Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Abstract
The study of the origin and evolution of consciousness presents several problems. The first
problem concerns terminology. The word consciousness comes from the Latin term conscı̆en-
tı̆a that means “knowledge shared with others.” However, the term consciousness also refers to
several other aspects involving both its levels (sleep, coma, dreams and waking state) and
contents (subjective, phenomenal and objective). A second issue is the problem of other minds,
namely, the possibility to establish whether others have minds very like our own. Moreover,
human consciousness has been linked to three different forms of memory: procedural/implicit,
semantic and episodic. All these different aspects of consciousness will be discussed in the
first part of the chapter. In the second part, we discuss different neuroscientific theories on
consciousness and examine how research from developmental psychology, clinical neurology
(epilepsy, coma, vegetative state and minimal state of consciousness), neuropsychology
(blindsight, agnosia, neglect, split-brain and ocular rivalry), and comparative neuropsycho-
physiology contribute to the study of consciousness. Finally, in the last part of the chapter
we discuss the distinctive features of human consciousness and in particular the ability to
travel mentally through time, the phenomenon of joint intentionality, theory of mind and
language.
Keywords
Problem of other minds, Phenomenic consciousness, Auto-noetic consciousness, Neuropsy-
chology, Theory of mind, Mental time travel, Language and culture
2 Human consciousness
1 Introduction
The word consciousness comes from the Latin term conscı̆entı̆a that means
“knowledge shared with others” (Charlton and Short, 1879). In fact, the Latin term
conscı̆entı̆a stems from the combination of two words: scio (I know) and cum (with)
(Zeman, 2002). The etymology of the term thus indicates that consciousness refers to
a form of shared, relational or social knowledge (Dunbar, 2014; Graziano, 2015).
Although much has been written about consciousness in recent decades, what
consciousness is still largely remains an enigma (Baars, 1997; Damasio, 2010;
Dehaene, 2014; Dennett, 2017; Edelman, 2006; Gazzaniga, 1987, 2011; Humphrey,
2011; Kock, 2012; Metzinger, 2009; Nagel, 2012; Revonsuo, 2009; Searle, 2004;
Tononi, 2012; Velmans, 2009). This is partly due to the difficulty of defining what
is meant by the term “consciousness.” As Adam Zeman pointed out, in neuroscience
the term “consciousness” refers to different aspects, such as: the waking state
(“conscious” as “awake”); awareness of sensory experiences and psychological pro-
cesses such as thoughts, emotions, memories, imagination and language (“conscious”
as “aware of”); or consciousness as a synonym of “mind,” which implies the ability to
know, think, understand, remember, believe, etc. (Zeman, 2002).
Moreover, in both common language and neuroscience, “consciousness” has
been linked to self-awareness. According to Zeman, there are at least five different
ways of understanding self-awareness (Zeman, 2002). The first corresponds to the
awareness of being at the center of the attention of another human being (“self-
conscious” as “embarrassment-prone”); the second to the awareness of one’s own
sensations, perceptions and actions (“self-conscious” as “self-detecting”); the third
to the ability to recognize one’s own image in the mirror (“self-conscious” as “self-
recognizing”) (see also Gallup, 1970; Rochat and Zahavi, 2011); the fourth to the
awareness of one’s own mental states and those of others (“self-conscious” as
“aware of awareness”), an aspect called Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen, 2003,
2011; Dunbar, 2014); finally, self-awareness is also intended as narrative self-
awareness (“self-consciousness” as “self-portraiture and autobiography”) (see also
Ananthaswamy, 2015; Feinberg, 2009; Gottschall, 2012).
2 Epistemological aspects
More than a century ago, the psychologist William James (1842–1910) argued that
consciousness is not a static thing but a process (James, 1904). This position appears
to be in agreement with ideas supported by theoretical physics that everything that
exists appears to be a process (Rovelli, 2018; Smolin, 2013). For human beings, con-
sciousness corresponds mainly to subjective experience, that is, to the ability to have
sensations and perceptions, which have been defined qualia within the field of phi-
losophy of mind (Jackson, 1986; Nagel, 1974). Human beings, as well as all living
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 Epistemological aspects 3
4 Human consciousness
6 Human consciousness
the future. Edelman believed that human self-awareness, with its phenomenal dimen-
sion, is an emerging process that depends on the enormous amount of re-entrant brain
circuits’ interactions between numerous neuronal maps (Edelman, 2004, 2006).
For Giulio Tononi phenomenal consciousness depends on the wealth of inte-
grated information. The wealth of information refers to the fact that each conscious
experience is distinguished by an incalculable number of other possible experiences.
Integration makes it possible to explain a peculiar aspect of consciousness: its
uniqueness and indivisibility. Tononi has developed a mathematical model to mea-
sure the integrated information of a system, indicated by the Greek letter Φ, where
the vertical line stands for “information” and the circle for “integration”
(Tononi, 2012).
Tononi and Massimini have developed an experimental technique for measuring
the level of integrated information (Φ) in the brain in different states of conscious-
ness. The procedure involves the delivery of magnetic pulses (via Transcranial Mag-
netic Stimulation, TMS) and the simultaneous recording of evoked brain electrical
activity (via Electroencephalography, EEG) during waking, sleep and dream states.
The idea is simple: if the system is integrated, the magnetic pulse can spread to many
cortical areas; if instead the system is segregated there will be no diffusion. The
results confirmed the idea that the integration of electrical activity at the level of
different cortical areas is an essential element of conscious experience. In fact, mag-
netic pulses spread to many cortical areas during waking and dream states, two states
of phenomenal consciousness, while they remain segregated in the areas of stimula-
tion in slow-wave sleep and general anesthesia, two conditions in which there is no
phenomenal consciousness (Massimini and Tononi, 2018; Tononi et al., 2016).
In addition to self-consciousness (autonoetic consciousness) and primary con-
sciousness (noetic consciousness), human beings are probably endowed with a min-
imal form of consciousness organized in subcortical structures and in particular in the
upper portions of the brain stem. Based on an investigation of epilepsy, the Canadian
neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield (1891–1976) was one of the first to indicate the
critical role subcortical structures (midbrain and thalamus nuclei) played in the gen-
esis of consciousness (Penfield, 1975; Penfield and Roberts, 1959). Subsequently,
the North American psychobiologist Jaak Panksepp (1943–2017) correlated the
functions of a large series of subcortical structures, responsible for the release of
the most important neurotransmitters dopamine, acetylcholine, noradrenaline, sero-
tonin and endogenous opioids, with the processing of emotional-affective conscious-
ness (Denton, 2006; Panksepp, 1998; Panksepp and Biven, 2012). More recently,
from a neurological and a neurophysiological perspective, Antonio Damasio
(Damasio, 2010; Parvizi and Damasio, 2001) and Bjorn Merker (Merker, 2007,
2013), have supported the idea that minimal states of consciousness are organized
in some structures of the midbrain and brain stem, such as the superior colliculus
and the periaqueductal gray, and of the thalamus, such as the dorsal pulvinar.
The study of the origin and evolution of human consciousness has used data
and knowledge coming from: (i) studies on the development of consciousness in
children; (ii) neurophysiological research on different states of consciousness
ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 Human consciousness
relates to the world itself. For this reason, 5-year-olds observed in the original Theory
of Mind test are able to realize there were pencils in a Smarties tube (the past of the
world) and that continue to be there (present of the world), while recognizing that at a
certain moment in their past (personal history) they had believed Smarties were in the
tube despite the fact there are now pencils (personal present). Thanks to reflective
consciousness, children are able to appreciate the existence of multiple temporal
perspectives that refer to the same reality.
Because consciousness is a dynamic process, throughout life adults can manifest
one of the different levels described in children. In fact, there is a continuous oscil-
lation within the different levels of consciousness present in adults, from the mini-
mum level to the levels of maximum reflective consciousness (Rochat, 2001). For
this reason, specific training programs have been developed in many cultural and
religious traditions that allow individuals to increase their own states of conscious-
ness and self-awareness, such as mindful awareness (Fabbro, 2019; Tomasino and
Fabbro, 2016; Tomasino et al., 2014).
10 Human consciousness
representation of the self. REM dreams are often associated with spatial and temporal
disorientation, bizarreness and unawareness of living a dream experience (Hobson,
1988, 2009). Much attention has been focused on the lucid dream, a condition in
which the subject is aware of being immersed in a dream (Baird et al., 2018).
General anesthesia is a pharmacologically induced condition that resembles
slow-wave sleep and coma. The most common used anesthetics (propofol, barbitu-
rates and benzodiazepines) work through their binding to GABA type A receptors.
Their action determines a functional deactivation of the brainstem and some struc-
tures of the central thalamus, with consequent loss of consciousness, oculomotor and
corneal reflexes, apnea and atony. During general surgery, an individual under gen-
eral anesthesia reaches a level of consciousness similar to that present in stage 2 of
non-REM sleep. In other therapeutic conditions the administration of anesthetics
(propofol or barbiturates) allows reaching a level of consciousness in which the
EEG becomes isoelectric or flat (Brown et al., 2010). Through brain imaging tech-
niques, it was possible to show that in individuals regaining consciousness after a
general anesthesia, the first forms of minimal consciousness to emerge are related
to the activity of some structures of the brainstem (locus coeruleus), hypothalamus,
thalamus and anterior cingulate cortex (Mashour and Alkire, 2013).
Preservation or loss of consciousness is also of fundamental importance in
epilepsy. Indeed, forms of epilepsy that affect only focal regions of the brain, partial
epilepsies, can be distinguished from the forms that affect extensive and bilateral
regions of the brain, generalized epilepsies (Blumenfeld and Meador, 2014). Sudden
loss of consciousness may be present in both generalized epilepsies (absence epi-
lepsy, tonic-clonic epilepsy) and in some focal epilepsies (temporal lobe epilepsy).
Loss of consciousness in these forms of epilepsy is correlated with an abnormal
increase in activity in some structures of the midbrain and medial thalamus, and a
decrease in activity in the cingulate gyrus, medial frontal cortex, and medial parietal
lobe, or precuneus (Blumenfeld, 2009).
