Effect of Alkali Contamination on Geotechnical Properties of Soil

Submitted by

Abhay Sharma

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

GLA University, Mathura- 281406
May, 2016
 Certificate

This is to certify that the thesis entitled Effect of Alkali Contamination on

Geotechnical Properties of Soil being submitted by Abhay Sharma to the

Department of Civil Engineering, GLA University, Mathura towards the partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of the “Bachelor of

Technology in Civil Engineering” is a record of the bonafide work he has carried

under my supervision.

Supervisor: Obaidur Rahaman

 Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to complete
this project. I want to thank the Department of Civil Engineering of “GLA
UNIVERSITY” for giving me such a golden opportunity to commence this project in the
first instance. I have furthermore to thank the Assistant Professor “OBAIDUR
RAHAMAN” who encouraged me to go ahead with my project. I am also thankful to the
entire Civil Engineering Department “GLA UNIVERSITY” for their support.

In the end I would like to show my gratitude towards the laboratory staffs for their efforts
and support in completing my project.

Abhay Sharma

University Roll No.121000001

iii
 Declaration

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my

knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another

person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any

other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except

where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Signature:
Name: Abhay Sharma
Roll No.:121000001
Date:

iv
 Abstract

Effect of Alkali Contamination on Geotechnical Properties of Soil

Abhay Sharma, B.Tech (CE)

GLA University, 2016

Supervisor: Obaidur Rahaman

The aim of the thesis is to evaluate and understand the effect of 1N NaOH solution on the
physical properties of Black Cotton soil. One important pollutant that can have
considerable effect on the behaviour of soils is the caustic alkali contamination released
from various industries. Recent studies have shown that the behaviour of even stable
minerals is affected by alkali contamination. Also to understand the mechanism of their
interaction with alkali, it is necessary to study the effect of alkali solutions on the
constituents of soil. To know the mechanism of soil alkali interaction some tests were
conducted on both uncontaminated soil as well as contaminated soil. In initial phase tests
were conducted on uncontaminated soil and then I N NaOH solution was prepared in the
laboratory. Soil was interacted with NaOH solution and left for a period of 50 days, and
then same tests were conducted on contaminated soil. The results obtained in the
laboratory in both phase were compared with each other. The content of the thesis is
broadly divide into Chapters - viz., Introduction, Literature Review , Materials and
Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusion and Future Scope. The broad outline of
these chapters is given in Chapter 1. A review of literature on the behaviour of soils
containing different types of clay minerals with emphasis on mixed layer minerals has
been presented in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 contains the properties of the soils used, alkali
solutions of 1N concentration prepared in the laboratory, test procedures for conducting
various tests of geotechnical properties such as Atterberg limits, compaction test, sieve
analysis, specific gravity. However, Proctor's maximum dry density increased and

v
optimum moisture content decreased with 1N NaOH. Chapter 4 contains the comparative
results of the various tests conducted on uncontaminated and contaminated soil.
Conclusion and future scope of the project has been discussed in the last part of report.

Keywords: NaOH, Atterberg’s limits, Compaction test, Sieve analysis, Specific gravity.

vi
 Table of Contents

Abstract ....................................................................................................................v

List of Tables ......................................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ..........................................................................................................x

Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................1

1.1 Complex Nature Of Soil ...........................................................................1
1.2 Historical development .............................................................................2
1.3 Significance...............................................................................................3
1.4 Object ........................................................................................................3
1.5 Source of Alkali Contamination ...............................................................4
1.6 Effect of alkali contamination ...................................................................4
1.7 Mechanism of Soil-Alkali Interaction ......................................................9
1.8 Sodium hydroxide (1 N) .........................................................................10
1.8.1 Properties ....................................................................................10
1.9 Concluding Remarks ...............................................................................11

Chapter 2: Literature review ..................................................................................12

2.1 Yang et al. (2013) ...................................................................................12
2.2 Rama krishne gowda et al. (2011) .........................................................12
2.3 SIVAPULLAIAH (2011)........................................................................13
2.4 Sivapullaiah and Reddy (2009) ...............................................................13
2.5 Sivapullaiah and manju (2006) ...............................................................14
2.6 Sivapullaiah and manju (2005) ...............................................................14

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods .........................................................................16

