 Contribution of John Dalton toward the understanding of

the concept of chemical elements.

The idea of the atom was not further explored until John Dalton presented concrete evidence
that all matter is made of very small particles called atoms. He comes up with the first modern
atomic theory based on his experiments with atmospheric gases, as explained in his A
New System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton suggests the three ideas;

1. All atoms of a given element are identical.

2. The atoms of different elements vary in mass and size.
3. Atoms are indestructible. Chemical reactions may result in their rearrangement, but not
their creation or destruction.

John Dalton also proposed the law of multiple proportions which described how reactants will
combine in set ratios.

 Chemical elements
A chemical element is a species of atom having the same number of protons in their atomic
nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z).[1] For example, the atomic number of oxygen is 8,
so the element oxygen consists of all atoms which have exactly 8 protons.
118 elements have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the
remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least one
stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radionuclides, which decay over time into other
elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is
the most common element in the Earth's crust.[2]
Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical
observations suggest that ordinary observable matter makes up only about 15% of the matter in
the universe. The remainder is dark matter; the composition of this is unknown, but it is not
composed of chemical elements.[3] The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were
mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next
three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and
are thus rarer than heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred
and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance
of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements
with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which,
when they explode, blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space, where they
may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.[4]
The term "element" is used for atoms with a given number of protons (regardless of whether or
not they are ionized or chemically bonded, e.g. hydrogen in water) as well as for a
pure chemical substance consisting of a single element (e.g. hydrogen gas).[1] For the second
meaning, the terms "elementary substance" and "simple substance" have been suggested, but
they have not gained much acceptance in English chemical literature, whereas in some other
languages their equivalent is widely used (e.g. French corps simple, Russian простое
вещество). A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure; they are
called allotropes of the element.
When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical
bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as
relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such native
elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a
few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on
Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical
elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For
example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid
elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.
The history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that
found native elements like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold. Later civilizations extracted
elemental copper, tin, lead and iron from their ores by smelting,
using charcoal. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more; all of the naturally
occurring elements were known by 1950.
The properties of the chemical elements are summarized in the periodic table, which organizes
the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods") in which the columns ("groups")
share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. Save for unstable radioactive
elements with short half-lives, all of the elements are available industrially, most of them in low
degrees of impurities.

 Nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of

the new elements
The nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of new element are the nuclear fusion and
fission. In order to synthesize a new element, we have to change the number of protons. You
should remember that elements are known for the number of their as it represents their atomic
number.

In order to change the number of proton, we can use nuclear fusion or nuclear fission. Nuclear
fusion is when two different nuclei joined together into one forming a different nucleus. In this a
new element could be formed. This reaction always takes place in stars. On the other hand,
nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus into two lighter nuclei.

 Type of inter molecular forces on the properties of

substances
The physical state and properties of a particular compound depend in large part on the type of
chemical bonding it displays. Molecular compounds, sometimes called covalent compounds,
display a wide range of physical properties due to the different types of intermolecular
attractions such as different kinds of polar interactions. The melting and boiling points of
molecular compounds are generally quite low compared to those of ionic compounds. This is
because the energy required to disrupt the intermolecular forces between molecules is far
less than the energy required to break the ionic bonds in a crystalline ionic compound. Since
molecular compounds are composed of neutral molecules, their electrical conductivity is
generally quite poor, whether in the solid or liquid state. Ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity in the solid state because of their rigid structure, but conduct well when either molten
or dissolved into a solution. The water solubility of molecular compounds is variable and
depends primarily on the type of intermolecular forces involved. Substances that
exhibit hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole forces are generally water soluble, whereas those that
exhibit only London dispersion forces are generally insoluble. Most, but not all, ionic compounds
are quite soluble in water.

One type of molecular compound behaves quite differently than that described so far. A
covalent network solid is a compound in which all of the atoms are connected to one another by
covalent bonds. Diamond is composed entirely of carbon atoms, each bonded to four other
carbon atoms in a tetrahedral geometry. Melting a covalent network solid is not accomplished
by overcoming the relatively weak intermolecular forces. Rather, all of the covalent bonds must
be broken, a process that requires extremely high temperatures. Diamond, in fact, does not melt
at all. Instead, it vaporizes to a gas at temperatures above 3500°C.

 Effect of intermolecular forces in the properties of

substances?
Intermolecular force account for the many differences between substances. The three basic
types you see in general chemistry are dipoles-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding, and London
dispersion forces occur from differences in charge and account for polarity.

(In higher levels or more specific chem classes you’ll may talk about metallic bonding. Metals
when grouped together form an “electron sea” where electrons move at will throughout a lattice
of positively charged metal atoms. The sharing of make the lattices neutral but make it hard to
separate. This is why metals have unique properties like high conductivity or strength.)

The positive dipole of one molecule has an electric to the respective negative dipole in another
molecule. This causes the molecules in a group to stick together “tighter” and be harder to
separate. Because of this, substances with high IMF have higher melting/boiling points and
lower vapor pressure. [1]

One can imagine that the molecules form polar magnet bars. If you mix them up, the respective
ends will stick together and it will be hard to detangle them again like what happens when a
substance changes into a higher energy state (solid to liquid/liquid to gas). Especially compare
to non-magnetized bars.
 PALANCA AWARD WINNING WRITERS
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1st Prize Jack Lorenz Acebedo Rivera Paglaya Mula sa Pagtakas
2nd Prize Jacob Renz R. Ambrocio Sino ang Lumansag sa Lunday ni Lola Basyang?
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Kabataan Essay
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Maikling Kuwentong Pambata

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Sanaysay
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2nd Prize Adelma L. Salvador Kambak-kambak
3rd Prize Iza Maria G. Reyes Hindi Ako Dalisay
Tula
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Dulang May Isang Yugto

1st Prize Michelle Josephine G. Rivera Kaharian ng Pinto
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Dulang Ganap Ang Haba

1st Prize WALANG NAGWAGI
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Dulang Pampelikula
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Essay
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