Example 1: Student work

TITLE: POROSITIES AND ITS EFECTS ON PURIFICATION

Word Count: 2169 (excluding tables and figures)

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Research Question:
To what extent does the porosity of filter beds affect flow velocity of water and suspended
particles in the filtration of grey water?

Background:
The shortage of drinking and filtered water has been a major difficulty in Hyderabad and
throughout India during the last summer. Some states in India have had water shortages for the
past 20 years which is especially creating considerable hardships for citizens. There are various
reasons as to why the water shortages are occurring frequently. Some of which include: climate
change, lack of rainwater harvesting systems, increasing population, and inadequate technology
in purifying water and transporting water to various rural localities. The water shortage is causing
droughts around the country which is leading to numerous deaths. Access to safe drinking water
is a right to any human, which many people are not able to attain.

By setting up a low-cost water purification system, the same water can be reused and recycled for
various different activities. In order to investigate the effectiveness of purification systems, the
varying porosities of filter beds and flow velocities of water are identified and tested for the level
of purification as a primary level of treatment. The kitchen wastewater from XXX school will be
used throughout this experiment. This experiment can be quite beneficial to the school since it
uses approximately 70,000 litres of water a day for the kitchen and the waste water from the
kitchen is just wasted (not purified).
1

1
Process, Water. "Waste Water Treatment Process ǀ Water Treatment Process ǀ Desalination By Reverse
Osmosis ǀ Waste Water Treatment Process ǀ Sea Water Treatment Process". Watertreatmentprocess.net.
N.p., 2016. Web. 25 Dec. 2016.<http://watertreatmentprocess.neth,aste-water-treatment-
processiwaste-water-treatment-process/>

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Kitchen waste water is a type of grey water which is not contaminated with faecal matter or urine.
If filtered correctly, it can be used as drinking water or for other purposes. Throughout the
investigation, only the primary process is being investigated. In order to filter the waste water
further, other processes which can purify the dissolved solids as well need to be identified.

In order to investigate which filter beds will be most efficient in removing the suspended particles
in the waste water, various filter beds with varying porosities will be tested. The flow velocity of
the waste water during filtration will also be recorded in order to identify how it affects the purity
of the final filtered water. The materials which are being used in the experiment are found locally
are relatively inexpensive and widely available.

Throughout the experiment, the Independent Variable will be the different void spaces of the
various filter beds. The varying void spaces or porosities of the filter beds can affect the amount
of the suspended particles and flow velocity after filtration of the kitchen grey water.

Note: Porosity refers to the void (empty) spaces between the particles in a certain substance.

Hypothesis:

By increasing the void spaces of the filter beds, the number of suspended particles after
purification will be higher since the particles in the grey water will have more space to travel and
less particles will get caught along the process. However, with smaller void spaces the number of
suspended particles after purification will be lower since the particles will get trapped in the
process. Within a short period of time the filter beds with lower porosities will get clogged since
its void spaces will be filled with the suspended particles in the grey water. Also, the flow velocity
of the grey water will be slower for filter beds with smaller void spaces since it takes more time
for water to pass through spaces with smaller surface area. For filter beds with higher porosities,
the flow velocity of the grey water will be faster.

Hence, this implies that the level of purification will higher when the void spaces in the filter beds
are smaller and lower when void spaces in the filter beds are larger.

Most likely, filter beds within the 0.50 to 0.60 void ratio range will be able to remove the
suspended particles with the most efficiency (medium paced flow velocity). Although filter beds
in this range will not purify the waste water the most (remove the most number of suspended
particles), they will do so at flow velocity which does not consume great lengths of time.

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Variables in the Experiment:

Independent Variables

The independent variables are the various filter beds in the purification system which have
differing void spaces and porosities. It is being changed with respect to the porosities of the
substances which are being used.

**Porosity = Volume of Void Spaces / Total Volume of the Substance

Note: Porosity does not have a unit since it is a ratio.

Dependent Variables
The variables which are dependent are ones which change due to the changes in the Independent
Variables. In this experiment, the dependent variables are the flow velocity of the sewage water
and the number of suspended particles since the changes in the independent variables can change
the result of these variables.

Dependent Variable How is it being measured?

Flow Velocity ml/day

Number of Suspended Particles g/ 40 ml

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Control Variables

These variables will be kept constant throughout the entire experiment.

