT

1.) PHYSICAL DOMAIN

 The physical domain covers the development of physical

changes, growing in size and strength, and the development of both gross

motor skills and fine motor skills. This domain includes the development of

the senses and using them.

 Physical development can be influenced by nutrition and illness. So,

eating a healthy diet and regular wellness check-up are key for proper

development.

2.) COGNITIVE DOMAIN

 This domain includes intellectual development and creativity. Children

develop the ability to process thoughts, pay attention, develop memories,

understand their surroundings, make and implement plans and

accomplish them.

3.) SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DOMAIN

  This domain includes the growth of a child in understanding and

controlling their emotions. They also identify what others are feeling. The

child develops attachments to others and learns how to interact with them.

They develop the ability to cooperate, show empathy, and use moral

reasoning. Children and adolescents develop many relationships, from

parents and siblings to peers, teachers, coaches, and others in the

community

 Children develop self-knowledge during this stage and they learn how they

identify with different groups. Their innate temperament also comes into

play.

AREAS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

o This is the child's ability to learn and solve problems. For example, this

includes a two-month-old baby learning to explore the environment with

hands or eyes or a five-year-old learning how to do simple math problems.

2) SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

o This is the child's ability to interact with others, including helping

themselves and self-control. Examples of this type of development would

 include: a six-week-old baby smiling, a ten-month-old baby waving bye-

bye, or a five-year-old boy knowing how to take turns in games at school.

3) SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

o This is the child's ability to both understand and use language. For

example, this includes a 12-month-old baby saying his first words, two-

year-old naming parts of her body, or a five-year-old learning to say "feet"

instead of "foots".

4) FINE MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

o This is the child's ability to use small muscles, specifically their hands and

fingers, to pick up small objects, hold a spoon, turn pages in a book, or

use a crayon to draw.

5) GROSS MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

o This is the child's ability to use large muscles. For example, a six-month-

old baby learns how to sit up with some support, a 12-month-old baby

learns to pull up to a stand holding onto furniture, and a five-year-old

learns to skip.

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1) CONTINUITY
o Growth and Development is a continue process from conception to death.
o In the early years of life, development consists of changes that lead the

child to maturity not only of body size and functioning, but also of behavior.
 o Even after the maturity has been attained, development does not end.

Changes continue which lead to the child to maturity not only of body size

and functioning, but also of behaviour.

o Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end.

Changes continue which lead to the period of life known as senescence or

old age.
o These changes continue until death ends the life cycle.
2) SEQUENTIALITY
o Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of development

peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the same for all individuals
o Social and behavioural scientists increasingly have come to see

development as a relationship between organism and environment in a

transaction or collaboration.
o Individuals work with and affect their environment, and in turn the

environment works with and affects them.

o Sequentiality all children follow a development pattern with one stage

leading to the next.

3) GENERALITY TO SPECIFICITY
o Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of

development, general activities always precede specific activity.

o For example; - The fetus moves its whole body but incapable of making

specific responses -Infants wave their arms randomly. They can make

such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them.

4) DIFFERENTIALITY
o The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of

growth and development.

o Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body

has its own particular rate of growth. Development does not occur at an

even pace.
 o There are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods

of imbalance.
o Development achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or

between levels.

5) DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM THE HEAD DOWNWARD

o This principle describes the direction of growth and development.
o The head region starts growth at first, following by which other organs

starts developing.
o The child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the legs.
o Infants develop control of the head and face movements at first two

months. In next few months they are able to lift themselves up by using

their arms. Next gain control over leg and able to crawl, stand, walk, run,
jump, climb, day by day.

6) DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM THE CENTRE OF THE BODY OUTWARD

o The directional sequence of development during both prenatal and

postnatal stages may either be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the central

axis to the extremities of the body.

o The spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body.
o He child’s arm develops before the hands, the hands and feet develops

before the fingers and toes.

o Fingers and toe muscles are the last to develop in physical development.
7) DEVELOPMENT DEPENDS ON MATURATION AND LEARNING
o Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and

development.
o The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new

abilities.
o Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation.