3.1 General ....................................................................................................16
3.2 Preparation of 1N NaOH ........................................................................16
3.3 Methodology ...........................................................................................16

vii
 3.4 Test conducted:- ......................................................................................17
3.5 Experimental procedure ..........................................................................17
3.5.1 Grain size analysis ......................................................................18
3.5.1.1 Apparatus and machines used: ........................................18
3.5.2.2 Procedure ........................................................................20
3.5.3 Specific gravity ...........................................................................21
3.5.3.1Apparatus and machines used: .........................................21
3.5.3.2 Procedure ........................................................................22
3.5.4 Liquid limit .................................................................................24
3.5.4..1 Apparatus and machines used: .......................................24
3.5.4.2 Procedure: .......................................................................25
3.5.5 Plastic limit .................................................................................27
3.5.5.1 Apparatus and machines used: ........................................27
3.5.5.2 Procedure: .......................................................................27
3.5.6 Compaction test ..........................................................................29
3.5.6.1 Apparatus and machines used: ........................................29
3.5.6.2 Procedure: .......................................................................31

Chapter 4: Result and discussion ...........................................................................33

4.1 General ....................................................................................................33
4.2 Grain size analysis ..................................................................................34
4.3 Specific gravity .......................................................................................35
4.4 Atterberg’s limit ......................................................................................36
4.5 Compaction .............................................................................................38

Chapter: 5 Conclusion and future scope ................................................................40

5.1 Conclusion ..............................................................................................40
5.2 Future scope ............................................................................................40

References ..............................................................................................................41

viii
 List of Tables

Table no.1 Description of Geotechnical Tests ......................................................18

Table no.2 Soil classification ................................................................................34

Table no. 3 Specific gravity of Uncontaminated soil and Contaminated soil.......35

ix
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Cracks in pavement due to heaving. ...........................................................6

Fig. 1.2 Effect of heaving in soil on railway tracks. ................................................7

Fig. 1.3 Cracks in wall due to swelling in foundation soil. .....................................8

Fig. 1.4 Upheaval of concrete floor due to alkali. ...................................................9

Fig. 3.1. Mechanical sieve shaker ..........................................................................19

Fig. 3.2. Sieves used in grain size analysis ............................................................20

Fig. 3.3. Weighing machine ...................................................................................20

Fig. 3.4 Pycnometer bottle .....................................................................................22

Fig. 3.5 Liquid limit apparatus ..............................................................................25

Fig. 3.6. Proctor with base plate and hammer .......................................................30

Fig. 3.7. Standard proctor test apparatus ...............................................................31

Fig. 4.1 Grain size analysis of Uncontaminated Soil.............................................33

Fig. 4.2 Grain size analysis of Contaminated soil .................................................34

Fig. 4.3.Liquid limit curve for Uncontaminated soil. ............................................36

Fig. 4.4. Liquid limit curve for Contaminated soil. ...............................................37

Fig. 4.5. Compaction curve for uncontaminated soil.............................................38

Fig. 4.6.Compaction curve for Contaminated soil. ................................................39

x
 Chapter 1: Introduction

The term soil has different meaning for scientist belonging to different disciplines.

The definition given to a soil by an agriculturist or a geologist is different from the one

used by the civil engineer. Soil is also the most abundantly available construction

material. From ancient times, man has used soil for construction of tombs, monuments,

dwelling barrages for storing water. In modern times the use of earth for building dams

and for construction for pavement for highways and airfields is an important aspect for

civil engineering. In the designing construction of underground structures such as tunnel,

conduits, power houses, bracings for excavation and earth retaining structures, the role of

soil is very important. Since the soil is in direct contact with structure it act as a medium

of load transfer and hence for analysis of forces acting on such structures, one has to

consider the aspect of stress distribution through the soil.

1.1 COMPLEX NATURE OF SOIL

A natural soil deposit is quite unlike any other material of construction known to

man. Most of the commonly used materials of construction such as wood, steel, concrete,

or reinforced concrete are capable of proper structural analysis once a few simple and

well-chosen physical and mechanical parameters like the modulus of elasticity, yield
stress, Poison’s ratio, etc. are known. These materials can be expected to behave in a

reasonably predictable manner. On the other hand unexpected changes take place in soils

when certain environmental changes occur. For instances, vibration can alter the state of

sand deposit form loose to dense. Some clay soils, which are extremely hard and dry, can

turn into slush having very little shearing strength, when their water content becomes

high indeed; water is by far the most important variable controlling the behavior of fine

grained soil.
1
 Natural soil deposits are complex to deal with because:-

• The stress strain relationship for soil deposit is non-linear hence the

difficulty in using easily determinable parameters to describe its behavior.

• Soil deposits have a memory for stresses, they have undergone in their

geological history.

• Soil deposits being far from homogenous, exhibit properties which vary

from location to location.

• No sample is truly undisturbed.

