SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: AREAS, BRANCHES & HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

The Study of Sociology

Sociology is derived from the Greek word logos meaning “science” or “study,” and the Latin word socius meaning “group”
or “partner.” According to Joseph Fitcher, sociology is the scientific study of patterned & shared human behaviour. Social
behaviour has been an interesting subject throughout the recorded history of man, & the story of “what happened” as
told by historians & reporters is the story of people in social life. The term “sociology” was later used in 1838 by the French
thinker, Auguste Comte.

Sociology is the systematic study of the patterns of human behaviour, which deals with the life of a group. Its focus is not
on individuals & individual behaviour but on social behaviour.

The subject matter of sociology ranges from the micro-level of face-to-face interaction to the macro-level of aggregate
political systems, economic systems or world systems.

Sociology as a Science

Sociology as a science deals with the systematized or organized body of facts about patterns of human interactions & of
group life, that is, of people living in interdependence. A social scientist, in general, studies the social world. The
sociologist, in particular, is concerned with how groups are formed, how groups affect their members, & how members
affect their group.

Areas of Sociology

Sociology is a broad discipline in both methodology & subject matter. It focuses on social relations, social stratification,
social interaction, culture & deviance. Its approached include comparing social structure across nations and time periods
or using large-scale data analysis.

There are seven areas in the study of sociology:

1. Social organization. This area covers the studies of social institutions, social groups, social stratification, social
mobility, bureaucracy, ethnic groups & relations; & topics like family, education, politics, religion & economy.

2. Social psychology. This is an area in sociology that deals with the study of human nature resulting from group life,
social attitudes, collective behaviour & personality formation. It views man with reference to group life.

3. Social change & social disorganization. These areas include changes in culture & social relations, as well as social
disruptions such as juvenile delinquency & population problems that may occur in a society.

4. Human ecology. It deals with the nature & behaviour of a given population & its relationship with other social groups
& with the existing institutions.

5. Population or demography. This area of sociology studies the number, composition, changes & quality of a given
population as they affect the economic, political & social systems.

6. Sociological theory & method. This area is concerned with how the principles & theories of group life may be applied
& utilized for the regulation of man.

7. Applied sociology. This area of sociology is concerned with the findings of pure sociological research in various fields
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like criminology, community development, education, marriage & other problems & aspects of man’s daily life.
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SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: AREAS, BRANCHES & HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY
The Historical Development of Sociology

Sociological inquiry started as man developed some means of communication. The conscious adoption of the scientific
approach began in the early part of the 18th century to the first quarter of the 19th century when social philosophers
became interested in the development of science which led to the development of society.

Sociology as a science developed in Western Europe as a result of a vast social, cultural, economic & political changes.
Social changes swept over Europe as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Numerous social problems transpired in France
after the French Revolution. Significant approaches were initiated to understand the social forces & their causes &
solutions.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Auguste Comte was a French philosopher who is considered as the father of sociology. He believed in applying the
scientific method to the study of society & social relations. He coined sociology from the Latin term socius which means
“social” or “being with others” & the Greek word logos meaning “science” or “study.” He published the book, Positive
Philosophy, which summarizes the stages of development of all knowledge about humanity.

There is one universal law that he saw at work in all sciences; he called this the “Law of Three Stages:”

1. The theological phase is the man’s place in society & society’s restriction upon man with reference to God. Man
blindly follows & believes in whatever his ancestors taught him, & he believes in the supernatural power;

2. The metaphysical phase is the stage of investigation, the stage where people questioned authority & religion; &

3. The scientific phase is the point where people could find solutions to social problems.

Comte advocated the idea of positivism which is necessary for rebuilding a society on a rational basis. His theories were
greatly influenced but the social unrests in Europe & the Industrial Revolution.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx is a German philosopher, political economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, communist &
revolutionary. He is credited for being the founder of communism. He wrote the Communist Manifesto together with
Friedrich Engels. As seen in their works, Marx & Engels both had intense anger over the misery of the lower class which
was caused by the prevalent industrial order. Marx believed that history is a continuous struggle between the conflicting
ideas & forces, but such struggle is necessary to achieve social change. He contended that all aspects of society – work,
religion, government, law & morality – are economically conditioned & controlled by capitalism. Capitalism, as Marx
argued, will end through organized actions of an international working class.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

As a French sociologist, Emile Durkheim’s contributions were instrumental in the formation of sociology & anthropology.
He is the first French academic sociologist who obtained a doctorate degree in sociology in 1892 at the University of Paris,
where he also taught & became a prolific writer & critic. Among his best books are Division of Labor in Society, Rules of
Sociological Method, Suicide, & the Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.

