4.

Carbon and its Compounds

Forms of Carbon

Carbon exists both in crystalline and amorphous

allotropic forms.

Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical forms having
similar chemical properties but different physical properties. Carbon exists both in
crystalline and amorphous allotropic forms.
Diamond, graphite and fullerene are the crystalline forms of carbon. Coal, coke, wood
charcoal, animal charcoal, lampblack, gas carbon, petroleum, coke and sugar
charcoal are the different amorphous allotropes of carbon.
Diamond

In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms by a single covalent
bond. This is why a diamond is a rigid, compact, three dimensional structure and is
very hard to break. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, as there are no free
electrons present in it.
Structure of diamond.
Graphite contains carbon atoms in hexagonal rings and the rings in turn are joined
together to form a layer. A series of such layers are piled one over the other.The layers of
carbon can slide over each other, because there are no b covalent bonds between the atoms
of two adjacent layers. Since graphite contains free electrons, it is a good conductor of
heat and electricity. Lead pencils contain graphite encased in a wooden covering
structure of graphite

Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley
for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry for the year 1996. A fullerene
molecule consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons, like in a
standard football. Fullerenes are also called Buckminsterfullerenes as they are shaped
like the geodesic dome designed and built by the US architect Buckminster Fuller.
fullerenes, buckminster fullerene
Bonding-In-Carbon

Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. For example, chloroform
has a boiling point of 60 degree centigrade. Covalent compounds are non conductors of
electricity this is due to the absence of free ions.
Sharing of electrons results in a covalent bond. A Lewis structure is a type of shorthand
notation. The Lewis dot structures provide a picture of the bonding in molecules in terms
of the shared pairs of electrons and the octet rule.
Locate a central atom.
Connect to other atoms with a single bond.
Determine the number of valence electrons.
Arrange the electrons for bond formation.

A shared electron pair is known as bond pair. A single covalent bond is formed by
sharing a pair of electrons. Example, hydrogen molecule.
A double covalent bond is formed by sharing two pairs of electrons. For example,
oxygen molecule.
A triple covalent bond is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons. For example,
nitrogen molecule.
During the formation of a methane molecule, one electron of a carbon atom pairs with
one electron of a hydrogen atom to form a bond pair. In this way, four bond pairs which
are four C-H bonds, are produced.
Ethane exists as a gas.

Hydrocarbons

Carbon shares four electrons with other atoms

and forms four single covalent bonds and it is
known as tetravalency.

The vital force theory received a severe blow when wohler prepared urea in the
laboratory from inorganic compound ammonium cyanate in the laboratory. The unique
properties of carbon such as tetravalency, catenation and formation of multiple bonds
are responsible for it to form millions of compounds.
Carbon shares four electrons with other atoms and forms four single covalent bonds and it
is known as tetravalency. The property of self linkage among identical atoms to form long
chain compounds is known as catenation. , n-butane is a straight chain compound, 2-
methyl butane is a branched chain compound, and cyclobutane is a cyclic compound.
Compounds of carbon linked by single bonds are known as saturated compounds.
Example methane, ethane. The compounds of carbon linked by double and triple
bonds are called unsaturated compounds. Example - ethene and ethyne.

The compounds of carbon which contain a closed ring of carbon atoms are regarded as
cyclic hydrocarbons. They are of two types.

 Alicyclic and
 Aromatic.
Cyclo propane and cyclo butane are alicyclic compounds and benzene is an aromatic
compound.

The carbon atom together with hetero atoms is known as functional group. When carbon
compounds with same functional group are arranged in ascending order of their molecular
weights, the difference between the two consecutive members of the series is -CH2 and
such a series is called homologous series.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

Functional groups are specific atoms, ions, or groups of atoms that have consistent
properties.
In organic chemistry, apart from hydrocarbons, there are other molecules where carbon
forms bonds with other elements, such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
rational system of naming carbon compounds was developed. It was modified by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and is followed all over
the world. According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of an organic
compound consists of a root word, a suffix and a prefix.

1. For saturated hydrocarbons, the primary suffix "ane" should be added. For
example, the IUPAC name of

is ethane.

2. Hydrocarbons containing double bonds are known as alkenes. For such hydrocarbons,
the primary suffix "ene" should be added to the root word. For example,
the IUPAC name of is written as Ethene

3. Hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between carbon atoms are known as alkynes
and for naming such hydrocarbons the primary suffix "yne "should be added. For
example, the IUPAC name of

is written as propyne.