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Although our predecessors didn’t know soil mechanics in the sense we understand

it today, they surely knew the art of using earth as a construction material. In the

prehistoric time, man built earthen moulds for burial, for protection against floods, for

religious purposes and even for building caves to live in. In ancient times and in roman

period, the use of soil was appreciated in the construction of roads, canals and bridges.

The pyramids of Egypt, the famous hanging gardens built by the Baby Lonian king

Nebuchadnezzar, the wall of Babylon, the Great Wall of China and the roads and

aqueducts built by the Romans are some of outstanding constructions that must have

required great knowledge, skill and ingenuity on the part of their builders. In the middle

ages, European engineers understood the problems associated with settlement by their

experience of construction of massive cathedrals. The settlement of the Leaning Tower of

Pisa is well known. It was also during this period that Scandi Navians used timber piles

2
to support structures on soft clay soil. During renaissance, the great genius, Leonardo da

vinci recorded some of his innovative ideas on retaining wall fortification, road

construction and canal making in his detailed sketches and drawings. It was only in 18th

century that the 1st attempt to develop some theories pertaining to design of foundations

and other constructions were made. The beginning of the 20th century saw some

important development

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE

Modern construction requires not only profound preliminary study of the

foundation material, but also a thorough knowledge of the factors causing its changes in

the life time of the structures supported by it. Behavior of any chemical or contaminant in

the soil depends upon its properties and its interactivity with soil. The major sources of

subsurface and surface contamination are land disposal of industrial, mining, agricultural

wastes and accidental spillage of chemicals. Increasing number of instances of

geotechnical failures due to heaving and settlement cracks and contamination of ground

water are being reported almost from every part of the world. Conventional design of

foundations to various types of structures is based on soil properties assessed in the

presence of pure water. However soil-pollutant interactions that occur alter almost all

geotechnical properties of soils.

1.4 OBJECT

The main object of the present investigation is to study the soil contaminant

interaction effects. The changes in geotechnical behavior have been examined in terms of

geotechnical properties. The changes in the basic properties such as Atterberg’s limits,

Compaction characteristics, volume change, strength and hydraulic conductivity behavior

3
by alkali – soil interaction are expected to throw more light on the mechanism and effects

on behavior of soils in any other environment also.

1.5 SOURCE OF ALKALI CONTAMINATION

Various industries release alkali into the soil which are used or formed as a

byproduct in their manufacturing process. In such case they try to dump in the land for

disposal. When they are get dumped, the soil reacts with alkalis and gets contaminated

and the water present in the area also gets contaminated. Several industries experience the

problem in finding a better and eco-friendly way of disposal. Though all the

administrative and regulatory processes are carried out, accidental event or unknown

contamination spills are causing hydroxide products to be released, seep down and

transported into the ground. Soil behavior is considerably affected by alkali interaction.

Source of alkali contamination of soil is the release of hydroxide into the soil by various

industries as mentioned below:

I. Textile industries

II. Paper and Pulp industries

III. Aluminium industries

IV. For making soaps and detergents

V. Refining of petrol and vegetable oil and so on.

1.6 EFFECT OF ALKALI CONTAMINATION

It is quite common that concrete pavements and bridges fail due to cracking

caused by expansion. It happens because of alkali-silica reaction in soil. The highly

reactive alkali released from industries reacts with silica present in surrounding soil.

Availability of moisture adds to the effect of expansion of soil below the structure.
4
Reaction product mix with water and may expand to such an extent that expansion in soil

takes place which causes cracks in substructure. Gaps created by cracks provide the way

for water to seep into structure, which can cause further deterioration to take place.

Following are some effect of alkali contamination.

 Swelling of soil due to clay- alkali interaction

 Formation of new compound

 Alteration in index properties

 Change in mechanical properties

 Phenomenon of soil heaving takes place

 Improper functioning of sub and super structure

 Tilting of storage tank

 Cracks in pavement

 Alteration in groundwater hydrology

5
Fig. 1.1 Cracks in pavement due to heaving.

6
Fig. 1.2 Effect of heaving in soil on railway tracks.

7
Fig. 1.3 Cracks in wall due to swelling in foundation soil.

8
Fig. 1.4 Upheaval of concrete floor due to alkali.

9
1.7 MECHANISM OF SOIL-ALKALI INTERACTION

There are several problems due to alkali contamination like foundation problem,

slope failure, ground water contamination etc. One of the basic problems in alkali

contamination of soil is the decrease of bulk strength of the soil and makes it less fit in

the bearing capacity of the soil and also increases the permeable nature of the soil. The

expansive behavior of soils due to alkali contamination has been reported by Rao (1994)

that due to loss of cementitious iron oxide coating on interaction with caustic soda

solution caused the swelling in kaolinite. Sinha et al (2003) reported that safe bearing

capacity of alkali-contaminated site is lowered by about 33% in comparison to

uncontaminated site. Turer (2006) observed swelling of about 2.2% swell in non-swelling

soil with 4N NaOH solution.

These are some of the basic reactions between alkali and silica present in the soil. Basic

reaction between alkali and the water present in the soil as shown below:
 Na2CO3  Na+ + CO32 –

2Na+ + CO3 2-
+ 2H+ + 2OH- 2Na+ + 2OH- + H2CO3( UNSTABLE)

H2CO3 H2O + CO2

 CaCl2 + Na2(CO3)2  2NaCl ( easily drained off) + CaCO3

Expansion due to basic reaction of alkali – silica as follows

 Na+ + Si + OH- + H2O  Alkali silica gel

 Alkali silica gel + water Swelling

Here the hydroxyl ions when reacts with silica and imbibe in water it swells and its

chemical name are silanol and without hydroxyl ions when reacts with silica gel is

produced but swelling doesn’t occur and its chemical name is siloxane.

Two stages of alkali silica reaction

 OH- + Si + H2O H2SiO2
10
  H2SiO2 + 2NaOH Na2SiO2 + 2 H2O

 Na2SiO2 + 2NaOH + H2O  2 Na+ + H2 SiO4

So it is essential to minimize of the expansive behavior of the soil caused by alkali

contamination. There may be many ways but utilizing the waste products for the

reduction of heaving will be an additional advantage for this problem. There are many

authors who have made their effects in utilizing the waste products like fly ash, silica

fume, calcium carbide ash, slag etc.

1.8 SODIUM HYDROXIDE (1 N)

Sodium hydroxide is also known as caustic soda, it is an inorganic compound and

white solid alkali which is available in granules and it can be prepared at different

concentration. This is soluble in water, ethanol, and methanol. This readily absorbs

moisture and carbon dioxide in air.

Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in

the manufacture of pulp and paper, textile, drinking water, soaps and detergent and as

a drain cleaner. Worldwide production in 2004 was approximately 60 million tonnes,

while demand was 51 million tones.

1.8.1 Properties

 It is highly soluble in water, with a lower solubility in ethanol and methanol, but

is insoluble in ether and other non-polar solvents.

 Similar to the hydration of sulfuric acid, dissolution of solid sodium hydroxide in

water is a highly exothermic reaction in which a large amount of heat is liberated,

posing a threat to safety through the possibility of splashing.

11
1.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Mainly contaminated sites are in urban or close to urban areas which make sense

that contamination are directly caused by an industrial activity or in relation to transport,

stock and trade activities. On the other hand the problem of waste management in

metropolitan areas has conducted in the past to think about reuse of contaminated soil. In

developing country like India, due to industrial development, numbers of industries using

alkali are increasing rapidly. So there is need of safe disposal of alkali waste, studying the

effect of alkali on soil properties.

12
 Chapter 2: Literature review

2.1 YANG ET AL. (2013)

He has mainly studied the impact of environmental contamination on mechanical

property (UCS) of cemented soil and the factors such as cement content, curing age and

pH value were taken into consideration. The results show that the appearance of

cemented soil was seriously eroded under acidic condition while it was slightly affected

under alkaline condition. The UCS of cemented soil increases with cement content and

curing age in contaminant condition, however the increase is much slower than the

regular cemented soil. The strength loss reaches 30% in strong acidic and alkaline

environments. The electron scanner and microscopic mechanism of failure were used to

observe the microstructure of test blocks. The result of this paper can provide reasonable

basis for durability evaluation, design and residual life prediction of cemented soil.

2.2 RAMA KRISHNE GOWDA ET AL. (2011)

He has studied the effect of alkali on geotechnical properties of shedi soil containing both

kaolinite and smectite mineral. It was observed that plasticity index of soil decrease and

optimum moisture content increase with increasing concentration of alkali content in

fluid .however compressibility and swell pressure of soil decrease. Because of decrease in

cohesion of soil particles, shear strength of soil decrease. With increase in alkali

concentration, hydraulic conductivity of soil increases.

13
2.3 SIVAPULLAIAH (2011)

He has described that lime is often used to control the swelling in with high cation

exchange capacity and large specific surface. However lime stabilized soils are known to

exhibit delayed swelling and loss of strength in presence of sulphate. This is attributed to

the alteration of cementitious compound such as calcium silicate hydrate etc. into

ettringite and thaumasite. Recent studies have revealed that these mineral may not have

increased sizes. The observed alteration in geotechnical properties of lime stabilized soils

may not be due to formation of swelling type of compounds. An attempt has been made

to explain observed changes based on free energy changes. The conversion of calcium

silicate hydrate into ettrintigite can have two fold effects: firstly the loss of cementing

nature of compounds and secondly the free energy released from the mineralogical

alteration of cementitious compound result in increase in volume at constant temperature

and pressure, which in turn reduces the shear strength of soils.

2.4 SIVAPULLAIAH AND REDDY (2009)

They have studied that alkali contamination can alter the engineering behavior of soil to
varying extents, depending on soil type, the alkali contamination and duration of
interaction .the effect of 2N sodium hydroxide solution on the swelling and
compressibility of black cotton soil possessing interstratified mineral and red earth with
predominant kaolinite clay mineral, studied by means of detailed consolidation tests. It
has been shown that an increase in swelling and a decrease in compressibility of soil
occur as a result of contamination with 2N sodium hydroxide solution. The observed
swelling is greater for black cotton soil containing mixed layer mineral than kaolinite red
earth. Also the swelling in black cotton soil contaminated with alkali occurs in two
stages. This has been attributed to mineralogical changes leading to formation of different
form of zeolite. The effectiveness of fly ash, when included in soil at concentration of 25-

14
50%, effectively controls alkali induced swelling in soil by preventing the formation of
new zeolite mineral.

2.5 SIVAPULLAIAH AND MANJU (2006)

They have attempted to study the zeolite formation on the volume-change behavior of
kaolinite soil. This is studied in terms of two criteria, namely concentration and period of
interaction. Conventional consolidation tests have been carried out to find the extent of
change in swell and compressibility of kaolinite soils remoulded with water and
inundated with an alkali solution. It was observed that abnormal swell occurs during
unloading when specimens were inundated with a 4N alkali solution .while allowing a
longer interaction period at 6.25 kPa, it was found that swelling in kaolinitic soil induced
after time lags of 30 and 15 days on inundation with 1 N and 4 N alkali solution,
respectively. Equilibrium is reached after 50 to 70 days in kaolinitic soils, however
end loading was undertaken later . A 16 % swelling was observed in kaolinitic soils when
inundated with a 4 N alkali solution ,indicated that zeolitization of kaolite results in
swelling at seating load provided the period of interaction is sufficient .X ray diffraction
studies confirm the formation of zeolite.

2.6 SIVAPULLAIAH AND MANJU (2005)

They have reported the effect of alkali of interaction of kaolinite mineral with alkali on

the index properties of soils from which the geotechnical behavior can be understood.

Detailed X-ray diffraction studies have shown that sodium aluminum silicate hydroxide

hydrate (NASH) is formed by alkali reactions. The type and amount of formation of the

compound is influenced by the concentration of alkali solution. While the compound

formed is in smaller quantities with 1N NaOH solution, significantly high quantity is

formed with 4N NaOH solutions. Presence of alumina is shown to play a significant role.

15
It was observed that the formation of sodium aluminum silicate hydroxide hydrate is

reduced in the presence of alumina. Specific gravity of contaminated soil was reduced

which confirms the formation of new compounds. Water adsorption and specific surface

area of soil are also influenced due to soil alkali interaction.

16
 Chapter 3: Materials and Methods

3.1 GENERAL

This chapter deals with a types of material used, source of materials obtained and

methods used in the laboratory.

Uncontaminated soil:-
Uncontaminated soil was taken from Jatoli Ghana, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India.

Alkali contaminated soil:-

Oven dried soil was interacted with 1N NaOH and left undisturbed for a period of
50 days.

3.2 PREPARATION OF 1N NAOH

 Prepare 1 liter distilled water.

 Take 40 grams of NaOH in powder form.

 Now, mix the 40 grams of NaOH in about 200 ml of water.

 Finally add water to the solution until the whole solution to be 1 liter.

3.3 METHODOLOGY

This report includes the analysis of geotechnical properties of uncontaminated

soil, alkali contaminated soil.

The important parameters analyzed in report are:

 Geotechnical properties of uncontaminated soil

 Geotechnical properties of alkali contaminated soil

17
3.4 TEST CONDUCTED:-

 The following test were conducted for above materials:

 Grain size analysis

 Specific gravity

 Atterbeg’s limit test

 Compaction test

3.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

 To find out the various geotechnical properties of the given soil sample, air dried

and oven dried soil was used as per the requirement.

 We take 10% of the weight of sample soil as NaOH to be mixed .

 Geotechnical properties of soil were determined in the laboratory using standard

methods recommended in relevant part of IS code: 2720.

Table no.1 Description of Geotechnical Tests

S. no. Properties Studied Relevant Parts of IS2720 Equipment Used

1 Grain size Distribution Part 4: 1985Reaffirmed Standard sieves
1990 Shaker
2 Atterberg’s Limit Part 5: 1985Reaffirmed Casagrande apparatus
1990
3 Specific Gravity Part 3/ Section1&2:1980 Pycnometer
Reaffirmed 1992
4 Compaction Part 7:1980Reaffirmed 1992 Standard Procter test
Apparatus

3.5.1 Grain size analysis

Grain size distribution or the percentage of various sizes of soil grains present in a

given dry soil sample, is an important soil grain property. Grain size analysis of coarse

18
grained soils is carried out by sieve analysis, whereas fine grained soils are analyzed by

the hydrometer method or pipette method. In general, as most soils contain both coarse

and fine grained constituents, a combined analysis is usually carried out. In the combined

grain size analysis, a soil sample in the dry state is subjected to sieve analysis and then

the finer fraction is analyzed by the hydrometer or pipette method. Grain size analysis

was performed on soil with the help of sieve analysis.

3.5.1.1 Apparatus and machines used:

 Sieves of different sizes

 Mechanical sieve shaker

 Weighing machine

 Oven.

Fig. 3.1. Mechanical sieve shaker

19
Fig. 3.2. Sieves used in grain size analysis

Fig. 3.3. Weighing machine

20
3.5.2.2 Procedure

 Obtain 800 g of oven-dry representative soil sample.

 Soil sample is crushed into to small particle size.

 Clean and weigh the each sieve as well as pan.

 Arrange the sieves in descending i.e. from 4.75mm to .075mm.

 Carefully soil is poured and cap is placed over the top sieve.

 Sieve stack is placed on mechanical shaker and is allowed to shake for 12 minutes.

 Then finally, the weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded.

3.5.3 Specific gravity

Specific gravity of solids can be defined as the ratio of the weight of a given

volume of solids to the equivalent volume of water at 4o C. it is frequently required for

computation of several quantities such as void ratio, degree of saturation, unit weight of

solids, unit weights of soil in various states. The specific gravity of solid particles can be
determined in laboratory using Pycnometer method and density bottle method.

Pycnometer method is used for coarse grained soil and density bottle method is used for

fine grained soil. Pycnometer method was used to determine the specific gravity of soil

solid in present study.

3.5.3.1Apparatus and machines used:

 Density bottle of 50 ml with stopper having capillary hole

 Weighing machine.
21
 Fig. 3.4 Pycnometer bottle

3.5.3.2 Procedure

 Weigh the empty clean and dry pycnometer, W1.

 Take about 200 - 300 grams of oven dried soil sample.

 Then weigh the soil sample and pycnometer, W2.

 Pour the water gradually and stir the sample so as to remove the entrapped air.

 Now the pycnometer is filled upto the top with water and weighs, W3.

22
 And then the pycnometer is emptied completely, cleaned, dried and weighed after
filling again with water upto the top, W4.

Specific gravity of solids, Gs = W2-W1

(W2-W1)-(W3-W4)

23
3.5.4 Liquid limit

It is the water content at which a soil is practically in a liquid state but has

infinitesimal resistance against flow which can be measured by any standardized

procedure. With reference 1 such procedure the liquid limit is defined as the water

content at which a groove cut in a pat of soil by a grooving tool of standard dimensions

will flow together for a distance of 13mm under the impact of 25 blows in a standard

liquid limit device.

3.5.4..1 Apparatus and machines used:

 Weighing Machine

 Liquid Limit Device (Casagrande) Grooving Tool

 Mixing Dishes

 Spatula

 Oven.

24
 Fig.3.5 Liquid limit apparatus

3.5.4.2 Procedure:

 Adjust the cup of the liquid limit apparatus with the help of grooving tool gauge

and the geotechnical engineering ,adjustment plate to given a drop of exactly 1cm

on the point of contact on base.

 Take about 120gm of an air sample passing 425 micron sieve.

 Mix it thoroughly with some distilled water to form a uniform paste.

 Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device, smooth the

surface with spatula to a max depth of 1cmdraw the grooving tool through the

sample along the symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the tool perpendicular to

the cup.

25
 Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and count blows until two

parts of the soil sample come into contact at the bottom of the soil sample come

into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 10 mm.

 Transfer about 15gm of the soil forming the edges of the groove that flowed

together to a water content tin and determine the water content by oven drying.

 Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample in the basin and mix

thoroughly after adding a small amount of water.

 Repeat step 4,5and 6. Obtain at least four sets of reading in the range of 10 to 40
blows.

26
3.5.5 Plastic limit

Plastic limit Wp is defined as the water content at which a soil would just begin to

crumble when rolled into a thread of approximately 3 mm diameter.

3.5.5.1 Apparatus and machines used:

 Glass Plate Of 20x15 Cm2

 425 Micron I.S. Sieve

 3mm Diameter Rod

 Spatula.

 oven

3.5.5.2 Procedure:

 Take about 30gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through

425 micron is sieve obtained in accordance with IS 2729.

 Mix it with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil mass become plastic

enough to be easily molded with fingers.

 Allow it to season for sufficient (for 24 hours) to allow water to permeate

throughout the soil mass

 Take about 10gms of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers and glass

plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a threaded of uniform

diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be between 60 and 90

strokes per minutes

 Continue rolling till you get a threaded of 3 m diameter.

 Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.

 Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3mm.

27
 Collect the pieces of the crumble thread in air tight container for moisture content

determination.

 Repeat the test to at least 3 times and take the average of the result calculated to

the nearest whole number.

28
3.5.6 Compaction test

In construction of highway embankments ,earth dams and many other

engineering structure ,loose soils must be compacted to improve their spam by increasing

their compaction–densification of soil by removing air voids using mechanical equipment

the degree of compaction is measured in terms of it dry unit weight . Increasing the

bearing capacity of foundation, decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures

control undesirable volume changes, reduction in hydraulic conductivity, increasing the

stability of slopes.

The laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between moisture

content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive

effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several

different methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some example includes

tamping, kneading, vibration and static load compaction. This laboratory experiment

employed the tamping or impact compaction method using the type of equipment and

method developed by R.R. Proctor in 1933 therefore the test is also known as Proctor

test.

3.5.6.1 Apparatus and machines used:

 Proctor mould having a capacity of 944 cc with an internal dia. Of 10.2 cm and a

height of 11.6 cm. The mould shall have a detachable space collar assembly and

detachable base plate.

 Rammer: A mechanical operated metal rammer having a 5.08 cm diameter face

and a weight 2.5 kg .the rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement to

control the height of drop to a free fall of 30 cm.

 Sample extruder

 A balance of 15 kg capacity .
29
 Sensitive balance

 Straight edge

 Mixing tool such as mixing pan, spoon, travel, spatula, etc.

 Moisture tins

Fig. 3.6. Proctor with base plate and hammer

30
 Fig. 3.7. Standard proctor test apparatus

3.5.6.2 Procedure:

 Take a representative oven dried sample; approximately 3 kg in the given pan

thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately

four to six percentage points below optimum moisture content.

 Weight the proctor mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base

plate. Place the soil in the proctor mould and compact it in 3 layers giving 25

blows per layer with the 2.5 kg rammer falling through.

31
 Remove the collar; trim the compacted soil even with the drop of the mould by

means of the straight edge and weight.

 Divide the weight of the compacted specimen by 1000 cc and record the result as

the wet weight in grams per cubic centimeter of the compacted soil.

 Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a

small sample for moisture determination.

 Add water in sufficient amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil

sample by one or two percentage points and repeat the above procedure for each
increment of water added .continue this series of determination until there is

either a decrease or no change in the weight of the compacted soil.

32
 Chapter 4: Result and discussion

4.1 GENERAL
This chapter deals with the result of tests conducted on contaminated and
uncontaminated soil to find out its geotechnical properties. This chapter reports the
changes in geotechnical properties of soil due to interaction with alkali.

4.2 GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

Grain size analyses of contaminated and uncontaminated soil are shown in figures
4.1 and 4.2.

Fig. 4.1 Grain size analysis of Uncontaminated Soil

33
 Fig. 4.2 Grain size analysis of Contaminated soil

Table no.2 Soil classification

S no. Soil Uncontaminated (%) Contaminated (%)

1 Sand 68.6 73.8

2 Fine (silt and clay) 31.4 26.2

3 Classification SM - SC SM – SC

34
4.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity of contaminated and uncontaminated soil are given in table no. 3
The specific gravity of alkali contaminated soil is less than that of uncontaminated soil.
Reduction in specific gravity of soil confirms the formation of new compound.

Table no. 3 Specific gravity of Uncontaminated soil and Contaminated soil

S.no. Soil Specific gravity

1 Uncontaminated soil 2.61
2 Contaminated soil 2.49

35
4.4 ATTERBERG’S LIMIT
The liquid limit, plastic limit of contaminated soil, uncontaminated soil are given in table
no. 4 and flow curve is shown in fig 4.3 and 4.4.