The most serious neurological disorders of consciousness include coma, vegeta-
tive state and minimally conscious state. These disorders are due to brain injuries of
traumatic origin, or to hemorrhagic stroke. Coma is characterized by a complete loss
of consciousness; the sleep-wake cycle is lost and the patient’s eyes are kept closed.
It is a temporary condition that can last from a few hours to weeks. Thereafter,
patients die or emerge from the coma and pass into the vegetative or minimally con-
scious state. In the vegetative state the sleep-wake cycle is present, the eyes can be
opened but patients do not seem to be aware since they only show non-purposeful
movements. Instead, in the minimally conscious state, patients sometime show signs
of awareness, for example by executing a command or reacting appropriately to an
environmental stimulus (Laureys and Tononi, 2009).
Brain imaging techniques have led to the discovery that approximately 20% of
people in the vegetative state are in fact conscious. These individuals are able, on
verbal request, to imagine they are playing a game of tennis (activation of the pre-
motor cortex), or to mentally explore their home (activation of the parietal lobe and
the parahippocampal gyrus). Through fMRI or EEG it has been possible to establish
ARTICLE IN PRESS
a communication code with these patients: in order to say “yes,” they have to imagine
playing tennis, to say “no” they have to imagine walking in their homes. In this way
patients in the vegetative state were able to correctly answer a series of questions
such as “Do you have any siblings?” or “Do you have any sisters?” and experimen-
tally show that they were conscious (Monti et al., 2010; Owen, 2014).
Particular attention has also been given to assessing the level of consciousness in
children with anencephaly who, due to a severe cerebral malformation, do not
develop cerebral hemispheres. In the past it was believed that these children, who
can live up to even a few decades, were in a persistent vegetative state. Because they
cannot verbally express themselves it was difficult to understand their state of con-
sciousness (Hypothesis P). However, several investigations on small groups and
more recently, a study on a group of >100 anencephalic children have revealed that
they produce a sleep-wake cycle and may express emotions and moods congruent
with ongoing social situations (Aleman and Merker, 2014; Shewmon et al., 1999).
Moreover, after brief lapses of consciousness, which may be present due to episodes
of absence epilepsy, contact with parents is resumed. In these children, the minimal
state of consciousness is maintained through activity by some midbrain structures
(superior colliculus) connected with the hypothalamus and the periaqueductal gray
(Merker, 2007).
In a recent literature review, Christof Koch et al. analyzed neural correlates of
consciousness (Koch et al., 2016). Different from proposals put forward by Wilder
Penfield, Bjorn Merker and Jaak Panksepp, these authors argue that midbrain and
diencephalon structures are not sufficient to sustain consciousness. Moreover, based
on reports of some exemplar clinical cases (e.g., agenesis of the cerebellum, bilateral
frontal lobectomy), they argued that consciousness and its contents are not dramat-
ically affected by lesions of the cerebellum and frontal lobes. They instead recognize
a temporal-parietal-occipital area of the posterior cerebral cortex as the best candi-
date for the neural correlates of consciousness. In our view, however, it is possible
that the authors’ general conclusions may be affected by the lack of adequate
neuropsychological tools necessary for reliable measures of patients’ consciousness
(different from the neuropsychological tests currently available for many other
cognitive and affective domains such as language, memory, attention, etc.).
For example, a few years ago one of us (Fabbro) had the opportunity to study one
of the few reported cases of a patient with an acquired lesion of the periaqueductal
gray. She was believed to be in coma by clinicians because she could not open her
eyes (eyelid paralysis) and nor speak. After some time, the clinicians realized that the
patient was suffering from a very serious condition known as acinetic mutism. The
patient appeared to be frozen, but if sufficiently stimulated she was able to under-
stand complex sentences (Esposito et al., 1999). How this could be associated with
the patient’s level of consciousness is hard to say, since only the usual, rather coarse,
clinical measures for disorders of consciousness had been used. The same reflections
can be made for one of the first reported cases of complete congenital agenesis of
the cerebellum, which was also studied by one of us (Fabbro) (Tavano et al.,
2007a,b). The patient had mild intellectual impairment but was autonomous, with
ARTICLE IN PRESS
12 Human consciousness
14 Human consciousness
both when the image was perceived and when it was not. The situation was different
in higher order visual areas, such as in the inferior temporal cortex, where neurons
responded only to the image that the monkey was aware of seeing. Furthermore, the
prefrontal cortex also appeared to mediate conscious visual perception. Similar
results have been obtained studying ocular rivalry in humans using brain imaging
techniques (Blake and Logothetis, 2002).
9 Consciousness in vertebrates
Most of the animal taxonomic groups (phyla) first appeared during a short period of
a few million years, called the “Cambrian explosion” (approximately 541 million
years ago). The animals of previous periods were small, soft-bodied and slow. After
the Cambrian explosion, animals with complex active bodies appeared on Earth
(Trestman, 2013). In particular the animals belonging to three phyla (arthropods, chor-
dates and mollusks) developed complex active bodies equipped with: (i) appendages
(claws, hands, tentacles, mouths); (ii) bodies capable of producing movements with
many degrees of freedom; (iii) sensory organs suitable for receiving distal information
(eyes); and (iv) information processing systems capable of developing autonomous
mobility and active manipulation of objects.
The factors that caused the Cambrian explosion have not been completely clar-
ified. One of the most significant factors seems to have been the increase of oxygen
concentration in the atmosphere and water. Subsequently, organisms with sensory
organs (vision) developed and started to engage in active predatory behaviors.
The predatory behaviors, initially manifested in particular by species belonging to
the arthropoda phylum, promoted the differentiation of taxonomic groups; in fact,
some groups developed defensive armor, while others evolved defensive behaviors
based on an increase of mobility (chordates).
The British zoologist Andrew Parker claimed that a crucial factor in the Cam-
brian explosion was the development of vision in some phyla (Parker, 2003). In
his opinion, the appearance of eyes led to an escalation in predatory skills in some
species, which in turn led to the development of appropriate defensive strategies in
others. By contrast, Michael Trestman, a philosopher of mind, pointed out that one of
the critical aspects in the Cambrian explosion was not primarily due to the appear-
ance of eyes, but to the development of neural and cognitive systems connected to
vision, defined as basic cognitive embodiment (BCE). In his opinion, these cognitive
skills have developed to integrate sensory information and link them to active move-
ment. This allowed the creation of a representation of the “space,” which comprised a
“scene” composed of a center (the “self”) placed in front of the “object” (Jerison,
1973, 1991). Trestman argues that all animals with BCE capacities, that is at least
those belonging to the taxonomic groups of arthropods, chordates and mollusks, have
acquired an agentive or action-oriented bodily self-awareness, since they are able to
move autonomously in space, interacting with the objects contained in it (Colin and
Trestman, 2017; Trestman, 2013).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
9 Consciousness in vertebrates 15
Table 2 Levels of the self and consciousness in the various vertebrate classes.
Proto- Core- Self- Narrative- Possible level of
self self consciousness self consciousness
Notes: Based on Fabbro et al. (2015) and Feinberg and Mallatt (2016).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
16 Human consciousness
ARTICLE IN PRESS
locomotion lithic tools time travel of food of mind gestures language
Pan troglodytes
(common chimpanzee)
Australopithecus + + +
Homo habilis + + + ?
Homo erectus + + + + +
(ergaster)
Homo heidelbergensis + + + + + +
Homo + + + + + +
neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens + + + + + +
(>100,000)
Homo sapiens + + + + + + +
(<100,000)
20 Human consciousness
media of communication, can influence human consciousness in ways that are not
yet clear (Deutscher, 2010; Jaynes, 1990). As highlighted by many spiritual and
meditative traditions, the autonoetic state of consciousness is also probably charac-
terized by different levels. For example, the practice of mindfulness meditation
shows how easy it is in everyday life to slip from phenomenal states of consciousness
to noetic or anoetic levels of consciousness (Fabbro, 2019; Malinowski, 2013).
References
Aleman, B., Merker, B., 2014. Consciousness without cortex: a hydranencephaly family
survey. Acta Paediatr. 103, 1057–1065.
Allen, C., Trestman, M., 2017. In: Zalta, E.N. (Ed.), Animal Consciousness. The Stanford
encyclopedia of philosophy, Stanford.
Ananthaswamy, A., 2015. The Man Who Wasn’t There: Investigations Into the Strange New
Science of the Self. Penguin, London.
Anderson, P.W., 1972. More is different. Science 177, 393–396.
Baars, B., 1997. In the Theater of Consciousness: The Workspace of the Mind. Oxford
University Press, New York.
Baird, B., Castelnovo, A., Gosseries, O., Tononi, G., 2018. Frequent lucid dreaming associated
with increased functional connectivity between frontopolar cortex and temporoparietal
association areas. Sci. Rep. 8, 17798.
Baron-Cohen, S., 2003. The Essential Difference: Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain.
Penguin, London.
Baron-Cohen, S., 2011. Zero Degrees of Empathy: A New Theory of Human Cruelty. Penguin,
London.
Bayne, T., Hohwy, J., Owen, A.M., 2016. Are there levels of consciousness? Trends Cogn. Sci.
20, 405–413.
Bisiach, E., Luzzatti, C., 1978. Unilateral neglect of representational space. Cortex 14, 129–133.
Blackmore, S., 2005. Consciousness: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
Blake, R., Logothetis, N.K., 2002. Visual competition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 31, 1–11.
Blakmore, C., 1977. Mechanics of the Mind. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Blumenfeld, H., 2009. Epilepsy and consciousness. In: Laureys, S., Tononi, G. (Eds.), The
Neurology of Consciousness. Elsevier, New York, pp. 247–260.
Blumenfeld, H., Meador, K.J., 2014. Consciousness as a useful concept in epilepsy
classification. Epilepsia 55, 1145–1150.
Bodei, R., 2015. The Life of Things, the Love of Things. Fordham University Press, New
York.
