Statistics:

 Descriptive Statistics:
 Variables:
- Categorical (Nominal)
- Discrete (Ordinal)
- Continuous (Scale)

 Graphical Display of Data: - Histogram (Normal Distribution etc…)

 Descriptive Statistics:

- Measures of Central Tendency:

 Mean (average)
 Median (middle score)
 Mode (most frequent score)
- Measures of Dispersion:
 Range (Lowest Score – Highest Score)
 Variance (Spread of scores relative to Mean)
 Standard Deviation (Square-Root of Variance)
- When reporting SD’s meaning  report Range as well to
show that there is Variation (Higher SD means Higher
Variation of scores).
- Reporting Descriptive Stats
 The average IQ score of Psychology students in Sheffield was
calculated (N = 16). The mean IQ was 120 (SD = 16.33, range = 90
- 150).

 Inferential Statistics:
 Distributions:
- Skewed to the Right (Positively Skewed)
- Skewed to the Left (Negatively Skewed)
- Normal Distribution (Scores equally spread around the MEAN)
 68 – 95 – 99.7 Rule
- Calculation of a person’s score in the population, having already
the mean population and mean SD.
- 68% - 1SD
- 95% - 1.96SD
 - 99.7% - 3SD
 From Sample to Population:
 We can predict the Population Mean using the sample mean and
SD.
- Confidence Interval (95% chance of what the population mean might be).
 Reporting Confidence Intervals
- With 95% certainty the average amount people spend on food in the
population will be between 170.2 and 189.8 pounds per month.
OR
With 95% chance, the population mean difference will be between _ and _
- Why 95% chance though?

 Experimental Design:
 Research Questions:
- Difference (Experimental Design) – at least one var is Categorical
- Relationship (Correlational Design) – all vars are Continuous
 Research Designs:
- Experimental
 Manipulation of IV and see changes in DV
 Random allocation of Ps to Groups
 Analysis by comparison between groups (differences)
 Similar Experimental Conditions – Less Confounding Variables
- Quasi-Experimental
 Pseudo-manipulation of IV
 No random allocation of Ps – more confounding variables
 Analysis by comparison between groups (differences)
- Correlational
 Investigates the relationship between two or more variables
 Cannot infer causation from correlation
 Analysed using Correlation Tests (Pearson’s r, Spearman’s Rho etc)
 Hypotheses:
- Experimental Hypothesis (Ha, H1)
 Expected answer of your study’s question
- Null Hypothesis (H0)
  Chance that we are wrong – need to falsify that
 Other Research Designs:
- Between Subjects (Independent/Unrelated Design)
 Less Order Effects (Fatigue, Boredom, Practice - Familiarity)
 Less Demand Effects (Ps Understanding Purpose of Study)
 More Participants needed
 No control of Individual Differences – Confounding Variables
- Within Subjects (Repeated Measures)
 Fewer Participants needed
 Greater control of Confounding variables between conditions
 More Order Effects (Practice, Fatigue Effects)
- Counterbalancing needed to eliminate order effects
 More Demand Effects (Ps more likely to guess purpose of study)
 Summary of Results:
The average depression level of patients with depression (mean =…., SD =….) was lower
after the new drug treatment compared to before (mean =…., SD =….; mean difference = ….,
95% CI = […. ; ….]). With 95% chance, the people in the population who take this drug
treatment will be between …. And …. Depression score points lower compared to before they
took the drug treatment. This indicates that the drug treatment does have a decreasing effect
on patients’ level of depression.
- In the case above the 95%, Confidence Interval is done for the mean
difference – because we want to see the differences that the drug will
produce in the depression levels of people in the population.