And help children to improve in thinking and motor skills.

o Children must mature to a, certain point before they can progress to new

skills.
 8) DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM THE SIMPLE TO MORE COMPLEX
o Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve

problems.
o Children at first are able hold the big things by using both arms, In the next

part able to hold things in a single hand, then only able to pick small

objects like peas, cereals etc.

o Children when able to hold pencil, first starts draw circles then a square

then only letters after that the words.

9) GROWTH IS A PERSONAL MATTER
o Each child grows in his own personal manner. He/she should be permitted

to grow at his/her own rate.

o If we expects too much, he/she may does even less than he/she is able to

do.
10) GROWTH COMES FROM WITHIN
o One or surrounding environment can encourage or can hinder the energy

of a child, but the drive force that pushes a child to grow is carried inside

him.
o Parent or teacher job is to clear the track, guide the child with loving

acceptance and then relax and enjoy.

11) Growth has certain characteristics common at particular stages
12) Growth is gradual and orderly but uneven

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

1) CEPHALOCAUDIAL (A)
o Cephalocaudal

development describes

the general growth

pattern of organisms to

develop areas near the

 main neural area (typically the head) earlier than areas of the body that

are more distant.

o This can be seen in human fetuses where the head is the first body

part formed. Once the body is formed the hands develop before feet.

'Cephalo' is used to describe things related to the head and brain while

the term 'caudal' is used to describe the body. So, cephalocaudal

development can mean head-body development in which the head

develops first.
o The upper portion of the body develops more quickly than the lower

part of the body.

2) PROXIMODISTAL (B)
o Proximodistal development describes the general tendency for the

development of motor skills to start at the center of an organism and

radiate outwards from there. The middle is the first to develop and

movement extends outwards from there. Infants will first learn to move

their torso and then their arms and legs. Once the motor skills for their

limbs are developed then finger manipulation and other fine tuned

movements will develop.

o The middle of the part of the body develops more quickly than the

outer part of the body.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Retrieved from: StateUniversity.com

o HEREDITY
 Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of

physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Different

characteristics of growth and development like intelligence, aptitudes,

body structure, height, weight, color of hair and eyes are highly influenced

by heredity.

o SEX

Sex is a very important factor which influences human growth and

development. There is lot of difference in growth and development

between girls and boys. Physical growth of girls in teens is faster than

boys. Overall the body structure and growth of girls are different from

boys.

o SOCIOECONOMIC

Socioeconomic factors definitely have some affect. It has been seen that

the children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size

at all ages. The upper level families being always more advanced. The

most important reasons behind this are better nutrition, better facilities,

regular meals, sleep, and exercise. Family size also influences growth rate

as in big families with limited income sometimes have children that do not

get the proper nutrition and hence the growth is affected.

o NUTRITIONAL

Growth is directly related with nutrition. The human body requires an

adequate supply of calories for its normal growth and this need of

requirements vary with the phase of development. As per studies,

malnutrition is referred as a large-scale problem in many developing

countries. They are more likely to be underweight, much shorter than

average, and of low height for age, known as stunting. If the children are

malnourished, this slows their growth process. There are nine different

amino acids which are necessary for growth and absence of any one will

give rise to stunted growth. Other factors like zinc, Iodine, calcium,

phosphorus and vitamins are also essential for proper growth and

deficiency of anyone can affect the normal growth and development of the

body.

o HORMONES

There are a large number of endocrine glands present inside our body.

These glands secrete one or more hormones directly into the

bloodstream. These hormones are capable of raising or lowering the

activity level of the body or some organs of the body. Hormones are

considered to be a growth supporting substance. These hormones play an

important role in regulating the process of growth and development.

 o POLLUTION

According to studies, air pollution not only affects the respiratory organs

but also have harmful effects on human growth. Indoor pollution or the

pollution from housing conditions can result in ill health which can

negatively impact human growth and development. For example, lead

exposure from deteriorated lead-based paint in older housing can be very

harmful. Lead is very harmful for children as it simply gets immersed into

the growing bodies of children and obstructs with the normal development

of brain and other organs and systems.

o RACE

Racial factors also influence height, weight, color, features, and body

constitution of a human being. The body growth and development

differences show a relationship with varied cultural groups. For example a

child of black race will be black, their height, their hair and eye color, facial

structure are all governed by the same race.

EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Retrieved from: ColumbiaCollege.library

 EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS

The term “exceptional” has often been used to describe unusual, unique,

or outstanding qualities of people or objects. Consider the following

phrases: “His artwork is exceptional” and “She is exceptionally bright.” In

 this case, the term “exceptional” refers to students who learn and develop

differently from most others or students who have exceptional learning

styles, exceptional talents, or exceptional behaviors. Exceptional students

are those who fall outside of the normal range of development.

 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Special education is a service provided to students with educational

disabilities. This article provides a general overview of the history, current

practices, and contemporary issues regarding special education. It

focuses on special education practices in the United States, although

other developed nations implement comparable practices and share

similar concerns. It also provides a brief review of international issues in

special education.

Retrieved from: researchgate.net

EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

This commonly refers to learners with exceptionalities as persons who are

different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. The term

“exceptional learners” includes those with special needs related to

 cognitive abilities, behaviour, social functioning, physical and sensory

impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness.

DISABILITY VS. HANDICAP

DISABILITY

 A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a

person’s ability, for example to walk, lift, hear, or learn.

 It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition.

HANDICAP

 A disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The

degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent

on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment.

MENTAL RETARDATION

 Refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive

behaviour. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in

conducting themselves appropriately in social situations.

a.Mild Retardation – IQ scores 55 to 69, adult capacity 8-11 years old;

b. Moderate Retardation – IQ scores 40-54; adult capacity 5-7 years old;

c. Severe Retardation - IQ scores 25-39; adult capacity 3-5 years old;

d. Profound retardation – IQ scores below 25; adult capacity, less than 3 years

old

LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

 Involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception,

language, memory, or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities

like mental retardation, emotional or behavioural disorders, or sensory

impairments.

 Dyslexia

 Dysgraphia

 Dyscalculia

LANGUAGE PROBLEMS

 Language delays or language disorders

 diagnosed when a child’s speech, verbal expression, and/or

understanding of language are significantly less well developed for his

age.
SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS

 Visual Impairment – conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or

optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

 Hearing impairment – occurs when some part of the hearing apparatus

malfunction with resulting hearing loss and possible impairment or loss of

the ability to speak.

CEREBRAL PALSY

 Refers to various disorders of movement and posture that are due to

damage/ abnormality of the immature brain.

 Autism- A condition manifested by different levels of impaired social

interaction and communication, repetitive behaviours and limited interests.

Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a

predictable environment.

ADD/ADHD

 Attention Deficit Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder are

neurochemical disorders that interfere with attention.

Children with ADHD may exhibit

1. Restless as evidenced by fidgeting with hands or feet.

2. Leaving his seat when remaining seated is expected.

3. Running about or climbing when remaining seated.

4. Being “on the go” or often acting as if “driven by a motor”

5. Blurting out answers before questions are complete

6. Difficulty waiting for his turn

7. Interrupting on others conversations or activities

8. Not paying attention to details or making careless mistakes

9. Difficulty paying attention to what needs to be done

10. Seeming not to listen when spoken to directly

11. Not following through when given directions, failing to finish activities.

GIFTEDNESS

 Children who have special ability in art or music, mechanical ingenuity, or

leadership qualities.

SUPERIOR – 120 to 125 IQ

GIFTED – 135 or 150 IQ and above

 EXTREMELY GIFTED – 170 to 180 IQ and above

CHAPTER III

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Biography of Jean Piaget:

 Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who is

known for conducting a systematic study of the

acquisition of understanding in children. He is widely

considered to be the most important figure in the 20th-

century developmental psychology.

Early Life and Education:

 Born on 9 August in 1896 in Neuchâtel,

Switzerland, Jean Piaget’s father, Arthur Piaget,

taught medieval literature at the University of

Neuchâtel. Piaget showed an early interest in

biology and the natural world. At high school, he was interested in mollusks and

he became a well-known malacologist writing many articles on the subject

throughout his life.

 He attended the University of Neuchâtel studying zoology and philosophy where

he obtained his doctorate in 1918, and later, enrolled for a semester at the

University of Zürich where he became interested in psychology.

 Even as a young student, Piaget wrote two philosophical papers that were

unfortunately rejected as adolescent thoughts.

Career Path:

 Piaget worked for a year at a boys’ institution created by Alfred Binet in France

where he standardized Burt’s test of intelligence and began his studies on

children’s mental development.