Controlled Variables
2l Bottles with the same
shape
Number. Size. and
Spacing of Holes in the
Bottle Caps
The Sewage Water
The type of filter paper.
How will these variables be
controlled?
The same empty Kinley bottles will
be used for the entire experiment.
5 identical holes on each cap
The sewage water from the
same source at the same time
will be used throughout the
experiment.
Using the same filter paper
throughout the experiment.
Why are these variable being
controlled?
The shape and volume of the
Bottle can affect the flow
velocity of the water.
Increasing or Decreasing the
number of holes can lead to a
change in the flow velocity
of the kitchen sewage water.
Number of Suspended Particles
may vary from one source to
another which can change the
results of the experiment.
Changing the type of filter
paper can change the weight
of suspended particles due to
the varying weight of the filter
paper.

The length of the The experiment on all different
experiment porosities/filter beds will be
conducted for 5 days.
Height of the Filter Beds Filter Beds will be filled to the same
for each porosity height.
Increasing or Decreasing the
length of time will alter the
findings and affect the number
of suspended particles.
Altering the height can change
the amount of substance in each
filter bed.

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Required Materials:
Note: Sufficient Materials for 3 Trials

Material Quantity

Kinley 2 litre Water Bottles 15

Bottle Caps with 5 Holes in them 15

Filter Papers 15

Small Funnels 5

Fine Beach Sand 6 kg

Medium Sized Sand 6 kg

Small Sized White Stones 10 kg

Medium Sized White Stones 10 kg

Large Sized White Stones 9 kg

Graduated Cylinder 3

Kitchen Sewage Water 200 ml/filter bed/day

500 ml beakers 6

Crucibles

Hot Air Oven

Electronic Balance

Procedure to Measure Flow Velocity with respect to different filter beds:

1. Gather all the materials for preparation of the filter beds.
2. Make holes on the bottles caps and cut the top part of the plastic bottles open.
3. Fill five bottles with fine sand, coarse sand, small sized white stones, medium sized white
stones, and large white stones respectively till the brim. These various substances
represent the different porosities which are being investigated.
4. Take 200 ml of Kitchen Sewage Water and pour it into the first filter beds.
5. Repeat this for all the filter beds.
6. Exactly 24 hours later, measure the amount of filtered water for each of the filter beds.
7. Do this exactly for 5 days.

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Procedure to find the number of Suspended Particles:

1. Take 40 ml of the kitchen waste water/purified kitchen waste water (after 5 days, mix
the filtered water from all 5 days) and slowly pour it onto a filter paper. Then wait for
the water to completely filter into a beaker. The remaining particles on the filter paper
are the suspended particles.
2. Weigh the filter paper which contains the suspended particles.
3. Place this filter paper in a hot air oven at --- degrees Celsius. Remove it after 24 hours.
It will remove all the water particles.
4. Weigh the filter paper after heating it.
5. Subtract this weight from the original weight. Then subtract the weight of the filter
paper from the derived weight. This gives the weight of the suspended particles.

Total Duration of Experiment = 3 weeks

Experiment Set Up of Filter Beds:

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Safety Considerations:
Although none of the substances used were dangerous or volatile in any shape or form, in order
to ensure that none of the substances come into contact with the human body, hand gloves were
used throughout the experiment. Gloves were worn when the experiment was performed in order
to mitigate the possibility of bacterial contamination. After sometime, the sewage water will start
to putrefy. It is advisable to wear a mask and dispose the experimental set up immediately after
the experiment is done.

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Raw Data for Flow Velocity with respect to different filter beds:

Week 1:

Substance Porosity Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

(Filter Bed) (Flow (Flow (Flow (Flow (Flow
Velocity) Velocity) Velocity) Velocity) Velocity)
ml/day ml/day ml/day ml/day ml/day

Fine Sand 0.25 0 8 7 5 3

Coarse Sand 0.40 24 19 15 9 7

Small Sized 0.53 154 142 129 121 118

White stones
Medium Sized 0.62 165 152 148 141 132
White Stones

Large White 0.71 200 200 200 200 200

stones

Substance (Filter Bed) Porosity Average Flow Velocity

Fine Sand 0.25 4.6 ml/day

Coarse Sand 0.40 14.8 ml/day

Small Sized White Stones 0.53 132.8 ml/day

Medium Sized White Stones 0.62 147.6 ml/day

Large White Stones 0.71 200 ml/day

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Raw Data of Suspended Particles before and after purification of Sewage Water:

Substance Porosity Suspended Particles before Day 5

(Filter Bed) Purification (grams) Suspended Particles
After purification
(grams)
Fine Sand 0.25 3.95 0.38
Coarse Sand 0.40 3.95 1.45
Small Sized White 0.53 3.95 1.98
Stones
Medium Sized White 0.62 3.95 2.67
Stones
Large White Stones 0.71 3.95 3.78

Week 2:

Substance Porosity Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

(Filter Bed) (Flow (Flow (Flow (Flow (Flow
Velocity) Velocity) Velocity) Velocity) Velocity)
ml/day ml/day ml/day ml/day ml/day

Fine Sand 0.25 0 10 8 6 3

Coarse Sand 0.40 25 17 15 9 6

Small Sized 0.53 152 139 125 117 111

White stones
Medium Sized 0.62 163 149 146 141 130
White Stones

Large White 0.71 200 200 200 200 200

stones

Substance (Filter Bed) Porosity Average Flow Velocity

Fine Sand 0.25 5.4 ml/day

Coarse Sand 0.40 14.4 ml/day
Small Sized White Stones 0.53 128.8 ml/day
Medium Sized White Stones 0.62 145.8 ml/day
Large White Stones 0.71 200 ml/day

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Substance Porosity Suspended Particles before Day 5

(Filter Bed) Purification (grams) Suspended Particles
After purification
(grams) for 40 ml of
sewage water
Fine Sand 0.25 3.95 0.42
Coarse Sand 0.40 3.95 1.57
Small Sized White 0.53 3.95 2.05
Stones
Medium Sized White 0.62 3.95 2.86
Stones
Large White Stones 0.71 3.95 3.72

Week 3:
Substance Porosity Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
(Filter Bed) (Flow (Flow (Flow (Flow (Flow
Velocity) Velocity) Velocity) Velocity) Velocity)
ml/day ml/day ml/day ml/day ml/day

Fine Sand 0.25 0 10 8 6 3

Coarse Sand 0.40 24 19 14 9 6

Small Sized 0.53 152 137 122 117 110

White stones
Medium Sized 0.62 162 150 144 138 127
White Stones
Large White 0.71 200 200 200 200 200
stones

Substance (Filter Bed) Porosity Average Flow Velocity

Fine Sand 0.25 5.8 ml/day

Coarse Sand 0.40 14.4 ml/day

Small Sized White 0.53 127.6 ml/day

Stones
Medium Sized White 0.62 144.2 ml/day
Stones
Large White Stones 0.71 200 ml/day

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Substance Porosity Suspended Particles before Day 5

(Filter Bed) Purification (grams) Suspended Particles
After purification (grams)
Fine Sand 0.25 3.95 0.45
Coarse Sand 0.40 3.95 1.68
Small Sized White 0.53 3.95 2.08
Stones
Medium Sized White 0.62 3.95 2.79
Stones
Large White Stones 0.71 3.95 3.80

Processed Data
(show step to get the processed data values)
Average Values for all 3 weeks
Substance (Filter Bed) Porosity Average Flow Velocity

Fine Sand 0.25 5.27 ml/day

Coarse Sand 0.40 14.53 ml/day

Small Sized White Stones 0.53 129.73 ml/day

Medium Sized White Stones 0.62 145.87 ml/day

Large White Stones 0.71 200 ml/day

Averaging Values for all weeks.

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Substance Porosity Suspended Particles before Day 5

(Filter Bed) Purification (grams) Suspended Particles
After purification (grams)
Fine Sand 0.25 3.95 0.42

Coarse Sand 0.40 3.95 1.57

Small Sized White 0.53 3.95 2.04

Stones
Medium Sized White 0.62 3.95 2.77
Stones
Large White Stones 0.71 3.95 3.77

Graphical Representation of Processed Data

Graph 1: Relationship between Porosity and Flow Velocity

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Graph 2: Relationship between Porosity and Flow Velocity

Analysis:
As it can be seen from the graphs and processed data, an increase in the porosity of filter beds
causes an increase in the flow velocity of the kitchen waste water. With fine sand, which has a
porosity of 0.25, the average flow velocity is 5.27 ml/day. Whereas with large white stones, which
has a porosity of 0.71, the average flow velocity is 200 ml/day. This occurs due to the variation
in void spaces between the particles of the filter beds. Higher porosities have large void spaces
which allows particles in the waste water to travel faster which leads to a higher flow velocity.