Botvinick, M., Cohen, J., 1998. Rubber hand “feels” touch that eyes see. Nature 391, 756.
Brentano, F., 1874. Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt. Meiner, Leipzig.
Brown, S., 2017. A joint prosodic origin of language and music. Front. Psychol. 8, 1894.
Brown, E.N., Lydic, R., Schiff, N.D., 2010. General anesthesia, sleep, and coma. N. Engl.
J. Med. 363, 2638–2650.
Chalmers, D., 1995. Facing up to the problem of consciousness. J. Conscious. Stud.
2, 200–219.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
References 21
Chalmers, D., 2010. The Character of Consciousness. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Charlton, T.L., Short, C., 1879. A Latin Dictionary. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Chomsky, N., 1975. Reflections on Language. Pantheon Books, New York.
Colin, A., Trestman, M., 2017. Animal consciousness. In: Schneider, S., Velmans, M. (Eds.),
The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness. Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 63–76.
Conant, R.C., Ashby, R.W., 1970. Every good regulator of a system must be a model of the
total system. Int. J. Syst. Sci. 1, 89–97.
Corballis, M.C., 2011. The Recursive Mind. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Corballis, M.C., 2018. Space, time and language. Cogn. Process. 19, 589–592.
Craik, K.J.W., 1943. The Nature of Explanation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Damasio, A., 2010. Self Comes to Mind: Constructing the Conscious Brain. Pantheon, New
York.
Damasio, A., Meyer, K., 2009. Consciousness: an overview of the phenomenon and of its pos-
sible neural basis. In: Laureys, S., Tononi, G. (Eds.), The Neurology of Consciousness.
Elsevier, New York, pp. 3–14.
Darwin, C., 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. John Murray,
London.
Dehaene, S., 2009. Reading in the Brain. Penguin, New York.
Dehaene, S., 2014. Consciousness and the Brain: Deciphering How the Brain Codes Our
Thoughts. Viking, New York.
Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., 2007. Cultural recycling of cortical maps. Neuron 56, 384–398.
Dennett, D., 2017. From Bacteria to Bach and Back: The Evolution of Minds. Norton, New
York.
Denton, D., 2006. The Primordial Emotions. The Dawning of Consciousness. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Deutscher, G., 2010. Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different in Other
Languages. Henry Holt and Company, New York.
Dunbar, R.I., 1992. Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. J. Hum. Evol.
22, 469–493.
Dunbar, R.I., 1993. Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans.
Behav. Brain Sci. 16, 681–694.
Dunbar, R.I., 1997. Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge.
Dunbar, R.I., 2010. How Many Friends Does One Person Need? Dunbar’s Number and Other
Evolutionary Quirks. Faber and Faber, London.
Dunbar, R.I., 2014. Human Evolution. Pelican Books, London.
Dunbar, R.I., Barrett, L., Lycett, J., 2005. Evolutionary Psychology, a Beginner’s Guide. One
World Books, Oxford.
Dunbar, R.I., Kaskatis, K., MacDonald, I., Barra, V., 2012. Performance of music elevates pain
threshold and positive affect: implications for the evolutionary function of music.
Evol. Psychol. 10, 688–702. 147470491201000403.
Edelman, G., 1990. The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of Consciousness. Basic
Books, New York.
Edelman, G., 1992. Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind. Basic Books, New
York.
Edelman, G., 2004. Wider Than the Sky: The Phenomenal Gift of Consciousness. Yale
University Press, New Haven.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
22 Human consciousness
Edelman, G., 2006. Second Nature: Brain Science and Human Knowledge. Yale University
Press, New Haven.
Edelman, D.B., Seth, A.K., 2009. Animal consciousness: a synthetic approach. Trends Neu-
rosci. 32, 476–484.
Edelman, G., Tononi, G., 2000. A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagi-
nation. Basic Books, New York.
Esposito, A., Demeurisse, G., Alberti, B., Fabbro, F., 1999. Complete mutism after midbrain
periaqueductal gray lesion. Neuroreport 10, 681–685.
Fabbro, F., 1999. The Neurolinguistics of Bilingualism: An Introduction. Psychology Press,
Hove.
Fabbro, F., 2018. Identità culturale e violenza. Neuropsicologia delle lingue e delle religioni.
Cultural Identity and Violence. Neuropsychology of Languages and religions, Bollati
Boringhieri, Torino.
Fabbro, F., 2019. La meditazione mindfulness. Neuroscienze, filosofia e spiritualità. Mindful-
ness Meditation. Neuroscience, Philosophy and Spirituality, Il Mulino, Bologna.
Fabbro, F., Cargnelutti, E., 2018. Neuroscienze del bilinguismo. Il farsi e disfarsi delle lingue.
Neuroscience of Bilingualism. The Appropriation and Loss of Languages, Astrolabio,
Roma.
Fabbro, F., Paradis, M., 1995. Differential impairments in four multilingual patients with sub-
cortical lesions. In: Paradis, M. (Ed.), Aspects of Bilingual Aphasia. Pergamon Press,
London, pp. 139–176.
Fabbro, F., Peru, A., Skrap, M., 1997. Language disorders in bilingual patients after thalamic
lesions. J. Neurolinguistics 10, 347–367.
Fabbro, F., Aglioti, S.M., Bergamasco, M., Clarici, A., Panksepp, J., 2015. Evolutionary as-
pects of self- and world consciousness in vertebrates. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9, 157.
Fabbro, F., Fabbro, A., Crescentini, C., 2018. Contributions of neuropsychology to the study of
ancient literature. Front. Psychol. 28, 9.
Farah, M.J., 2008. Neuroethics and the problem of other minds: implications of neuroscience
for the moral status of brain-damaged patients and nonhuman animals. Neuroethics
1, 9–18.
Feinberg, R., 2009. Bridging science and humanism: thoughts on the future of anthropology.
Anthropol. Newsl. 50, 4–8.
Feinberg, T.E., Mallatt, J.M., 2016. The Ancient Origins of Consciousness. How the Brain
Created Consciousness. The MIT Press, Cambridge.
Friederici, A.D., 2015. White-matter pathways for speech and language processing. Handb.
Clin. Neurol. 129, 177–186.
Frith, C.D., 2007. The social brain? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 362, 671–678.
Gallagher, S., Zahavi, D., 2008. The Phenomenological Mind. Routledge, London.
Gallup, G.G., 1970. Chimpanzees: self-recognition. Science 167, 86–87.
Gazzaniga, M.S., 1987. Social Brain: Discovering the Networks of the Mind. Basic Books,
New York.
Gazzaniga, M.S., 2011. Who’s in Charge? Free Will and the Science of the Brain. Ecco,
New York.
Gibson, J.J., 1979. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Giustison, M.L., Bergman, T.J., 2017. Divergent acoustic properties of gelada and baboon
vocalizations and their implications for the evolution of human speech. J. Lang. Evol.
2, 20–36.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
References 23
Godfrey-Smith, P., 2016. Other Minds: The Octopus, the Sea, and the Deep Origins of
Consciousness. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York.
Goodale, M., Milner, D., 1992. Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends
Neurosci. 15, 20–25.
Gopnik, A., Astington, J., 1988. Children’s understanding of representational change and its
relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child
Dev. 59, 26–37.
Gottschall, J., 2012. The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human. Mariner Books,
Boston.
Graziano, M., 2015. Consciousness and the Social Brain. Oxford University Press, New York.
Grossberg, S., 2017. Towards solving the hard problem of consciousness: the varieties
of brain resonances and the conscious experiences that they support. Neural Netw. 87, 38–95.
Hay, R.L., Leakey, M.D., 1982. Fossil footprints of laetoli. Sci. Am. 246, 50–57.
Heidegger, M., 1927. Being and Time (J. Macquarrie, E. Robinson, 1962, Trans.). SCM Press,
London.
Hobson, A., 1988. The Dreaming Brain. Basic Books, New York.
Hobson, A., 2009. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. Nat.
Rev. Neurosci. 10, 803–813.
Hobson, A., Hong, C.C., Friston, K.J., 2014. Virtual reality and consciousness inference in
dreaming. Front. Psychol. 5, 1133.
Humphrey, N., 1992. A History of the Mind. Simon & Schuster, New York.
Humphrey, N., 2006. Seeing Red: A Study in Consciousness. Harvard University Press,
Boston.
Humphrey, N., 2011. Soul Dust: The Magic of Consciousness. Princeton University Press,
Princeton.
Jackson, F., 1986. What Mary didn’t know. J. Philos. 83, 291–295.
Jakobson, R., Waugh, L., 1979. The Sound Shape of Language. Indiana University Press,
Bloomington.
James, W., 1904. Does consciousness exist? J. Philos. Psychol. Sci. Methods 1, 477–491.
Jaynes, J., 1990. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind.
Mifflin, Boston.
Jerison, H.J., 1973. Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence. Academic Press, New York.
Jerison, H.J., 1991. Brain Size and Evolution of the Mind. American Museum of Natural
History, New York.
Koch, C., Massimini, M., Boly, M., Tononi, G., 2016. Neural correlates of consciousness: pro-
gress and problems. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 17, 307–321.
Kock, C., 2012. Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist. The MIT Press, Boston.
Kohda, M., Takashi, H., Takeyama, T., Awata, S., Tanaka, H., Asai, J., Jordan, A., 2018.
Cleaner wrasse pass the mark test. What are the implications for consciousness and
self-awareness testing in animals? BioRxiv, 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1101/397067.
Kriegel, U., 2007. Philosophical theories of consciousness: contemporary Western perspec-
tives. In: Zelazo, P.D., Moscovitch, M., Thompson, E. (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook
of Consciousness. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 35–66.
Krishnan, S., Watkins, K.E., Bishop, D.V., 2016. Neurobiological basis of language learning
difficulties. Trends Cogn. Sci. 20, 701–714.
Kuhl, P.K., 2010. Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition. Neuron 67, 713–727.
Laureys, S., Tononi, G., 2009. The Neurology of Consciousness. Elsevier, New York.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
24 Human consciousness
Lenggenhanger, B., Tadi, T., Metzinger, T., Blanke, O., 2007. Video ergo sum: manipulating
bodily self-consciousness. Science 317, 1096–1099.
Lesher, J.H., 1973. The meaning of nous in the posterior analytics. Phronesis 18, 44–68.
Libet, B., 2006. Reflections on the interaction of the mind and brain. Prog. Neurobiol.
78, 322–326.
Lieberman, P., 2013. The Unpredictable Species. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Llinás, R., 2001. I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self. MIT Press, Cambridge.
Locke, J.L., Bogin, B., 2006. Language and life history: a new perspective on the development
and evolution of human language. Behav. Brain Sci. 29, 259–280.
Logothetis, N.K., 1998. Single units and conscious vision. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B
353, 1801–1818.
Low, P., Panksepp, J., Reiss, D., Edelman, D., Van, B., Koch, C., 2012. The Cambridge Dec-
laration on Animal Consciousness. http://fcmconference.org/img/CambridgeDeclaration
OnConsciousness.pdf.
Luria, A.R., 1962. Higher Cortical Functions in Man. Moscow University Press, Moscow.
Luria, A.R., 1973. The Working Brain. Basic Books, New York.
Malinowski, P., 2013. Neural mechanisms of attentional control in mindfulness meditation.
Front. Neurosci. 7, 1–11.
Masataka, N., 2008. The Origins of Language. Springer, Berlin.
Mashour, G.A., Alkire, M.T., 2013. Evolution of consciousness: phylogeny, ontogeny, and
emergence from general anesthesia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 110, 10357–10364.
Massimini, M., Tononi, G., 2018. Sizing up Consciousness. Towards an Objective Measure of
the Capacity for Experience. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Merker, B., 2007. Consciousness without a cerebral cortex: a challenge for neuroscience and
medicine. Behav. Brain Sci. 30, 63–81.
Merker, B., 2013. The efference cascade, consciousness, and its self: naturalizing the first per-
son pivot of action control. Front. Psychol. 4, 501.
Merker, B., Morley, I., Zuidema, W., 2015. Five fundamental constraints on theories of the
origins of music. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 370, 20140095.
Metzinger, T., 2009. The Ego Tunnel: The Science of the Mind and the Myth of the Self. Basic
Books, New York.
Metzinger, T., 2018. Why is virtual reality interesting for philosophers? Front. Robot. AI 5, 101.
Milner, D., Goodale, M., 2006. The Visual Brain in Action. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Mithen, S., 1998. The Prehistory of Mind. Phoenix, London.
Mithen, S., 2006. The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and
Body. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Monti, M.M., Laureys, S., Owen, A.M., 2010. The vegetative state. BMJ 341, 3765.
Naccache, L., 2009. Visual consciousness: an updated neurological tour. In: Laureys, S.,
Tononi, G. (Eds.), The Neurology of Consciousness. Elsevier, New York, pp. 271–281.
Nagel, T., 1974. What is it like to be a bat? Philos. Rev. 83, 435–450.
Nagel, T., 2012. Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature
Is Almost Certainly False. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Owen, A.M., 2014. Is anybody in there? Sci. Am. 310, 52–57.
Panksepp, J., 1998. Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal
Emotions. Oxford University Press, New York.
Panksepp, J., Biven, L., 2012. The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of
Human Emotion. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
References 25
Panksepp, J., Lane, R.D., Solms, M., Smith, R., 2017. Reconciling cognitive and affective neu-
roscience perspectives on the brain basis of emotional experience. Neurosci. Biobehav.
Rev. 76, 187–215.
Paradis, M., 2009. Declarative and Procedural Determinants of Second Languages. John
Benjamins, Amsterdam.
Parker, A., 2003. In the Blink of an Eye: The Cause of the Most Dramatic Event in the History
of Life. Free Press, London.
Parvizi, J., Damasio, A., 2001. Consciousness and the brainstem. Cognition 79, 135–160.
Penfield, W., 1975. The Mystery of the Mind: A Critical Study of Consciousness and the Hu-
man Brain. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Penfield, W., Roberts, L., 1959. Speech and Brain Mechanisms. Princeton University Press,
Princeton.
Peru, A., Fabbro, F., 1997. Thalamic amnesia following venous infarction: evidence from a
single case study. Brain Cogn. 33, 278–294.
Polany, M., 1968. Life’s irreducible structure. Science 160, 1308–1312.
Posner, J.B., Saper, C.B., Schiff, N.D., Plum, F., 2007. Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor
and Coma. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Provine, R., 2000. Laughter. A Scientific Investigation. Viking Press, New York.
Ramachandran, V.S., Hirstein, W., 1997. Three laws of qualia. What neurology tells us about
the biological functions of consciousness. J. Conscious. Stud. 4, 429–457.
Revonsuo, A., 2006. Inner Presence: Consciousness as a Biological Phenomenon. MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA.
Revonsuo, A., 2009. Consciousness. The Science of Subjectivity. Psychology Press, Hove.
Rochat, P., 2001. Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life. Conscious. Cogn.
12, 717–731.
Rochat, P., 2010. The innate sense of the body develops to become a public affair by 2-3 years.
Neuropsychologia 48, 738–745.
Rochat, P., Zahavi, D., 2011. The uncanny mirror: a re-framing of mirror self-experience. Con-
scious. Cogn. 20, 204–213.
Rosenthal, D., 2005. Consciousness and Mind. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Rovelli, C., 2018. The Order of Time. Penguin, London.
Russell, B., 1921. The Analysis of Mind. The Macmillan Company, London.
Rymer, R., 1994. Genie. A Scientific Tragedy. Penguin Books, London.
Sapir, E., 1921. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Harcourt, Brace and
Company, New York.
Savoldi, F., Ceroni, M., Vanzago, L., 2013. La coscienza. Contributi per specialisti e non spe-
cialisti tra Neuroscienza, Filosofia e Neurologia. Aras, Fano.
Schaller, S., 1991. A Man Without Words. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Schr€odinger, E., 1935. Alcune osservazioni sulle basi della conoscenza scientifica. In:
L’immagine del mondo, 2001. Bollati Boringhieri, Torino. (A. Verson, trad. it.). 2001.
Schr€odinger, E., 1967. Mind and matter. In: What Is Life. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Seager, W., 2007. A brief history of the philosophical problem of consciousness. In:
Zelazo, P.D., Moscovitch, M., Thompson, E. (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of
Consciousness. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 9–34.
Searle, J., 1997. The Mystery of Consciousness. The New York Review of Books, New York.
Searle, J., 2004. Mind: A Brief Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
26 Human consciousness
Shewmon, D.A., Holmes, G.L., Byrne, P.A., 1999. Consciousness in congenitally decorticate
children: developmental vegetative state as self-fulfilling prophecy. Dev. Med. Child Neu-
rol. 41, 364–374.
Shumaker, R.W., Walkup, K.R., Beck, B.B., 2011. Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Man-
ufacture of Tools by Animals. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Skeide, M.A., Friederici, A.D., 2016. The ontogeny of the cortical language network. Nat.
Rev. Neurosci. 17, 323–332.
Smolin, L., 2013. Time Reborn: From the Crisis in Physics to the Future of the Universe.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Sober, E., 2000. Evolution and the problem of other minds. J. Philos. 97, 365–386.
Stoerig, P., Cowey, A., 1997. Blindsight in man and monkey. Brain 120, 535–559.
Suddendorf, T., Corballis, M.C., 2007. The evolution of foresight: what is mental time travel,
and is it unique to humans? Behav. Brain Sci. 30, 299–313.
Tattersall, I., 2012. Masters of the Planet: The Search for Our Human Origins. Macmillan,
Palgrave.
Tattersall, I., 2017. The material record and the antiquity of language. Neurosci. Biobehav.
Rev. 81, 247–254.
Tavano, A., Fabbro, F., Borgatti, R., 2007a. Speaking without the cerebellum: language skills
in a young adult with near total cerebellar agenesis. In: Schalley, A.C., Khlentzos, D.
(Eds.), Mental States. Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 171–190.
Tavano, A., Grasso, R., Gagliardi, C., Triulzi, F., Bresolin, N., Fabbro, F., Borgatti, R., 2007b.
Disorders of cognitive and affective development in cerebellar malformations. Brain
130, 2646–2660.
Tinbergen, N., 1951. The Study of Instinct. Calderon Press, Oxford.
Tomasello, M., 2014. A Natural History of Human Thinking. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.
Tomasello, M., 2018. How children come to understand false beliefs: a shared intentionality
account. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 115, 8491–8498.
Tomasino, B., Fabbro, F., 2016. Increases in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and de-
creases the rostral prefrontal cortex activation after-8 weeks of focused attention based
mindfulness meditation. Brain Cogn. 102, 46–54.
Tomasino, B., Chiesa, A., Fabbro, F., 2014. Disentangling the neural mechanisms involved in
Hinduism- and Buddhism-related meditations. Brain Cogn. 90, 32–40.
Tononi, G., 2012. PHI: A Voyage From the Brain to the Soul. Pantheon Books, New York.
Tononi, G., Boly, M., Massimini, M., Koch, C., 2016. Integrated information theory: from
consciousness to its physical substrate. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 17, 450–461.
Trestman, M., 2013. The Cambrian explosion and the origins of embodied cognition. Biol.
Theory 8, 80–92.
Trevarthen, C., 1968. Vision in fish: the origins of the visual frame for action in vertebrates. In:
Ingle, D. (Ed.), The Central Nervous System and Fish Behavior. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 61–94.
Tulving, E., 1985. Memory and consciousness, can. Psychology 26, 1–12.
Tulving, E., 2002. Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53, 1–25.
Tulving, E., 2005. Episodic memory and autonoesis: uniquely human? In: Terrace, H.S.,
Metcalfe, J. (Eds.), The Missing Link in Cognition. Oxford University Press, New
York, pp. 4–56.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Further reading 27
Further reading
LeDoux, J.E., 2015. Anxious: Using the Brain to Understand and Treat Fear and Anxiety.
Penguin Books, New York.