  He became director of studies at the J.J. Rousseau Institute in Geneva in 1921.

 In 1923, he married Valentine Châtenay and they had three children, Jacqueline,

Lucienne and Laurent.

 From 1925 to 1929 Piaget was professor of psychology, sociology, and the

philosophy of science at the University of Neuchâtel.

 He accepted the position of professor of child psychology at the University of

Geneva in 1929, and remained at the university until his death in 1980.

 Simultaneously he also had a professorship at the University of Lausanne in

Switzerland from 1938 to 1951.

 From 1952 to 1964 he was also professor of Genetic Psychology at the

Sorbonne in Paris.

Contributions and Achievements:

 It has been believed that no theoretical framework has had a bigger influence on

developmental psychology than that of Jean Piaget. He founded the International

Centre of Genetic Epistemology at Geneva in 1955 and became its director. He

made extraordinary contributions in various areas, including sociology,

experimental psychology and scientific thought.

 Piaget took ideas from biology, psychology and philosophy and investigated the

method by which children learn about the world. He based his conclusions about

child development on his observations and conversations with his own, as well

as other children. By asking them ingenious and revealing questions about

simple problems he had devised, he shaped a picture of their way of viewing the
 world by analyzing their mistaken responses. He formulated an outstandingly

well-articulated and integrated theory of cognitive development.

 Piaget was a highly prolific author who wrote about 70 books and more than 100

articles about human psychology. His theoretical conceptualizations have

induced a vast amount of research.

Later Life and Death:

 Jean Piaget was honored with the Balzan Prize for Social and Political Sciences

in 1979. The following year, he died on September 16, 1980. He was 84 years

old.

 PIAGET'S THEORY DIFFERS FROM OTHERS IN SEVERAL WAYS:

 It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.

 It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it
does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
 It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by
qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in
number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc .

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant,

and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using

hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental

processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children

construct an understanding of the world around them, and then experience

discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their

environment.
 Schemas
THERE ARE THREE o Building
BASIC blocks of knowledge
COMPONENTS TO PIAGET'S COGNITIVE THEORY:
 Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to
another (equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation.)
 Stages of Cognitive Development
o Sensorimotor
o Preoperational
o Concrete Operational
o Formal Operational
SCHEMAS

 Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It

would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from

your past experience or to plan future actions.

 Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us

to form a mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a

schema as:

"a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component

actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core.

 In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block

of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to

think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the

world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.

 Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of

as 'index cards' filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to

incoming stimuli or information.

 When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he

was referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a

person had learned.

 When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive

around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e.,

mental) balance.

 Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and

described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a

set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to

understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these

mental representations and apply them when needed.

 For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a

restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes

looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an example

of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a restaurant, they

retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

 The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those

used by infants. He described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas

become more numerous and elaborate.

  Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas

even before they have had many opportunities to experience the world. These

neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These

reflexes are genetically programmed into us.

 For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something

touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a

person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema.'

 Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm

of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards

something which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would

be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a

process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:

Assimilation

o This is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Accommodation

 This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs

to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

Equilibration

 This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive

development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
 Equilibrium occurs when a

child's schemas can deal

with most new information

through assimilation.

However, an unpleasant

state of disequilibrium occurs

when new information cannot

be fitted into existing

schemas (assimilation).

 Equilibration is the force

which drives the learning

process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by

mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is

acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the

next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

Example of Assimilation

 A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy

hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown”

(Siegler et al., 2003).

Example of Accommodation

 In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not

a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a

funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh.

 With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and

make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
 Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the

increasing sophistication of children's thought:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)

2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7)

3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)

4. Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood).

Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and child development is

determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment. Although no

stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which children

progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.

Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age although

descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average

child would reach each stage.

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (Birth-2 yrs)

 The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing

that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.

 It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of

the object.
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 yrs)

 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is

the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other

than itself.

 Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of

others.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11 yrs)

 Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's

cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical

or operational thought.

 This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather

than physically try things out in the real world).

 Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).

Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in

quantity even though its appearance changes.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 years and above)

o The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and

lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think

about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

 Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later

researchers have explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to

teaching and learning.

 Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and

teaching practice. For example, a review of primary education by the UK

government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this

review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).

 Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively

exploring - was seen as central to the transformation of the primary school

curriculum.

 'The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum,

the centrality of play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning

by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children's progress -

teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.'

 Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the

notion of 'readiness' is important. Readiness concerns when certain information

or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be

 taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of

cognitive development.

 According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active

learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they

must be discovered.

 Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished

through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning,

rather than direct tuition. Therefore, teachers should encourage the following

within the classroom:

 Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.

 Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths."

 Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn

from each other).

 Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium

in the child.

VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Biography of Lev Vygotsky:

Lev Vygotsky was a seminal

Russian psychologist who is best

known for his sociocultural theory. He

believed that social interaction plays a

critical role in children's learning.

Through such social interactions,

children go through a continuous

process of learning. Vygotsky noted,

however, that culture profoundly

influences this process. Imitation,

guided learning, and collaborative learning all play a critical part in his theory.

Vygotsky's Early Life:

 Lev Vygotsky was born November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the western

region of the Russian Empire.

 He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in law

in 1917. He studied a range of topics while attending university, including

sociology, linguistics, psychology, and philosophy. However, his formal work in

psychology did not begin until 1924 when he attended the Institute of Psychology

in Moscow.

 He completed a dissertation in 1925 on the psychology of art but was awarded

his degree in absentia due to an acute tuberculosis relapse that left him
 incapacitated for a year. Following his illness, Vygotsky began researching topics

such as language, attention, and memory with the help of students including

Alexei Leontiev and Alexander Luria.

Vygotsky's Career and Theories:

 Vygotsky was a prolific writer, publishing six books on psychology topics over a

ten-year period. His interests were quite diverse but often centered on issues of

child development and education. He also explored such subjects as the

psychology of art and language development.

VYGOTSKY'S THEORY DIFFERS FROM THAT OF PIAGET IN A NUMBER OF

IMPORTANT WAYS:

1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development.

o This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development

(Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does).
o Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures,

whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across

cultures.

2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing

to cognitive development.
o Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from

guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their
 partner's co-construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive

development stems largely from independent explorations in which children

construct knowledge of their own.

o For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how

they think and what they think about.

3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in

cognitive development.
o According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e.,

thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are

initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three

years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech).

o For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of

language.

4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive

development.
o Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children

internalize. In contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers as peer

interaction promotes social perspective taking.

EFFECTS OF CULTURE: - TOOLS OF INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION

 Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic

materials/abilities for intellectual development - Piaget focuses on motor reflexes

and sensory abilities.

 Lev Vygotsky refers to 'elementary mental functions' –

 Attention

 Sensation

 Perception

 Memory

 Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are

developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies

which he refers to as 'higher mental functions.'

 For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors.

However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop. E.g., in

our culture, we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other

strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or

carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large numbers can

be repeated.

 Vygotsky refers to tools of intellectual adaptation - these allow children to use the

basic mental functions more effectively/adaptively, and these are culturally

determined (e.g., memory mnemonics, mind maps).

 Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as

affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in

which a person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of

 intellectual adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture - as in the memory

example.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively

involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new

understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social

contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated

discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs

through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or

provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or

collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or an instruction

provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information,

using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw.

Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with

her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the

corner/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself

and offers encouragement when she does so.

As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more

independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving

cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.

 In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive

development, one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO)

 The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to

someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the

learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.

 Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not

necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be

the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

 For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music

groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly

perform the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?

 In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support

employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance

support systems.

 Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and

guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must

have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned

than the learner does.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

 The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second

important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.

 This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child

can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and

encouragement from a

skilled partner.

 For example, the

child could not

solve the jigsaw

puzzle (in the

example above)

by itself and

would have taken

a long time to do

so (if at all), but

was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and has

developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.

 Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the

most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to

develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental

functions.

 Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing

skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning

 exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful

peers - within the zone of proximal development.

EVIDENCE FOR VYGOTSKY AND THE ZPD

 Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of

furniture should be placed in particular areas of a dolls house.

 Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before

they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) while others were

allowed to work on this by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning).

 Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD)

showed the greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task.

The conclusion being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater

understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).

VYGOTSKY AND LANGUAGE

 Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for

communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a

means for communicating with the outside world.

