MRM Module 1 PDF

BANGALORE UNIVERSITY
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION SEMESTER II

MANAGERIAL RESEARCH METHODS NOTES
Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S
CONTENTS: INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT RESEARCH
Module-1: Introduction to Management Research:
Definition, Nature and role of Management Research, Types of Research based

on Purpose, Process, Outcome, Nature, Action and Logic, Research concepts,
constructs, propositions and hypotheses, Features of a good Research Study, Research
Process, and Ethical issues.
Definition of Business or Management Research: Business and management research is a

systematic inquiry that helps to solve business problems and contributes to management
knowledge. It is an applied research.
Four factors (Easterby-Smith, 2008) combine to make business and management a distinctive
focus for research:
 Trans discipline approach

 Information access is difficult since managers see information as competitive
advantage on the market
 Managers are educated and want some information produced by the classical research
method
 Finding must resolve practical management problems
 Managers often need information of high quality to help them to make the right
decision.
Research is defined as “a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a

problem using scientific methods”. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the
observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”
Inductive research methods are used to analyze the observed phenomenon whereas, deductive
methods are used to verify the observed phenomenon. Inductive approaches are associated
Managerial Research Methods Notes
with qualitative research and deductive methods are more commonly associated with
quantitative research.
One of the most important aspects of research is the statistics associated with it, conclusion or
result. It is about the “thought” that goes behind the research. Research is conducted with a
purpose to understand:
 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?

 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required that people believe in the idea or concept?
Characteristics of Research:
1. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral part of
research that set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and
code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural
settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be
generated from existing research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained
while conducting the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research
conducted in a controlled environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of
instruments used, calibrations, and the final result of the experiment.
Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 2

Nature of Business/ Management Research:
1. Systematic 2. Scientific. 3. Objectivity. 4. Definiteness. 5. Verifiability. 6. Generality. 7.

Predictability. 8. Modifiability and dynamicity.
Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
Generally, research has to follow a certain structural process.
Research has objectivity: Research is quite objective in its approach and is almost free from
biases, prejudices and subjectivity.
Research has definiteness - Research is characterized by definiteness in its process as well

as product. Here the modes and measures for (i) collection and organizing information or data
and (ii) testing and verifying the collected information for arriving at the conclusion are all
well planned and definite.
Research has Verifiability– Research lays emphasis on the proper verification of the
collected information, data or facts. Here, nothing is accepted and derived unless verified
through adequate observation, tests and experimentation.
Research has Generality– The conclusions or results derived from the scientific method
show a marked characteristic of generality. First, it means that inductive reasoning and
process is sued in making generalization and of the particular happenings or evens and
secondly, the principles, laws and theories established through scientific method are quite
universal having generalized application in similar situations.
Research has Predictability– The results obtained through scientific method are
characterized with the ability of predicting the future outcomes of the things or events. In a
given situation, under the known circumstances, what would happen to a person, object or
phenomenon can be reasonably predicted through the properly derived conclusions or results
of a scientific procedure.
Research has modifiability and dynamicity– The conclusion reached or results obtain
through research are never final, absolute and static. They are always open to verification,
observation and experimentation. Consequently, what is true today in terms of the derived
fact or reached generalization may be proved wrong tomorrow based on new findings.
Therefore, research neither advocates rigidity in the process adopted for discovering the facts

nor stands in the way of bringing desired modification and changes in the pre-established
principles, laws or theories.
Role of Management Research:
1. Testing of new products. Business research tests the possible success of fresh products.
Businesses need to know what kinds of services and products consumers want before they
produce them. Research will reduce risk – Research can help design a new product or service,
figuring out what is needed and ensure that the development of a product is highly targeted
towards demand.
2. Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses can also use research to guarantee

sufficient distribution of their products. For instance, a consumer products’ company might
want to speak with merchants about the various brands they offer. The outcomes of the
business research can help managers decide where they need to increase their product
distribution.
3. In-house research is required for professional and self development of the workers through
training and mentoring. Organisational research and analysis would also be needed for
assessment of performance management, process reengineering, departmental assessment and
well-being of staff members.
4. Undertaking research can help a company avoid future failure. Carrying out research can
also help a business determine whether now is the right time to expand into another town or
whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It may also help a small business decide if a process
should be altered or if more needs to be done to meet the requirements of the customer base.
5. Studying the competition. Businesses frequently make use of research to study key rivals
in their markets. Businesses will often begin with secondary research information or
information which is currently accessible. Research is important for any organization to
remain competitive in the market. The top function of research is to supply a business with an
outlet to correctly determine its customers. With the help of surveys, an organization can
analyze the preferences of its target consumers. Furthermore, these studies could also provide
a business the chance to examine its competitors in the industry and analyze and emulate key
strategies which could help in its operations.

6. It can also help in the recruitment of employees. It’s through proper research that human
resource managers are able to determine and recruit qualified manpower. Recruitment of
workers with the right skills and attitudes aids the company to improve its productivity levels.
Research for the right staff members can be done via the internet, consultancy firms and
institutions of higher learning.
A proper knowledge of the employees and healthy conversation would be important factors
for a manager to boost performance of the individuals in the team. A good approach, winning
attitude and behavior of the manager with proper systems set up would certainly call for
sound research to understand and improve the system.
Types of Research:
i) Based on Purpose:
Based on Purpose research can be classified into:
Exploratory Research:
Exploratory research is research conducted for a problem that has not been studied more
clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final
research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data-
collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with
extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often relies on
techniques such as:
Secondary research - such as reviewing available literature and/or data informal qualitative
approaches, such as discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors
formal qualitative research through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies
The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature. For example:
 RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information

 services such as Google Alerts may send major search-engine search results by email
to researchers
 services such as Google Trends track comprehensive search results over lengthy
periods of time

 researchers may set up websites to attract worldwide feedback on any subject
When research aims to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to acquire new insight into it in
order to formulate a more precise problem or to develop a hypothesis, exploratory studies
(also known as formulative research) come in handy. If the theory happens to be too general
or too specific, a hypothesis cannot be formulated. Therefore, a need for an exploratory
research may be realized and instituted to gain experience that may help in formulating a
relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves,
but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of
qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something
occurs, they cannot reveal "how often" or "how many". Exploratory research is not typically
generalizable to the population at large.
Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the
population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the
“what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.
In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a

demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other
words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.
For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among
New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data
and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then
uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any
investigative details on “why” the patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to
break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research and
data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research
method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any
capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It
is a popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the
demographic segment.
Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any
way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where

different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then
be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point
towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.
Applications of Descriptive Research with Examples
Descriptive research can be used in multiple ways and for multiple reasons. Before getting
into any kind of survey though, the survey goals and survey design is very important. Despite
following these steps though, there is no way to know if the research outcome will be met. To
understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently
use descriptive research today:
Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete
conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits and
behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent, their attitude
or opinion about the phenomenon in question. For example, understanding from millenials
the hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps the
organization conducting the research make informed business decisions.
Measure data trends: Data trends can be measured over time with statistical capabilities
provided by descriptive research. Consider if an apparel company conducts research between
different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of
autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, this provides an
insight into what clothes are like and what are not and the ones that are not, are dropped.

Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use descriptive research to understand how

different groups respond to a certain product or service. For example, an apparel brand
creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brands image. The same survey
also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location etc. This
consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the
population and what aspects do not. It also helps in making product or marketing fixes or in
some cases even create a new product line just to cater to a high growth potential, group.
Validate existing conditions: Descriptive research is widely used to help ascertain the
prevailing conditions and underlying patterns of the research object. Due to the non invasive
method of research and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative
observation, each variable is observed and an in-depth analysis can be concluded. It is also
used to validate any existing conditions that maybe prevalent in a population.
Conduct research at different times: To ascertain if there are any similarities or differences,
the research can be conducted at different periods of times. This also allows any number of
variables to be evaluated. For the purpose of verification, studies on prevailing conditions can
also be repeated to draw trends.
Descriptive Research Methods
There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:
Observational Method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and
both quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method.
Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on

numbers and values – it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity”.
Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis
methods. It implies observation of any entity that can be associated with a numeric value such
as age, shape, weight, volume, scale etc. For example, the researcher can track if current
customers will refer the brand by using a simple Net Promoter Score question.
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and

effective. In descriptive research, the researcher can chose to be either a complete observer,
an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer or a complete participant. For
example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the selection and
purchasing trends of the customers. This offers a deeper insight into the purchasing
experience of the customer.
Case Study Method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead
to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies
should not be used to determine cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make
accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher. The other
reason why case studies are not an accurate way of conducting descriptive research is because
there could be an atypical respondent in the research and describing them leads to poor
generalizations and move away from external validity.
Survey Research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or polls. They are
a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to
gather good quality data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced
mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be
conducting online or offline which is makes it the go-to option for descriptive research where
the sample size is very large.
Examples of Descriptive Research
Some examples of descriptive research are:
A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand
what flavors of rubs are favored by different sets of people. To understand the preferred
flavor palette, they conduct a descriptive research study using different methods like
observational methods in supermarkets. By also conducting a survey whilst collecting in-
depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets.
This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to different preferred meats in that
demographic. Conducting a thorough descriptive research helps the organization tweak their
business model and amplify marketing in core markets.

Another example of where descriptive research can be used is if a school district that wishes
to evaluate teachers attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys
and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the
researcher can gauge what can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face
issues. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this
change.
Some other problems and/or research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:
Market researchers that want to observe habits of consumers.
 A company that wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.

 A school district that wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather
than textbooks.
 An organization to understand if its wellness programs increase the overall health of
the employees
Advantages of Descriptive Research
Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:
Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using specific methods like
observational method, case study method and survey method. Between these 3, all major
methods of data collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can be used
for future research or even developing hypothesis of your research object.
Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected gets
tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.
Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the
natural environment of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and honest data is
collected.
Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research,
the data collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.

Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in descriptive research represents a
larger population and is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the statistical
analysis of that data.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:
Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are too personal or they feel
that they are being “watched”. This may negate the validity of the data.
Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards the research topic or some
respondents in the research, the observations then maybe considered as invalid or untrue.
Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the sample, it is very tough to
validate that the sample is an accurate representation of the whole population.
No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses on the “what” of an
objective or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or how” and that is a limitation in
learning specific causes.
Analytical Research:
Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills and the
evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A variety of
people including students, doctors and psychologists use analytical research during studies to
find the most relevant information. From analytical research, a person finds out critical
details to add new ideas to the material being produced.
Research of any type is a method to discover information. Within analytical research articles,
data and other important facts that pertain to a project is compiled; after the information is
collected and evaluated, the sources are used to prove a hypothesis or support an idea. Using
critical thinking skills (a method of thinking that involves identifying a claim or assumption
and deciding if it is true or false) a person is able to effectively pull out small details to form
greater assumptions about the material.
Some researchers conduct analytical research to find supporting evidence to current research
being done in order to make the work more reliable. Other researchers conduct analytical
research to form new ideas about the topic being studied. Analytical research is conducted in

a variety of ways including literary research, public opinion, scientific trials and Meta-
analysis.
Predictive research:
Predictive analysis is the attempt to predict what could happen. To do this, we need to dig
into data and pull out the pieces that can help answer that question. You may have heard of
the term data mining to describe such analysis. But just mining the data, and bringing it to the
surface, doesn't really DO anything. Having a huge stockpile of data does no good unless you
ask the right questions.
Big Data
The term big data is used often with predictive analysis. Yes, big data is what it implies:
HUGE amounts of data. This can include historical and real-time data. Some of the data is
structured; other data isn't. And it isn't from one source either.
For a business, it includes vast swathes of information on customers, other business; it can
include geographical and other information. You may even want to mine weather and traffic
history! If you know that 5% of customers purchase your product before a rainstorm, you will
want to mine the national weather service data in order to become your own weather (and
sales) forecaster!
Predictive analysis helps us ask the right questions of the data. We're trying to read the tea
leaves correctly so that we can predict our high-dollar customers, or which play is going to
result in a touchdown.
Examples
If you have a business and are trying out some unique marketing tricks, you might come up
with some interesting questions. One might be: Which cities do the highest spenders come
from? This type of question is fairly rote business intelligence.
Predictive analysis, however, asks this: What level of sales can I expect from a given city?
ii) Based on Process:
Based on process the research can be classified into:

Qualitative research:
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps
to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is
also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.
Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to
fulfill a given quota.
Quantitative research:
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or
data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample
population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover
patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than
Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various
forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-
face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls,
and systematic observations.
Sub classification of Quantitative Research:
1. Inferential research
2. Experimental research
3. Simulation
Inferential Research: With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that
extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to
infer from the sample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to
make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a
dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use
inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use
descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.

Here, I concentrate on inferential statistics that are useful in experimental and quasi-
experimental research design or in program outcome evaluation. Perhaps one of the simplest
inferential test is used when you want to compare the average performance of two groups on
a single measure to see if there is a difference. You might want to know whether eighth-grade
boys and girls differ in math test scores or whether a program group differs on the outcome
measure from a control group. Whenever you wish to compare the average performance
between two groups you should consider the t-test for differences between groups.
Most of the major inferential statistics come from a general family of statistical models
known as the General Linear Model. This includes the t-test, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), regression analysis, and many of the
multivariate methods like factor analysis, multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis,
discriminant function analysis, and so on. Given the importance of the General Linear Model,
it's a good idea for any serious social researcher to become familiar with its workings. The
discussion of the General Linear Model here is very elementary and only considers the
simplest straight-line model. However, it will get you familiar with the idea of the linear
model and help prepare you for the more complex analyses described below.
One of the keys to understanding how groups are compared is embodied in the notion of the
"dummy" variable. The name doesn't suggest that we are using variables that aren't very
smart or, even worse, that the analyst who uses them is a "dummy"! Perhaps these variables
would be better described as "proxy" variables. Essentially a dummy variable is one that uses
discrete numbers, usually 0 and 1, to represent different groups in your study. Dummy
variables are a simple idea that enables some pretty complicated things to happen. For
instance, by including a simple dummy variable in a model, I can model two separate lines
(one for each treatment group) with a single equation. To see how this works, check out the
discussion on dummy variables.
One of the most important analyses in program outcome evaluations involves comparing the
program and non-program group on the outcome variable or variables. How we do this
depends on the research design we use. Research designs are divided into two major types of
designs: experimental and quasi-experimental. Because the analyses differ for each, they are
presented separately.
Experimental Analysis: The simple two-group posttest-only randomized experiment is

usually analyzed with the simple t-test or one-way ANOVA. The factorial experimental

designs are usually analyzed with the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Model. Randomized
Block Designs use a special form of ANOVA blocking model that uses dummy-coded
variables to represent the blocks. The Analysis of Covariance Experimental Design uses, not
surprisingly, the Analysis of Covariance statistical model.
Quasi-Experimental Analysis: The quasi-experimental designs differ from the experimental

ones in that they don't use random assignment to assign units (e.g., people) to program
groups. The lack of random assignment in these designs tends to complicate their analysis
considerably. For example, to analyze the Nonequivalent Groups Design (NEGD) we have to
adjust the pretest scores for measurement error in what is often called a Reliability-Corrected
Analysis of Covariance model. In the Regression-Discontinuity Design, we need to be
especially concerned about curvilinearity and model misspecification. Consequently, we tend
to use a conservative analysis approach that is based on polynomial regression that starts by
overfitting the likely true function and then reducing the model based on the results. The
Regression Point Displacement Design has only a single treated unit. Nevertheless, the
analysis of the RPD design is based directly on the traditional ANCOVA model.
When you've investigated these various analytic models, you'll see that they all come from
the same family -- the General Linear Model. An understanding of that model will go a long
way to introducing you to the intricacies of data analysis in applied and social research
contexts.
Experimental Research: Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific

approach, where a set of variables are kept constant while the other set of variables are being
measured as the subject of experiment.
Experimental research is one of the founding quantitative research methods.
The simplest example of an experimental research is conducting a laboratory test. As long as

research is being conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions – it qualifies as an
experimental research. A true experimental research is considered to be successful only
when the researcher confirms that a change in the dependent variable is solely due to the
manipulation of the independent variable.
It is important for an experimental research to establish cause and effect of a phenomenon,

which means, it should be definite that effects observed from an experiment are due to the
cause. As naturally, occurring event can be confusing for researchers to establish conclusions.

For instance, if a cardiology student conducts research to understand the effect of food on
cholesterol and derives that most heart patients are non-vegetarians or have diabetes. They
are aspects (causes) which can result in a heart attack (effect).
Experimental research is conducted in the following situations:
 Time is a vital factor for establishing a relationship between cause and effect.
 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 The eminence of cause-effect relationship is as per desirability.
Types of Experimental Research Design
There are three primary types of experimental research design:
1. Pre-experimental research design

2. True experimental research design
3. Quasi-experimental research design
The different types of experimental research design are based on the how the researcher
classifies the subjects according to various conditions and groups.
1. Pre-Experimental Research Design: This is the simplest form of experimental research

design. A group or various groups are kept under observation after factors are considered for
cause and effect. It is usually conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to
be carried out on the target group/s, due to which it is considered to be cost-effective.
The pre-experimental research design is further bifurcated into three types:
One-shot Case Study Research Design
One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
Static-group Comparison
2. True Experimental Research Design: True experimental research is the most accurate
form of experimental research design as it relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a
hypothesis. It is the only type of Experimental Design that can establish a cause-effect
relationship within a group/s. In a true experiment, there are three factors which need to be
satisfied:

Control Group (Group of participants for research that are familiar to the Experimental
group but experimental research rules do not apply to them.) and Experimental Group
(Research participants on whom experimental research rules do apply). Variable which can
be manipulated by the researcher.
Random distribution
This experimental research method is commonly implemented in physical sciences.
3. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: The word “Quasi” indicates resemblance. A

quasi-experimental research design is similar to experimental research but is not exactly that.
The difference between the two the assignment of a control group. In this research design, an
independent variable is manipulated but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned
as per conditions. The independent variable is manipulated before calculating the dependent
variable and so, directionality problem is eliminated. Quasi-research is used in field settings
where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.
Advantages of Experimental Research
Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
Subject or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due to which any industry can
implement it for research purposes.
Results are extremely specific.
Once the results are analyzed, they can be applied to various other similar aspects.
Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers can analyze greater
details.
Experimental research can be used in association with other research methods.
Simulation research: Simulation is normally used to assess the current, or predict the
future, performance of a business process. The concept is designed to help practitioners and
business owners discover new ways to improve their business processes through the use of
mathematical, statistical and other analytical methods.

Simulation Definition
Simulation typically uses statistical and computer modelling to investigate the performance
of a business process either for a new situation or to improve an existing set of processes. By
modeling different process scenarios and outcomes, companies can minimise the traditional
risks associated with change management initiatives without having to make changes in a
'live' business environment where performance could adversely be affected (Harrington and
Tumay, 2000).
iii) Based on outcome:
Based on outcome research can be classified into:
Pure Research:
Pure research is theoretical type not a practical one. Pure research is the knowledge of facts
and theories to give us satisfaction of knowledge and understanding. It discovers general
principles for a problem solution. Following are some of the features.
1. It keeps the foundation of initial study.

2. It discovers new facts.
3. It gives theoretical reports for solution.
Applied Research:
Applied research is the implementation of theoretical study upon a problematic situation. It

applied its theories and facts to know about the nature of the problem and give a concrete
shape for the solution. This is practical work in the field. Following are the features of such
type of research.
1. It tests and verifies theories

2. It discovers new facts
3. It gives immediate answer to a question
Action Research
Action research is based on the taking of immediate action on a happening, event or situation.
The researcher is actively involved in the solution of the problems. Second World War

created many types of problems for which action research was necessary. These problems
including (flood, epidemic, earthquake, fire) etc. features are as under.
1. It is quick service oriented

2. It is taking immediate action
3. It is sensitive to time and place
Evaluation Research:
This type of research is an evaluation of some programs working for the construction of
problematic areas. It is the dankness of implemented programmes about their effects and
positive solution. There are three main types of evaluation.
 Concurrent evaluation-means continuous process

 Phase or periodic evaluation-stage wise.
 Terminal evaluation-Evaluation after the completion of the programme.
Inter Disciplinary Research
It is the study of structure or functions of a particular discipline or comparison of one

discipline with another. In other words it is the comparison of a developmental stage. It is
also called co-ordinate research. Features are the following.
1. It is a cooperative research
2. It helps in study the whole phenomena
3. It brings comparison in different disciplines
iv) Based on Nature:
Based on Nature, research can be classified into:
1. Descriptive research
2. Analytical research
Types of the research methods according to the nature of research can be divided into two
groups: descriptive and analytical. Descriptive research usually involves surveys and studies
that aim to identify the facts. In other words, descriptive research mainly deals with the
“description of the state of affairs as it is at present”, and there is no control over variables in
descriptive research.

Analytical research, on the other hand, is fundamentally different in a way that “the
researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these in order to
make a critical evaluation of the material”.
v) Based on Action:
Action research design is educational research involving collecting information regarding

current educational programs and outcomes, analyzing the information, developing a plan to
improve it, collecting changes after a new plan is implemented and developing conclusions
regarding the improvements. The main purpose of action research is to improve educational
programs within schools. The four main types of action research design are individual
research, collaborative research, school-wide research and district-wide research.
Individual Research:
Individual action research is research conducted by one teacher or staff member. This type of
research is conducted to analyze a specific task. A teacher may wonder if implementing
group activities within an English class will help improve learning. The teacher alone
performs research by implementing a group activity for a certain length of time. After the
action is performed, the teacher analyzes the results, implements changes, or discards the
program if not found to be helpful.
Collaborative Research:
Collaborative research involves a group of people researching a specified topic. With

collaborative research, more than one person is involved in the implementation of the new
program. Typically, a group of students, larger than just one class, are tested, and the results
are analyzed. Many times collaborative research involves both teachers and the principal of
the school. This type of research offers the collaboration of many people working jointly on
one subject. The joint collaboration often offers more benefits than an individual action
research approach.
School-Wide Research:
Action research programs are generally created from a problem found within an entire school.
When a program is researched for an entire school, it is called school-wide action research.
For this type of action research, a school may have concerns about a school-wide problem.
This can be lack of parental involvement or research to increase students' performance in a

certain subject. The entire staff works together through this research to study the problem,
implement changes, and correct the problem or increase performance.
District-Wide Research:
District-wide research is used for an entire school district. This type of action research is
usually more community-based than the other types. This type may also be used to address
organizational problems within the entire district. For district-wide research, staff from each
school in the district, collaborates in correcting the problem or finding ways to improve the
situation.
vi) Based on logic:
Logical research implies that the research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part
to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from the premise. Most research
projects will use this method to draw probable conclusions from findings.
Difference between Applied research and Fundamental research:
The difference between applied and fundamental or basic research is straightforward –

findings of applied research can be applied to resolve issues, whereas fundamental studies are
used simply to explore certain issues and elements.
Moreover, differences between applied and basic research can be summarized into three
points:
1. Differences in purpose. Purpose of applied studies is closely associated with the solution of
specific problems, while the purpose of fundamental studies relate to creation of new
knowledge or expansion of the current knowledge without any concerns to applicability.
2. Differences in context. In applied studies, research objectives are set by clients or sponsors
as a solution to specific problems they are facing. Fundamental studies, on the other hand, are
usually self-initiated in order to expand the levels of knowledge in certain areas.
3. Differences in methods. Research validity represents an important point to be addressed in

all types of studies. Nevertheless, applied studies are usually more concerned with external
validity, whereas internal validity can be specified as the main point of concern for
fundamental researchers.

Applied Research Fundamental Research

Tries to eliminate the theory by adding to the Aims to solve a problem by adding to the
basics of a discipline field of application of a discipline
Problems are analyzed from the point of one Often several disciplines work together for
discipline solving the problem
Generalizations are preferred Often researches individual cases without the
aim to generalize
Forecasting approach is implemented Aims to say how things can be changed
Assumes that other variables do not change Acknowledges that other variables are
constant by changing
Reports are compiled in a language of Reports are compiled in a common language
technical language of discipline
Difference between Exploratory research and conclusive research:
Exploratory research Conclusive research

Structure Loosely structured in design Well structured and
systematic in design
Methodology Are flexible and investigative Have a formal and definitive
in methodology methodology that needs to be
followed and tested
Hypotheses Do not involve testing of Most conclusive researches
hypotheses are carried out to test the
formulated hypotheses
Findings Findings might be topic Findings are significant as
specific and might not have they have a theoretical or
much relevance outside of applied implication
researcher’s domain
Research concepts:
Difference between Research methods and Research methodology:
Humankind constantly attempts to improve the world through research, the systematic
foundation that we use to attain new knowledge, add to existing knowledge, and to develop

new processes and techniques. However, in order to conduct research, the researcher must
implement research methods. These research methods are the strategies, tools, and techniques
used by the researcher to collect the relevant evidence needed to create theories.
Consequently, these research methods need to be credible, valid, and reliable. This is
accomplished by writing a sound methodology, which consists of a systematic and theoretical
analysis of the above research methods. A methodology allows the researcher to evaluate and
validate the rigour of the study and methods used to obtain the new information.
Research methods constitute only one component of the multidimensional research

methodology. It is crucial for researchers to distinguish between methods and methodology in
order to implement good science. Thus, the intent of the following article is to clarify the
similarities and differences of these two concepts in order to further facilitate research
knowledge and practice.
Research Methods
The research process consists of the steps that need to be followed in order to carry out
research effectively. The most salient aspects of the research process are listed below:
 Develop a research problem
 Carry out an extensive literature review
 Develop a hypothesis or research question
 Compose an appropriate research and sample design
 Collect data and conduct analyses
 Test the hypothesis
 Interpret and Discuss
 Make conclusions based on the data
All of the techniques, procedures, and tools used to collect and analyze information in the
research process are collectively termed research methods. In other words, research methods
are the ways in which researchers obtain information and find solutions to the research
problem. All the methods used during a research study are referred to as the research

methods. They include numerical schemes, experimental studies, theoretical procedures,

statistical approaches, etc. There are three basic groups in research methods:
 Group one, which includes all methods involved with data collection;
 Group two, which includes all statistical techniques employed to create relationships
between variables; and
 Group three, which includes those methods used to evaluate accuracy of results.
Group two and three generally include analytical methods. The main types of research
methods are:
 Exploratory research, which assists in identifying a problem;
 Empirical research, which utilizes empirical evidence to examine the feasibility of a

solution; and
 Constructive research, which tests theories.
The above research methods can be further divided into 4 categories: conceptual research,
quantitative research, applied research, and descriptive research. Consequently, research
methods encompass qualitative and quantitative designs, as well as the respective data
collection tools, such as focus group discussions, surveys, interviews, systematic
observations, sampling methods, etc. The primary purpose of research methods is to find
solutions that address the research problem. Accordingly, research methods are more useful
towards the later stages of the research project when it is time to draw conclusions. Summing
up, research methods include all the strategies, processes, and techniques used by the
investigator or researcher during their research project to successfully initiate, perform, and
conclude the study. Moreover, research methods are only one facet of the multi-dimensional
concept known as research methodology.
Research Methodology
The above concept is defined as the science behind the methods used to gain knowledge. In
other words, methodology is the study of the methods used and the reasoning behind why
those particular methods were used. It is a way in which to systematically solve the research
problem (i.e., analyze the logic behind the steps taken by a researcher to answer said research

question). The methodology section in any research serves the purpose of explaining the
ways in which results were obtained (i.e., the research methods that were employed and the
way in which results were analyzed in order to allow the reader to critically evaluate the
research methods). A research methodology provides an all encompassing theoretical and
philosophical framework that is used at the beginning of a project to explain the functioning
and reasoning behind chosen research methods, as well as to guide the research process.
More importantly, the methodology for any research project is pivotal to maintaining reliable
research methods and results, which adds to the value of the findings and interpretations.
Methodology seeks consideration of the following aspects:
 finding the suitable research method for the chosen problem,
 discovering the accuracy of the results of a chosen method, and
 ensuring the efficiency of the research method.
Thus, a well-written methodology should do the following:
 Introduce and explain reasons for the overall methodological approach (qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed method) used for investigation,
 Indicate how the research methods are applicable to the study,
 Describe the specific data collection methods,
 Provide sufficient explanation of data analysis methods and procedures, and
 Provide rationale for the chosen research methods.
In order for the research to be relevant, researcher must know the research methods, as well
as the methodology. Researchers should be knowledgeable about the development of certain
tests, as well as possess the ability to calculate the mean, mode, median, and standard
deviation, etc. Furthermore, researchers are required to know how and when to apply certain
research techniques in order to ascertain which techniques are applicable to which research
problems. The decisions behind the methodology design need to be clearly explained and the
reasoning substantiated in order for the research to be critically analysed and evaluated by
others. Therefore, research methods represent only one component of the multi-dimensional
concept of research methodology.

Differences between Research Methods and Research Methodology:
Methods Methodology
Are defined as the methods or techniques that Provides an explanation and rationale behind
are used to gather evidence and conduct the methods employed in said research.
research.
Involves conducting surveys, interviews, Involves the acquisition of knowledge

experiments, etc. surrounding various techniques used to
conduct research such as surveys, interviews,
experiments, etc.
The main objective is to discover solutions to The main objective is to use the correct
research problems. procedures to discover solutions to research
problems.
Narrow scope of practice (i.e., consists of Much wider scope of practice, which
various research strategies, methods, includes the research methods.
techniques, tools, etc.)
Used in later stages of research. Used in the beginning stages of research.
Research Process:
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems

appropriate to present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of
series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well illustrates a research process.
Please refer page no.11 of Research Methodology from Kothari for flowchart. Flowchart is
compulsory for this answer.
The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities,
as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a
strictly prescribed sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be
undertaken. If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages,

serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One
should remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually
exclusive; nor are they separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any
specific order and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research
process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning
various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process: (1)
formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the
hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining sample design; (6) collecting
the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing; (10)
generalizations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report or presentation of the
results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At
the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire
into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a
general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific
enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from
an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek
the help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems
in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to
narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in
governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies
with which the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what
considerations are involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of
studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review
will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational
purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a
meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or
operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of
formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire
research process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will
help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify
the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem. Professor W.A.
Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of basic importance because
it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are
relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these
explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the same
should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact, formulation
of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of formulations are set up,
each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in more analytical
terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it

should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D.
degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the
Research Board for approval.
At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied. A
good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should

state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such
the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they
provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in
hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and
focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of
data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the
following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination
of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and
interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may
as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need
working hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do
not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses
in another basic step of the research process in most research problems.

4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such
a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In
other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into
four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research
study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a
situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after
without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs
(such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design,
simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his
own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all

the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this,
census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood
testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select
12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be
either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element
has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do
not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement
sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is
as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability

sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units
of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called
convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he
may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations.
This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a
procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous.
On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting
items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgement
sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching.
Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens
to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.

(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has
the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the
15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number
from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this
we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding
through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the
column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right.
When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is
simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range.
Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In
case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the
same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this
type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into
this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a
design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain
a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of
nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If
the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random
sampling.

(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different
strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This
is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to
the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in
the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has
issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster
sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size
must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy
because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is
usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure
relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal
interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the
total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.

(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate
size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually
adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same
study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally
one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can
be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to
be small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are
conditions under which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better
for reasons like convenience and low costs.
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the
nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context
of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the
help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey,
data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information
obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past
behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an
expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such
this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting
data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the
interviewer to a large extent.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to
be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used
method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a
Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of
the questionnaire? Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may
prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work
of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical
resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention
to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this
context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense
is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well
as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of

the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the
survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the
pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable
methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-
response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of
them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher
should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols
that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the
data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form
of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data,
specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also
make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of
analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data
can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from
factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our
problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is
just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a

difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be
real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the
difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same
universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether
three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or
not. In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the help of various statistical
measures.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses
or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for
the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in
either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start
with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested
by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a
matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If
the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite
often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report
of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in
view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index
should also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
Criteria of Good Research:
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that
they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects
scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:11
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should
be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research12 as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from
that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making. 3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically
to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Ethics in Research:
Ethics are broadly the set of rules, written and unwritten, that governs our expectations of our
own and others’ behavior.
Effectively, they set out how we expect others to behave, and why. While there is broad
agreement on some ethical values (for example, that murder is bad), there is also wide
variation on how exactly these values should be interpreted in practice.
Research ethics are the set of ethics that govern how scientific and other research is
performed at research institutions such as universities, and how it is disseminated.
When most people think of research ethics, they think about issues that arise when research
involves human or animal subjects.
While these issues are indeed a key part of research ethics, there are also wider issues about
standards of conduct. These include the importance of publishing findings in a transparent
way, not plagiarizing others’ work, and not falsifying work.
Research ethics are important for a number of reasons.
 They promote the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge.
 They support the values required for collaborative work, such as mutual respect and
fairness. This is essential because scientific research depends on collaboration
between researchers and groups.
 They mean that researchers can be held accountable for their actions. Many
researchers are supported by public money, and regulations on conflicts of interest,
misconduct, and research involving humans or animals are necessary to ensure that
money is spent appropriately.
 They ensure that the public can trust research. For people to support and fund
research, they have to be confident in it.
 They support important social and moral values, such as the principle of doing no
harm to others.

Codes of Ethics:
Governments agencies who fund or commission research often publish codes of conduct for
researchers, or codes of ethics.
For example, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) both publish ethical codes. Some ethical codes may have the force of law behind
them, while others may simply be advisable.
Many or even most ethical codes cover the following areas:
Honesty and Integrity
This means that you need to report your research honestly, and that this applies to your
methods (what you did), your data, your results, and whether you have previously published
any of it. You should not make up any data, including extrapolating unreasonably from some
of your results, or do anything which could be construed as trying to mislead anyone. It is
better to undersell than over-exaggerate your findings.
When working with others, you should always keep to any agreements, and act sincerely.
Objectivity
You should aim to avoid bias in any aspect of your research, including design, data analysis,
interpretation, and peer review. For example, you should never recommend as a peer
reviewer someone you know, or who you have worked with, and you should try to ensure that
no groups are inadvertently excluded from your research. This also means that you need to
disclose any personal or financial interests that may affect your research.
Carefulness
Take care in carrying out your research to avoid careless mistakes. You should also review
your work carefully and critically to ensure that your results are credible. It is also important
to keep full records of your research. If you are asked to act as a peer reviewer, you should
take the time to do the job effectively and fully.

Openness
You should always be prepared to share your data and results, along with any new tools that
you have developed, when you publish your findings, as this helps to further knowledge and
advance science. You should also be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
You should never plagiarise, or copy, other people’s work and try to pass it off as your own.
You should always ask for permission before using other people’s tools or methods,
unpublished data or results. Not doing so is plagiarism. Obviously, you need to respect
copyrights and patents, together with other forms of intellectual property, and always
acknowledge contributions to your research. If in doubt, acknowledge, to avoid any risk of
plagiarism.
Confidentiality
You should respect anything that has been provided in confidence. You should also follow
guidelines on protection of sensitive information such as patient records.
Responsible Publication
You should publish to advance to state of research and knowledge, and not just to advance
your career. This means, in essence, that you should not publish anything that is not new, or
that duplicates someone else’s work.
Legality
You should always be aware of laws and regulations that govern your work, and be sure that
you conform to them.
Animal Care
If you are using animals in your research, you should always be sure that your experiments
are both necessary and well-designed. You should also show respect for the animals you are
using, and make sure that they are properly cared for.

Human Subjects Protection
If your research involves people, you should make sure that you reduce any possible harm to
the minimum, and maximize the benefits both to participants and other people.
This means, for example, that you should not expose people to more tests than are strictly
necessary to fulfill your research aims. You should always respect human rights, including
the right to privacy and autonomy. You may need to take particular care with vulnerable
groups, which include, but are not limited to, children, older people, and those with learning
difficulties.
By keeping the above code of conducts in mind it can be said that observation method in
order to analyze the buying behavior of consumers is ethical as it does not harm the interests
of the consumers but while doing so the researcher must take due care not to harm the
interests of the consumers.
**************

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BANGALORE UNIVERSITY

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION SEMESTER II

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S

CONTENTS: INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

Module-1: Introduction to Management Research:

Definition, Nature and role of Management Research, Types of Research based

Definition of Business or Management Research: Business and management research is a

 Trans discipline approach

Research is defined as “a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a

 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 2

Nature of Business/ Management Research:

1. Systematic 2. Scientific. 3. Objectivity. 4. Definiteness. 5. Verifiability. 6. Generality. 7.

Research has definiteness - Research is characterized by definiteness in its process as well

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 3

Role of Management Research:

2. Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses can also use research to guarantee

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 4

Based on Purpose research can be classified into:

 RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 5

 researchers may set up websites to attract worldwide feedback on any subject

In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 6

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where

Applications of Descriptive Research with Examples

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 7

Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use descriptive research to understand how

Descriptive Research Methods

There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 8

Case Study Method

Examples of Descriptive Research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 9

Market researchers that want to observe habits of consumers.

 A company that wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.

Advantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 10

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 11

ii) Based on Process:

Based on process the research can be classified into:

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 12

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

Sub classification of Quantitative Research:

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 13

Experimental Analysis: The simple two-group posttest-only randomized experiment is

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 14

Quasi-Experimental Analysis: The quasi-experimental designs differ from the experimental

Experimental Research: Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific

Experimental research is one of the founding quantitative research methods.

The simplest example of an experimental research is conducting a laboratory test. As long as

It is important for an experimental research to establish cause and effect of a phenomenon,

Faculty: Dr. Shalini H S Page 15

Experimental research is conducted in the following situations:

Types of Experimental Research Design