Analysing the raw data shows that for all filter beds except fine sand, as each day progresses the
flow velocity decreases. This can be seen in the findings of the small sized stones. Flow Velocity
decreases from 152 to 137 ml/day between day 1 and 2 in week 3. This happens because as each
day progresses, the void spaces get filled with the particles of the sewage water. These particles
slow down the speed that the sewage water can travel through on the next day.

As the porosity of the filter beds increases, the number of suspended particles caught after
filtration increases as well. This can be seen in the processed data. In fine sand (porosity of 0.25),
the mass of the suspended particles caught is 0.42 g/40 ml. However, in Coarse sand, (porosity of
0.40) the mass of suspended particles is 1.57 g/40m1. This is because coarse sand has larger void
spaces which allow particles to move freely through them, lower number of suspended particles

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are caught in the process as a result. Therefore, filter beds with higher porosities give larger
suspended particles after the filtrations.

This image was taken on the 5th day. As it can be seen, some of the sewage water was not able to
flow through filter beds anymore, it formed a layer on the top. This happened because all the
pores in the beds got clogged with particles from the sewage water. Hence, it was not able to take
in anymore water.

The difference in purity of the filtered water with respect to varying porosities can be seen in
pictures as well. As the porosity increases, the clarity of the water decreases and the colour
becomes orange like.

From the graphs, it can be seen that there is a positive correlation for both Flow Velocity and
Suspended Particles.

Conclusion:
As it can be seen from the analysis, as the porosity of the filter beds increases it leads to an increase
in the flow velocity of the kitchen waste water when it goes through the filter bed. This is due to
the larger pore (void) spaces which are present in filter beds with higher porosities. More particles
will be able to travel at a faster pace through these larger void spaces and they will not get clogged
in those spaces. This translates into a faster flow velocity of particles.

With higher porosities, there will be a larger amount of suspended particles. Whereas filter beds
with lower porosities will have relatively smaller amount of suspended particles since these filter

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beds will have smaller void spaces which can catch the suspended particles during filtration. As
a result, the number of suspended particles will be lower in smaller porosities after filtration.

The ideal filter bed for the primary process in a sewage water treatment plant would be the one
filled with small sized white stones which has a porosity of 0.53. It is the most productive filter
bed in purifying the water in an efficient manner. Although the purification of the filter bed with
fine sand is the most effective, it is too time consuming which lowers the productivity of the filter
beds and increases costs for the water sewage treatment plant.

Evaluation:
As it can be seen in this report, the results and data of the experiment are closely supporting the
hypothesis. One of the main strengths of the experiment is that the ideal porosity and most
efficient material for primary water purification was found. This could be used while constructing
an affordable water purification system.

However, there are some limitations. Most importantly, only one sewage water sample was used
throughout the experiment in order to keep the number of suspended particles before purification
constant. If other samples were used, then the experiment would have been more inclusive and a
more accurate representation of real-life situations would be there.

Although the method used was useful in investigating the effect of porosity on water purification,
there are some drawbacks which cannot be overlooked. Some of which include:
1. Human Error. There may be certain errors which took place while measuring the particles
and using the equipment.
2. Electronic Balance. There is a possibility that the electronic balance and other equipment
which was used did not provide accurate information.

Application:
This method of purification through filter beds (Gravitated Method) process can be used in the
primary process of treating waste water. It will be helpful in removing the suspended particles
found in waste waters. However, after a certain period of time the void spaces will get clogged
with particles when waste water is poured through the filter beds. In order to reuse the filter bed
again, the filter bed has to be backwashed in order to remove the clogged particles in the void
spaces. By doing so, the filter beds can be reused again. However, this may not always be suitable
in every water purification system since it requires sophisticated technology and it is also rather
time consuming.

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Bibliography:
1. Process, Water. "Waste Water Treatment Process ǀ Water Treatment Process ǀ
Desalination By Reverse Osmosis ǀ Waste Water Treatment Process ǀ Sea Water
Treatment Process". Watertreatmentprocess.net. N.p., 2016. Web. 25 Dec. 2016.
<http://watertreatmentprocess.net/waste-water-treatment-process/waste-water-treatment-
process>

2. Web.ead.anl.gov. N.p., 2016. Web. 27 Dec.2016.

http://web.ead.anl.gov/resrad/datacoll/porosity.htm

3. Tchobanoglous, George and Franklin L Burton. Wastewater Engineering. 1st ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1991. Print.

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