According to Durkheim, individuals are more a product than creator of a society. His Division of Labor in Society points out
that the rapid social changes & the specialized division of labor produce social strains resulting in the breakdown of
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traditional social organization, values & authority. This breakdown may lead to anomie, a condition of “normlessness” &
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SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: AREAS, BRANCHES & HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY
loss of social control. In Suicide, he stated that while suicide is a solitary act, it can only be understood by analyzing society
or social mechanisms.

Durkheim identified four types of suicide:

1. The egoistic type, which results in the breakdown of social integration due to failure of economic development &
division of labor.

2. The altruistic type, which results in high integration societies where needs to individuals are seen as less important
than the needs of a society as a whole.

3. The anomic type, which results in moral deregulation & lack of legitimate aspirations through a restraining social
ethic, that is, people do not know where they fit in societies.

4. The fatalistic type, which results in overly oppressive societies, causing people to die than to carry on living within
their society.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber was a German lawyer, politician, scholar, political economist & sociologist who profoundly influenced
sociological theory. His works include the following:

1. The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism, which argues that religion is one of the non-exclusive reasons for the
different ways Occidental & Oriental cultures have developed

2. The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism & Buddhism

3. Theory if Social Economic Organization

4. Politics as a Vocation, which defines the state as an entity claiming monopoly on the legitimate use of violence

Weber introduced the Verstehen method into sociology; in which sociologist must not only employ objective methods,
but also ascertain the subjective meanings that people attach to their own behavior & that of others.

Ferdinand Toennies (1855-1936)

Ferdinand Toennies was born in Schleswig, Germany & spent his academic life at the University of Kiel. He had outstanding
contributions in sociological theory by conducting a number of excellent studies with brilliant reports about them. His first
most important writing is about the social theory of Gemeinschaft & Gesellschaft which was published in 1887.

One of Toennies’ chief contribution is the introduction of the types of social groups and the types of societies. The two
basic types of social groups are:

1. Gemeinschaft which is the type of group willed into being because of sympathy among its members, or the
expression of the will. (Neighborhoods & friendship group)

2. Gesellschaft or the arbitrarily willed group that arises to attain some definite end. (City & state)

William Graham Sumner (1840-1910)

William Graham Sumner was a famous sociologist, anthropologist, scholar & an influential professor at Yale University. He
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is the author of Folkways & the Science of Society which extensively studies of folkways. He is credited with introducing
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the term “ethnocentrism,” intended to express his anti-imperialist sentiment.

SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: AREAS, BRANCHES & HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)

As an English social anthropologist, A.R. Radcliffe-Brown developed the theory of structural functionalism. This framework
describes the basic concepts in the structure of primitive societies. His anthropological fieldworks include: The Andaman
Islanders, The Social Organization of Australian Tribes, and the Structure & Function in Primitive Society. He was
responsible for making anthropology a college subject.

Friedrich Engels (1820-1903)

Friedrich Engels was a German social scientist, author, political theorist & philosopher. He is known as the father of
communist theory, which he established alongside Karl Marx. Before co-authoring The Communist Manifesto, his study
on the working class of Victoria England was publishes in 1844, entitled The Condition of the Working Class in England. He
also wrote Socialism: Utopian & Scientific and the Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State.

Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929)

Thorstein Veblen was an American-Norwegian sociologist & economist & a primary mentor along with John R. Commons
of the institutional economics movement. He was an impassioned critic of the American economy & is famous for his
book, The Theory of the Leisure Class.

Veblen is known for his concepts on conspicuous consumption, ostentatious display, trained incapacity, predatory culture,
absentee ownership & discretionary control. He never emancipated himself from his agrarian background & showed
intense appreciation for womanlike performance & time-saving machinery.

Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968)

Pitirim Sorokin was a Russian-American sociologist who was born in Fomi, Russia. He was a scholar of international
reputation & became a professor at several Russian, Czech & American universities. He also founded the Department of
Sociology at Harvard University. He sought to provide a complete account of psychologically & physically oriented
sociology. His works include Contemporary Sociological Theories, Fads & Foibles in Modern Sociology & Related Sciences,
and Social & Cultural Dynamics.

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who taught at Harvard University from 1927 to 1973. He developed a general
theory for the study of society called “action theory,” which was based on the methodological theory of voluntarism &
the epistemological theory of analytical realism. According to him, human action is not conceived to be completely free
but is grounded in & circumscribed by norms or ultimate principles of actions.

SOURCE:
Coloma, et.al. Essentials of Sociology & Anthropology: An Interactive Study (QC: C&E Publishing, Inc., 2012), 3-10.
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SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: AREAS, BRANCHES & HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY