Because we live in a world where absolute certainties

mistakes to avoid when determining are limited, we must rely on judgement > proof.
REASONABLE KNOWLEDGE: Hence, we must find the balance between open-
argument ad the fallacy of assuming that a mindedness and scepticism. problems with our common-sense mental maps:
ignorantiam: proposition is true simply gullibility: susceptibility to being
because it has not been our common-sense mental maps may give us a
proved false, or false because humans believe easily deceived; relativism: the theory that people’s ideas of what distorted picture of reality
it has not been proved true crazy things inclination to believe is true or valuable are not absolute Our ideas and beliefs come from a variety of
confirmation the tendency to notice more often than things on insufficient
bias: evidence which supports your we think but depend on their culture sources
position and ignore evidence evidence theory is self-contradictory cultural biases
which contradicts it
paranormal phenomena: there is no such thing as a perfect map
phenomena such as extra-sensory perception certainty: what distinguishes
guideline for determining knowledge from mere belief
which lie outside the range of ordinary experience
REASONABLE KNOWLEDGE: mental map: a personal mental picture of what is true
presence of positive evidence and defy current scientific explanation problem with WOKs re. certainty:
scepticism: a philosophical position none of the ways of knowing can and false, reasonable and unreasonable,
whether it fits in with current
which doubts or denies that give us certainty right and wrong, beautiful and ugly
knowledge
knowledge is possible common sense: cultural beliefs and practices generally
reasonable knowledge we believe
considered to be true without need for
knowledge: is true because it
THE PROBLEM OF any further justification
seems reasonable, and
fits in with other things KNOWLEDGE personal experiential knowledge (personal informal knowledge:
we know are true knowledge: acquaintance and practical know- any knowledge which is not organised
In order to be able how) plus those parts of academic into an academic discipline, such as
to say that you and informal knowledge which you cultural and local knowledge, random
know something have made your own facts and trivia
"While truth is an
objective
knowledge as justified true belief: you must be able to
justify your belief,
KNOWERS & KNOWING obstacles of personal knowledge: ignorance, apathy, fantasy, bias, peer
the standard definition of knowledge dating pressure
requirement for back to the time of Plato (428–348 BCE) and your Part One If we seek a more objective picture of reality, one of the best antidotes to the
knowledge, belief justification must obstacles outlined above is to subject our opinions to the critical scrutiny of
is a subjective
to know that something is true be of the right kind. PERSONAL AND other people.
requirement for we need to believe it and have SHARED
it." justification for our belief KNOWLEDGE dangers of personal knowledge:
The key thing that THE NATURE OF
various kinds of belief: illusion of the illusion that you understand something
distinguishes knowledge as thick concept: KNOWLEDGE explanatory depth: in detail when in fact you do not
acceptable from vague belief wishful convincing yourself that something is true
well-supported belief concept that can only
a There are different
unacceptable levels of knowledge
shared knowledge: the stock of academic knowledge, informal thinking: simply because you want it to be true
justifications is belief that is beyond be understood through ranging from a
superficial grasp of a
knowledge and practical know-how which
can be communicated verbally or non-
false consensus the tendency to overestimate the extent to
reliability.
reasonable doubt experience and reflection subject to complete verbally to other people
effect: which other people agree with your point
mastery of it. of view
info. vs. knowledge: communities of knowledge: friends, subject specialists, culture
knowledge is information organised into types of knowledge: sources of shared knowledge: the internet, cultural tradition, school, expert opinion, news media.

>
a meaningful whole. knowledge by acquaintance experiential knowledge multi- trying to perform citizen ordinary people who actively gather,
flow: a mental state in which one is dangers of shared knowledge: tasking: more than one task journalists: report and spread news via social
completely absorbed in an knowledge by description at the same time
authority uncritically accepting something as true networking websites
activity practical knowledge workshop: simply because an authority says it is true filter a situation in which
analysis over-analysis of a problem which acquired through practical know-how analysis over-analysis of a problem which results bubble: we surround ourselves AGENDA SETTING: the tendency of the
paralysis: results in the inability to take consistent practice & application paralysis: in the inability to take action with information that news media to
action groupthink: a form of peer pressure which leads everyone confirms our pre- influence which
skill can benefit from theory in a group to think in the same way. existing prejudices
assessing know-how: vested an ulterior motive, acknowledged or stories the public
intelligent a view held by some
successful performance interest: unacknowledged, for claiming that something
design: people which rejects
consider important
Although it is often overlooked, one might argue that practical
standard of excellence ‘know-how’ is prior to, and more fundamental than, knowledge-that.
is true or false the theory of sensationalism bias:
fragmentation: the tendency to analyse only the parts and
conscious awareness overlook the whole evolution and claims the news media’s tendency to focus on
relation between acquaintance + description: that each species sensational news stories to the
empiricism: the belief that all knowledge is spurious giving equal weight to both sides of an alleged
description depends on acquaintance balance: controversy when the evidence strongly suggests that
was uniquely created detriment of less dramatic but equally
ultimately based on sense experience by God important ones
verbal the tendency of a verbal description acquaintance spills beyond description one side is wrong the news media’s use
literary a list of literary works considered by experts to have framing: bad news bias:
overshadowing: to influence and distort perception description colours acquaintance canon: the greatest literary and cultural value ( bias in school )
of pictures and
the tendency of the news media to
language to shape
acquaintance fades with time the way a story is focus on bad news rather than
Keep in mind that experts are subject to fallibility due to
inconsistency and limited range of competence. presented good news
‘nature versus nurture’ debate
a naturalist approach to human sciences usually prefer to base their findings
on quantitative data, whereas interpretivists pay more attention to qualitative findings
quantitative data: gathered by such activities as surveys, questionnaires, study of
statistics, and other generally mathematically-measurable values.
qualitative data: seeks to gather more personal information, and provides evidence that is
often descriptive rather than numerically-based and instantly measurable.
interpretivist approach: scholars believe that value-free judgements in the human
sciences are impossible to make and also undesirable
naturalist approach: many scholars think that you can apply the methods of natural
science to the study of social behaviour, and treat human subjects just as you do animals
or objects in the natural world
many people do not consider it a ‘true’ science—it relies on empirical observation to arrive
at its findings, as opposed to the natural sciences, which are much ‘stricter’ in their use of
observation backed up by rational theorizing
concerned with is how we gather information in our study of human behaviour
corresponds to humanities and social sciences, but also includes aspects of psychology
and even mathematics
utilitarianism: most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the
greatest number
nihilism: essentially the belief in nothing
morality: the principles that govern what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
golden rule: you should treat other people as you wish to be treated yourself.
egoism: an ethical belief that we should behave only according to what suits our own self-
interest.
deontologicalism: Kant stressed the idea of duty when it comes to moral actions – it’s not
enough merely to be aware of whether something is wrong or right, you have to act on that,
and do so over a lifetime.
consequentialism: an approach to ethics that is distinct from deontologicalism in that moral
decisions and actions are judged by looking at their outcomes, rather than any inherent
moral quality in themselves.
categorical imperative: Kant's belief that an action was inherently right or wrong within itself
altruism: the act of helping someone or something in a completely disinterested or selfless
way – in other words, without expecting any kind of reward for what you are doing
absosolutism: viewing actions or moral decisions as being inherently right or wrong within
themselves

HUMAN SCIENCES ETHICS

AREAS OF KNOWING
Part Two

HISTORY

the study of past events; in other words, not the past itself, but our interaction with it.
historians are vulnerable to bias and selectivity when it comes to writing history
logical fallacies:
nationalism: government is keen to be the custodian of the past, and present
history in such a way that their position is strengthened
artistic license: when artists are not entirely faithful to the truth in order to present
a more effective piece of art.
simplification and discerning patterns: scaling down the past is inevitable for us
to be able to develop a successful understanding of history, but this process
should not result in simplifying it, or imposing patterns where there are none.
periodization: a way we have arbitrarily divide up time
emphasizing palatable truths: the tendency to misunderstand a thing which has
nothing positive about it whatsoever
blanket terminology: the name given to a term that assigns the same name to a
range of often unrelated or disparate group of events, phenomena, or ideas
traditions: most often hide the reality behind past events and present a more
pleasant idea that never actually happened
‘nature versus nurture’ debate
a naturalist approach to human sciences usually prefer to base their findings
on quantitative data, whereas interpretivists pay more attention to qualitative findings
quantitative data: gathered by such activities as surveys, questionnaires, study of
statistics, and other generally mathematically-measurable values.
qualitative data: seeks to gather more personal information, and provides evidence that is
often descriptive rather than numerically-based and instantly measurable.
interpretivist approach: scholars believe that value-free judgements in the human
sciences are impossible to make and also undesirable
naturalist approach: many scholars think that you can apply the methods of natural
science to the study of social behaviour, and treat human subjects just as you do animals
or objects in the natural world
many people do not consider it a ‘true’ science—it relies on empirical observation to arrive
at its findings, as opposed to the natural sciences, which are much ‘stricter’ in their use of
observation backed up by rational theorizing
concerned with is how we gather information in our study of human behaviour
corresponds to humanities and social sciences, but also includes aspects of psychology
and even mathematics
utilitarianism: most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the
greatest number
nihilism: essentially the belief in nothing
morality: the principles that govern what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
golden rule: you should treat other people as you wish to be treated yourself.
egoism: an ethical belief that we should behave only according to what suits our own self-
interest.
deontologicalism: Kant stressed the idea of duty when it comes to moral actions – it’s not
enough merely to be aware of whether something is wrong or right, you have to act on that,
and do so over a lifetime.
consequentialism: an approach to ethics that is distinct from deontologicalism in that moral
decisions and actions are judged by looking at their outcomes, rather than any inherent
moral quality in themselves.
categorical imperative: Kant's belief that an action was inherently right or wrong within itself
altruism: the act of helping someone or something in a completely disinterested or selfless
way – in other words, without expecting any kind of reward for what you are doing
absosolutism: viewing actions or moral decisions as being inherently right or wrong within
themselves

HUMAN SCIENCES ETHICS

AREAS OF KNOWING
Part Two

HISTORY

the study of past events; in other words, not the past itself, but our interaction with it.
historians are vulnerable to bias and selectivity when it comes to writing history
logical fallacies:
nationalism: government is keen to be the custodian of the past, and present
history in such a way that their position is strengthened
artistic license: when artists are not entirely faithful to the truth in order to present
a more effective piece of art.
simplification and discerning patterns: scaling down the past is inevitable for us
to be able to develop a successful understanding of history, but this process
should not result in simplifying it, or imposing patterns where there are none.
periodization: a way we have arbitrarily divide up time
emphasizing palatable truths: the tendency to misunderstand a thing which has
nothing positive about it whatsoever
blanket terminology: the name given to a term that assigns the same name to a
range of often unrelated or disparate group of events, phenomena, or ideas
traditions: most often hide the reality behind past events and present a more
pleasant idea that never actually happened

*one could argue that using a specific language
limits our ability to think
**Others argue that the way we see things and the
way we think about them are not limited to our
culture, but are universal
linguistic determinism: the idea that
language determines the way we think
despite its flaws, language is really
important for communicating knowledge.
despite its omnipresence and
importance, language is still full of
potential problems—sarcasm, ambiguity,
irony and translation issues
crucial to our survival and success as a
species
everywhere, and some aspects can even
be considered universal
intended, creative and rule-governed
a system of signs with meanings
LANGUAGE
IMAGINATION
the ability to form a mental
representation of a sense experience
without the normal stimulus
Propositional imagining: the idea of
imagining that things were different than
they are
schizophrenia can give some insight into
what delusions and extreme examples
of imagination can lead to
sometimes associated with creativity,
problem-solving and originality.
might be useful in model making or
theory creation in the sciences and
solving structural problems in the arts
sometimes distrusted because of it
subjective nature
thought experiment: devices of the
imagination used to investigate the
nature of things
The way we experience the world is
partly determined by the structure of our
sense-organs
Perception is selective and what we
notice in a given environment is
influenced by factors such as intensity,
contrast, interest, mood, expectations,
context, and illusions
Perception consists of two elements,
sensation and interpretation
empiricism: the theory that all
knowledge comes from the senses
alternative senses: sense of heat, of
pain, of movement, of balance and of
hunger and thirst, sense of
proprioception
traditionally, it was thought we only had
five senses: touch, taste, smell, hearing
and sight.
SENSE PERCEPTION
WAYS OF KNOWING
Part Two
FAITH
usually refers to religious faith, but can
also be used as a synonym for trust
theistic faith: faith in God
faith can be religious without being
theistic, for example, in Buddhism
a way of understanding the world,
underpinning the way we choose to
interpret things
it can be seen as a commitment to a
particular interpretation of experience and
reality which is not necessarily religious at
all, such as humanism
While critics argue that faith is irrational
and incoherent, others would argue that
faith should be seen as a way of going
beyond reason rather than being purely
irrational
faith is an act of trust and is an example
of knowledge which is not evidence based
emotional intelligence: the capacity to
be aware of, control, and express one's
emotions, and to handle interpersonal
relationships judiciously and
empathetically.
as a help: helps make sense of cultural
and social experiences
as a hindrance: emotion hinders rational
thought and thus distorts reality
emotion can be both a help or a
hindrance when it comes to gaining
knowledge.
social constructionist view: emotions
come from our social environment
*may imply that emotions are seen as universal
and experienced across cultures
naturalistic view of emotion: emotion is
a result of our physical bodies, with
physical causes and effects
EMOTION
INTUITION
having an immediate sense of knowing,
without any prior thinking
psychologists believe that the unconscious
mind is able to make many more
observations than we consciously can
contrasted with reason; regarded as
knowing without the use of rational
processes
To know something by intuition is to know
something through immediate awareness
perception via the unconscious
beliefs which are known without
understanding how they are known
some argue that it is impossible to justify,
or that as it is immediately evident it
requires no further justification
often used to describe a combination of
other ways of knowing, such as prior
experience, heightened sense perception
and an active imagination
however, human reasoning can also be
inferential in nature, allowing conclusions
to be drawn that cannot be strictly
deduced from their premises
inductive reasoning is inferential—it
makes a statement which is not strictly
provable, especially given the difficulties
in making observations of an infinite set
of particulars.
a valid conclusion is not necessarily a
true conclusion
inductive reasoning: reasoning from a
particular to a general
logical deduction allows us to go from
starting ideas (premises) to reach valid
conclusions
deductive reasoning: reasoning from a
general to a particular
REASON
MEMORY
the faculty which allows us to retain
information and reconstruct past
experiences
an important aspect of how personal
knowledge is formed
has a strong link to procedural knowledge
and remembering how to perform actions
some would argue that memory is not itself
a source of knowledge, but instead is a
process which we use to recall knowledge
gained in the past
it can be argued that even new knowledge
is dependent on and influenced by memory
how we interpret new situations can be
heavily influenced by experience and
previous events
memory retrieval is often regarded as
unreliable, for example, because it is seen
to be subjective or heavily influenced by
emotion