Table no. 4 Atterberg’s limits

Soil Type Liquid limit Plastic limit
Uncontaminated soil 32.5 21.4
contaminated soil 40.5 25.8

LIQUID LIMIT (UNCONTAMINATED)

31.4
31.2
31
Moisture Content

30.8
30.6
30.4
30.2
30
0 10 20 30 40
No. of Blows
Fig. 4.3.Liquid limit curve for Uncontaminated soil.

36
 LIQUID LIMIT (CONTAMINATED)

50
Moisture content

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
No. of Blows

Fig. 4.4. Liquid limit curve for Contaminated soil.

37
4.5 COMPACTION

The compaction curves for contaminated and uncontaminated soils are given in
fig 4.5 and 4.6. Maximum dry density for uncontaminated soil is 1.94 g/cc and optimum
moisture content is 14% while for contaminated soil these values are 1.96 g/cc and 12.9%
respectively.
Thus it is clear from the graphs that maximum dry density has increased and optimum
moisture content has decreased for alkali contaminated soil.

1.95

1.9
Dry density

1.85

1.8

1.75

1.7
0 5 10 15 20
Water content percentage

Fig. 4.5. Compaction curve for uncontaminated soil.

38
 2

1.95

1.9
Dry density

1.85

1.8

1.75

1.7
0 5 10 15 20
Moisture content

Fig. 4.6. Compaction curve for Contaminated soil.

39
 Chapter: 5 Conclusion and future scope

5.1 CONCLUSION
Based on detailed test result discussed in the previous chapter, the following
conclusions are drawn.
 The major changes in geotechnical properties of uncontaminated and
contaminated soils are due to alkali-soil interaction.
 The specific gravity values of uncontaminated soils are also altered. The G
value found low in case of contaminated soil.
 The compaction characteristics have also been affected due to alkali
contamination. The optimum moisture content of contaminated soil found
to be low in comparison to uncontaminated soil.
 Though consistency test have shown negligible change, if the
concentration and the interaction period were increased it would have
shown some significant changes.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

In the present study the geotechnical changes due to alkali soil interaction has

been studied. To explore it further, if the concentration and interaction period is

increased a swelling behavior can be observed in non-expansive soils. Alteration

of minerals on alkali interaction can also be studied on comparing results of XRF

and XRD test on uncontaminated and contaminated soil.

40
 References
 Yang, y., Wang G., Xie, S., Tu, X. and Huang, X (2013), “Effect on mechanical
property of soil under different pH value”. Applied science, 79, 19-24.
 Ramakrshnegowda, C. Y. R. K., Shivshankar, and Sivapullaiah, P. V. (2011).
“Geotechnical properties of soil affected by alkali contamination”. International
Journal of Environmental Protection, 1(4), 45-52.
 Ramakrishnegowda Chittanahally, Yaji Rama Krishna, Shivashankar R and
Sivapullaiah, Puvvadi Venkata, “Geotechnical Properties of Shedi Soil Affected
by Alkali Contamination” Indian Journal of Environmental Pollution, Vol. 1,No.
4, 2011, pp.45-50
 Sivapullaiah, P. V. (2011), “ Free energy concept of sulphate induced heave
behavior in lime stabilized soils”.Proceeding Indian Geotechnical Conference,
Vol. 1, 57-63.
 Sivapullaiah, P.V. and Reddy (2009). “ To Control Alkali Induced Volume
Changes in Soils,”
 Sivapullaiah, P.V. and Manju, M. (2006). “Kaolinite-Alkali Interaction and
Effects on Basic Properties,” Geotech. Geologic. Engg., Vol. 18, No. 8, pp. 534–
540.
 Sivapullaiah and Manju.(2005). Kaolinite-alkali interaction and effects on basic
properties, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering,Vol.23,601-614
 IS: 2720 (Part-IV)-1985, “Indian Standard for Grain Size Analysis”, BIS New
Delhi.
 IS: 2720 (Part-V)-1987, “Indian Standard for Determination of liquid limit and
plastic limit”, BIS New Delhi.
 IS: 2720 (Part-VIII)-1983, “Indian Standard for Determination of Water Content-
dry density relation using heavy Compaction”, BIS New Delhi.
 ASTM D 4318–05, Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and
plasticity index of soils.
 Punmia, B.C., Jain, Er. Ashok and Jain, Arun (2005), “Soil Mechanics and
Foundations”, 16th Edition, Laxmi Publication, Daryaganj, New Delhi.

 Ranjan, Gopal and Rao, A.S.R. (2005), “Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics”, 2nd

Edition, New Age International Publication, Daryaganj, New Delhi.

41