GROUP 2 Discharge increases as more water is added through rainfall,

Atienza, Earl Jarreu Gabot, Ian Mark tributary streams, or from groundwater seeping into
Baluyot, Mary Ann Milano, Arjay the stream.
Cacha, Ronell De Torres Tarrobago, Angelica Flow duration curves have a long history in the field of water‐
Fullentes, Alecson Ricaforte Tuliao, Ariane Vince resource engineering and have been used to solve problems in
water‐quality management, hydropower, instream flow
What is turbine? methodologies, water‐use planning, flood control, and river
A turbine is a rotating part which converts kinetic energy of a and reservoir sedimentation, and for scientific comparisons of
working fluid into useful mechanical energy and/or electrical streamflow characteristics across watersheds.
energy. How to solve:
The 4 types of turbines are 1. Prepare a monthly data of recorded discharges from a
 Water turbines stream, river, canal etc.
 Steam turbines 2. Disregarding the chronological order of occurrences, rank
 Gas turbines & the data from the greatest discharge value up to the least.
 Wind turbines 3. To solve for the probability of exceeding the given flowrate,
Turbines used in hydro powerplants apply the formula:
 The turbines used in hydroelectric power plants are water
turbines which have water as their working fluid. 𝑅 × 100
𝑃=
 Millions of litres of water is collected in the dam. More the 𝑛+1
height of dam, more the pressure. The highly pressurized Where: P = probability of exceedance
water is then made to flow via large pipe called as R = ranking
penstock. n = number of observations
 The turbine is located at the end of penstock from where
Example:
the pressurized water strike the blades of turbine at high
The monthly flowrate data of a stream was
velocity making it to rotate. This turbine is connected to a
recorded from April to November. For each month, determine
generator which generates electricity.
the probability of exceeding the current discharge.
Note: The shape of turbine blades depend upon the pressure &
velocity of water. Water turbines are classified into 2 types. Date of Data Discharge Probability of
Rank
Impulse type turbines Collection (L/s) Exceedance
 Basically work on Newton’s 2nd law. 25 April 20 8 88.89 %
 When water strike the buckets at high speed, the 27 May 24 7 77.78 %
rotor starts rotating. In short, the kinetic energy of 27 June 92 2 22.22 %
water gets converted into rotational mechanical 27 July 71 5 55.56 %
energy. 25 August 100.5 1 11.11 %
Reaction turbines 24 September 69.83 6 66.67 %
 The turbine blades or the impeller blades are
23 October 71.33 4 44.44 %
designed in such a way that a force is generated on
one side when water flows through it just like an 26 November 90 3 33.33 %
airfoil.
Turbines used in thermal powerplants A Rule Curve or Rule Level specifies the storage or empty
Steam turbines, they are used in nuclear & thermal space to be maintained in a reservoir during different times of
powerplants where water is heated to form steam & then the year.
flowed through turbines to produce electricity. Steam turbines
are also classified into impulse & reaction types but the Position of rule curves for various demands depends on their
arrangement & design is different. relative priority:
Steam turbines consist of rotating blades called as rotor and  Starting upwards from the dead storage level, first lies the
static blades called as stator. Rotors & stators are placed rule curve for the highest priority demand (water supply).
alternately in order to extract most energy out of it. This This rule curve [also called Lower Rule Curve (LRC)] is
method is called as compounding. calculated for the case when there is very high scarcity of
Flow-Duration Curves water and it is not possible to meet any of the demands
A flow-duration curve shows the frequency of occurrence of except for the full highest priority demand throughout the
various rates of flow. It is a cumulative frequency curve year.
prepared by arranging all discharges of record in order of  Next lies the rule curve for second highest priority demand
magnitude and subdividing them according to the percentages (irrigation/hydropower). This rule curve [also called Lower
of time during which specific flows are equaled or exceeded; Middle Rule Curve (LMRC)] is calculated for the case when
all chronologic order or sequence is lost (Cross and Hedges, there is scarcity of water and it is not possible to meet all
1959). It is also used to predict the probability of exceeding the the demands except for the two highest priority demands
given discharge (flow) at a particular time. throughout the year.
 Above the lower middle rule curve lies the Upper Middle  Land-use changes such as urbanization that alter
Rule Curve (UMRC) which represents the rule curve for rates of erosion, infiltration, overland flow, or
least priority demand. This rule curve is calculated for the evapotranspiration
case when there is no scarcity of water and it is just  Wastewater outfalls
possible to meet all the demands in full throughout the  Irrigation wastewater return flow
year.
Stream flow MULTIPURPOSE STORAGE
•Streamflow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in  A reservoir planned and constructed to serve not only
streams, rivers, and other channels, and is a major element of one purpose but various purpose together
the water cycle. It is one component of the runoff of water  Is a man-made lake which is managed for multiple
from the land to water bodies, the other component being purposes
surface runoff.
•Water flowing in channels comes from surface runoff from Different purposes:
adjacent hill slopes, from groundwater flow out of the ground,  Water Supply
and from water discharged from pipes.  Flood Control
•The discharge of water flowing in a channel is measured  Soil Erosion
using stream gauges or can be estimated by the Manning  Environment Management
equation. The record of flow over time is called a hydrograph.  Hydroelectric Power Generation
Flooding occurs when the volume of water exceeds the  Navigation
capacity of the channel.  Recreation
 Irrigation
Sources of stream flow
•Channel precipitation is the moisture falling directly on the RESERVOIR - A water supply scheme drawing water directly
water surface, and in most streams, it adds very little to from a river or a stream may fail to satisfy the consumers
discharge. demands during extremely low flows, while during high flows
•Groundwater is a major source of discharge, and in large it may become difficult to carry out its operation due to
streams, it accounts for the bulk of the average daily flow. It devastating floods, a barrier in the form of dam is, therefore,
enters the streambed where the channel intersects the water constructed across the river, so as to form a pool of water on
table, providing a steady supply of water, termed base flow, the upstream side of the dam.
during both dry and rainy periods.
STORAGE ZONE
•Interflow is water that infiltrates the soil and then moves
 Flood control storage
laterally to the stream channel in the zone above the water
 Conservation storage
table. Much of this water is transmitted within the soil itself,
 Buffer zone
some of it moving within the horizons.
•Overland flow or surface run-off is usually a major source of  Dead storage
stream flow. Overland flow is a storm water runoff that begins
ANGAT DAM is a concrete water reservoir embankment
as thin layer of water that moves very slowly (typically less
hydroelectric dam that supplies Metro Manila and nearby
than 0.25 feet per second) over the ground. Runoff velocities
provinces with water. It was a part of the Angat-Ipo-La Mesa
in storm sewer piper can reach 10 to 15 feet per second.
water system. The reservoir supplies about 90 percent of raw
water requirements for Metro Manila through the facilities of
Mechanism that causes changes in streamflow
the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System and it
1.Natural Mechanism
irrigates about 28,000 hectares of farmland in the provinces of
 Runoff from rainfall and snowmelt Bulacan and Pampanga.
 Evaporation from soil and surface-water bodies
 Transpiration by vegetation
 Ground-water discharge from aquifers
 Ground-water recharge from surface-water bodies
 Sedimentation of lakes and wetlands
 Formation or dissipation of glaciers, snowfields, and
permafrost
2.Human-Induced mechanisms
 Surface-water withdrawals and transbasin diversions
 River-flow regulation for hydropower and navigation
 Construction,removal, and sedimentation of
reservoirs and stormwater detention ponds
 Stream channelization and levee construction
 Drainage or restoration of wetlands