A secondary suffix indicates the functional group present in the carbon compound.
For example a molecule of ethyl alcohol contains two carbon atoms, so the root word is
"eth". It is saturated so the primary suffix should be "ane" but as there is a functional group
-OH in the molecule, remove the "e" from the name of the molecule and add the secondary
suffix "ol". Therefore, the IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is "ethanol".
Using the same set of rules, the IUPAC name of the propanaldehyde molecule can be
written as Propanal, acetone can be written as propanone. Similarly, the IUPAC name of
propionic acid can be written as propanoic acid.

The parts of the name that precede the root word are called prefixes. For example, in the
compound, cyclobutane, "cyclo" is the prefix that indicates the alicyclic nature of the
compounds

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

Coal and petroleum are the fossils fuels. Carbon compounds undergo different types
of chemical reactions. All carbon compounds react with oxygen to produce heat and
light along with carbon dioxide and water. This reaction of carbon with oxygen is called
combustion.

Carbon Compound + Oxygen

Aliphatic compounds on combustion produce a non-sooty flame. for example, alcohol

burns with a blue flame and does not produce any soot. Aromatic compounds on
combustion produce sooty flame. For example, naphthalene and camphor burn with a
yellow flame and produce soot.
Alcohols undergo oxidation in presence of oxidising agents like alkaline potassium
permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate to form carboxylic acids. For
example, ethyl alcohol on oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified
potassium dichromate gives acetic acid.

Addition reaction is the one in which a molecule adds across a double bond or a triple
bond.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions. Hydrogenation reaction involves

the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons in presence of catalyst like nickel
to form saturated hydrocarbons.

A substitution reaction involves the replacement of an atom or group of atoms by other

atom or group. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions. For example chlorination of
methane in presence of sunlight gives a mixture of products like methyl chloride,
methylene chloride, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride.
Important Carbon Compounds

Properties of two commercially important compounds - ethanol and ethanoic acid.

Properties of ethyl alcohol.
The molecular formula of ethyl alcohol is C2H5OH, and its IUPAC name is ethanol. It is
the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. It is also called grain alcohol and spirit of
wine
Ethanol can be manufactured through fermentation of molasses.
Physical properties of ethyl alcohol.

1. Colorless, inflammable, sweet smelling liquid that burns with a blue flame.

2. miscible with water,

3. good solvent

Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol can cause drunkenness. Absolute

alcohol which is pure form of alcohol when consumed even in small quantities is proven to
be fatal.
To prevent the misuse of ethanol that is produced for industrial use, it is made unfit by
adding methanol to it. To identify it easily, dyes are added to it, this is called denatured
alcohol.
Chemical properties of alcohol

1. Reaction of ethanol with sodium

2Na + 2CH3CH2OH →2CH3CH2O-Na+ + H2

2. Reaction of ethyl alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid

The organic compounds containing carboxylic group (COOH) are known as carboxylic acids.
Acetic acid whose IUPAC name is ethanoic acid is a carboxylic acid. Vinegar is 5-8%
solution of acetic acid in water.
Reaction of ethyl alcohol with acidified potassium dichromate

As the melting point of acetic acid is very low it often freezes in cold countries and hence
the name glacial acetic acid. Compared to mineral acids acetic acid is a weak acid.
Chemical properties of acetic acid.
Reaction of acetic acid with sodium carbonate:

Esterification reaction:
An ester is formed when an acid and alcohol react.. Esters are sweet smelling substances
which are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents.

Saponification reaction:
Soaps and Detergents

The soapiness in soap comes from the sodium

salts of fatty acids like stearic acid, oleic acid
and palmitic acid.

Soaps are sodium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The soapiness in soap comes
from the sodium salts of fatty acids like stearic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid.

Sodium Oleate Sodium Palmitate

The ionic end of the soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain dissolves in oil. The
positively charged heads of the soap molecules repel each other and form a closed
structure. This structure is called a micelle. The dirt is pulled and absorbed into the centre
of the micelle. This property of soap makes it an emulsifier.

Sometimes, soaps don't lather well with hard water. Hard water contains calcium and
magnesium, which combine with soap molecules to form insoluble precipitates.

Detergents consist of long chain molecules such as sodium n-dodecyl benzene

sulphonate and sodium n- dodecyl sulphate. The charged ends of these compounds do
not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in water.
Detergents are used in shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.

structure of sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate,

structure of sodium n-dodecyl sulphate