 According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive

development:

 It is the main means by which adults transmit information to

children.
 Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual
adaptation.
 Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech

which is external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of

two); private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self

and serves an intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground,

diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and is

transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven).

 For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the

beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and

thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes

representational. When this happens, children's monologues internalized to

become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives

cognitive development.

'Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a

function
 Vygotsky in itself.
(1987) wasItthestillfirst
remains speech,toi.e.,
psychologist thoughtthe
document connected withof private
importance
words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in words, in
inner He
speech. speech words dies
considered private as speech
they bring forth
as the thought.point
transition Innerbetween
speech social
is and
to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.'
inner speech, 1962:
(Vygotsky, the moment
p. 149) in development where language and thought unite to

constitute verbal thinking.

 Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner

speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner

speech than social speech.

Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as

speech addressed to the self (not to others) for the purpose of self-
regulation (rather than communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)
 Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e., hidden), private speech is overt. In

contrast to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech representing a

developmental dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:

'A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal

thought and preintellectual language come together to create
fundamentally new forms of mental functioning.'
(Fernyhough&Fradley, 2005: p. 1).

 In addition to disagreeing on the functional significance of private speech,

Vygotsky and Piaget also offered opposing views on the developmental course of
 private speech and the environmental circumstances in which it occurs most

often (Berk& Garvin, 1984).

 Through private speech, children begin to collaborate with themselves in the

same way a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborate with them in the

achievement of a given function.

 Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and

strategies and therefore aid their development. Private speech is the use of

language for self-regulation of behavior. Language is, therefore, an accelerator to

thinking/understanding (Jerome Bruner also views language in this way).

Vygotsky believed that children who engaged in large amounts of private speech

are more socially competent than children who do not use it extensively.

 Vygotsky (1987) notes that private speech does not merely accompany a child’s

activity but acts as a tool used by the developing child to facilitate cognitive

processes, such as overcoming task obstacles, enhancing imagination, thinking,

and conscious awareness.

 Children use private speech most often during intermediate difficulty tasks

because they are attempting to self-regulate by verbally planning and organizing

their thoughts (Winsler et al., 2007).

 The frequency and content of private speech are then correlated with behavior or

performance. For example, private speech appears to be functionally related to

cognitive performance: It appears at times of difficulty with a task.

 For example, tasks related to executive function (Fernyhough&Fradley,

2005), problem-solving tasks (Behrend et al., 1992), schoolwork in both

 language (Berk& Landau, 1993), and mathematics (Ostad& Sorensen,

2007).

 Berk (1986) provided empirical support for the notion of private speech.

She found that most private speech exhibited by children serves to

describe or guide the child's actions.

 Berk also discovered than child engaged in private speech more often

when working alone on challenging tasks and also when their teacher was

not immediately available to help them. Furthermore, Berk also found that

private speech develops similarly in all children regardless of cultural

background.

 Vygotsky (1987) proposed that private speech is a product of an individual’s social

environment. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that there exist high positive

correlations between rates of social interaction and private speech in children.

 Children raised in cognitively and linguistically stimulating environments (situations

more frequently observed in higher socioeconomic status families) start using and

internalizing private speech faster than children from less privileged backgrounds.

Indeed, children raised in environments characterized by low verbal and social

exchanges exhibit delays in private speech development.

 Childrens’ use of private speech diminishes as they grow older and follows a

curvilinear trend. This is due to changes in ontogenetic development whereby

children are able to internalize language (through inner speech) in order to self-

regulate their behavior (Vygotsky, 1987).

  For example, research has shown that childrens’ private speech usually peaks at

3–4 years of age, decreases at 6–7 years of age, and gradually fades out to be

mostly internalized by age 10 (Diaz, 1992).

 Vygotsky proposed that private speech diminishes and disappears with age not

because it becomes socialized, as Piaget suggested, but rather because it goes

underground to constitute inner speech or verbal thought” (Frauenglass& Diaz,

1985).

CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS

 A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal

teaching," used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this method,

teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills:

summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the

process is reduced over time.

 Also, Vygotsky is relevant to instructional concepts such as "scaffolding" and

"apprenticeship," in which a teacher or more advanced peer helps to structure or

arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully.

 Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning,

suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more

advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.
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