V.M.K.V.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRONIC DEVICES MATERIAL

By

P.LOGANATHAN M.E.,
AP / EEE,

DEPARTMENT OF ELCTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING.

V.M.K.V. ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
PERIYA SEERAGAPADI, SALEM – 636 308.
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UNIT-I: BASICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS

(2 MARKS)

1. What is the path taken by the electron when it enters a uniform electric field?

+++++++
A +
V
d
B -
----------

When the charged particle (q Charge) moves in the direction of electric field (E
intensity), A force F=q*E .the path will be straight line. An electron placed at plate ‘A’ will
be attracted towards the positively charged plate ‘B’. The tracing path of electron is straight
line.

2. What is the path taken by the electron when it is placed in a uniform magnetic
field with zero initial velocity?
When a charge particle moves in a magnetic field, it experience a force whose
direction is perpendicular both to the direction of motion of the particle and to the direction
of the field.

X X X X
X
X X X X
r
X X X X
X

X X X X

X X X X
CIRCULAR PATH

3. What is the path taken by the electron when it enters a uniform magnetic field
with an initial velocity at an angle with the direction of the field?
An electron is injected with an initial velocity of ‘v’ m/sec at a small angle α to the
direction of a magnetic field of flux density ‘B’ wb/m2 as a result of these concurrent motions,
the electron traces a helical path.

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4. What is the path taken by the electron when it is placed in perpendicular electric
and magnetic fields with zero initial velocity?
Let electric and magnetic fields align along y-direction and velocity vector is aligned

along positive x-direction. Let the charge be positive and initial velocity be vo In this case,

velocity and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to each other. Applying Right hand vector
cross product rule, we determine that magnetic force is acting in positive z-direction. If electric
field is not present, then the particle revolves along a circle in xz plane as shown in the figure
below. Motion of a charged particle in electric and magnetic fields

The radius of each of the circular element and other periodic attributes like time period,
frequency and angular frequency are same as for the case of circular motion of charged particle
in perpendicular to magnetic field
R = v / αB ; T = 2π / αB ; ν = αB / 2π ; ω = αB

5. An electron is accelerated through a potential of 40 V before it enters a magnetic

field density of 0.91 Wb/m2 at an angle of 30 degrees with the field. Find the
position of the electron after which it has completed one revolution in the field.
The velocity of electron is = √2qva / m = 3.68 x 106 m / s.
The time taken for one revolution is T = 2Лm / Bq = 4 x 10-11 s.
The pitch = T v cosθ = 1.27 x 10-4 m.
Thus the electron has traveled the position after completed one revolution in the field is
1.27 x 10-4 m.

6. Differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

S.NO Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

1 It is a pure form of semiconductor An impurity of doping agent is added
in the pure semiconductor forms
extrinsic semiconductor.
2 Number of electrons and holes Number of electrons and holes are
are equal not equal because of doping
3 Conductivity is poor Conductivity is improved

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7. Differentiate P-type and N-type semiconductors.

S.NO P - type Semiconductor N - type Semiconductor

1 An trivalent impurities is added to Pentavalent impurities are added to
pure Si or Ge to form P – type pure Si or Ge to form N – type
Semiconductor Semiconductor.
2 Doping agents : gallium, indium Doping agents : Arsenic, Antimony
etc, etc,
3 Holes are majority carriers: Electrons are majority carriers: are
Electrons are minority carriers Holes minority carriers

8. Draw the energy band diagram of a semiconductor.

E

CONDUCTION BAND
ENERGY LEVEL

FERMI LEVEL
FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP = 1.1 eV

VALANCE BAND

DISTANCE

9. Define Fermi Level in semiconductor.

The Fermi level is defined as the maximum energy level, which is occupied by an
electron at absolute zero temperature.
E

CONDUCTION BAND
ENERGY LEVEL

FERMI LEVEL
FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP

VALANCE BAND

DISTANCE

10. Illustrate the Fermi level of a P type semiconductor.

E

ENERGY LEVEL CONDUCTION BAND

EC

FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP

FERMI LEVEL
EA

Ev Excess Holes
VALANCE BAND

DISTANCE

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Where EA = Acceptor Energy Level

EV = Valance band energy Level
EC = Conduction band energy Level

11. Illustrate the Fermi level of an N type semiconductor.

E Excess Electrons

ENERGY LEVEL CONDUCTION BAND RS

FERMI LEVEL
ED

FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP

Ev
VALANCE BAND

DISTANCE

12. What is the effect of temperature on position of Fermi level?

In an N – type semi conductor, as temperature T increases, more number of

Electrons – hole pairs are formed. At very high temperature T, the concentration of
thermally generated electrons in conduction band will be far greater than the
concentration of donor electrons. In such case, as concentration of holes and electrons
become equal, the semi conductor becomes essentially intrinsic and EF returns to the
middle of the forbidden energy gap, hence it is concluded that as the temperature of P
and N type semiconductor increases, EF progressively moves towards the middle of the
forbiddenenergygap.

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13. In a P-type semiconductor, the Fermi level is 0.3eV above the valence band
at a room temperature of 300 K. Determine the new position of the Fermi level for
a temperature of 400 K.

The Fermi level in a P – Type material is given by

EF = EV + kT ln NV / NA
Therefore, (EF – EV) = kT ln NV / NA
At T = 300°k, 0.3 = 300 k ln NV / NA
(a) At T = 350°k, (EF1 – EV) = 350k ln NV / NA
Hence, from the above equation,
EF1 – EV / 0.3 = 350 / 300
Therefore, EF1 – EV = 350 / 300 x 0.3 = 0.35 eV
(b) At T = 400°k, (EF2 – EV) = 400k ln NV / NA
Hence, from the above equation,
EF2 – EV / 0.3 = 400 / 300
Therefore, EF2 – EV = 400 / 300 x 0.3 = 0.4 eV

14. What is Drift current?

It is a current when an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, the holes move
towards the negative terminal of the battery and electrons move towards the positive of the
battery. This combined effect causes a current flow in the circuit. This current is called drift
current.

15. What is Diffusion current?

A concentration gradient exists, if the number of either electrons or holes is greater in one
region of a semi conductor as compared to the rest of the region. The holes and electrons then
tend to move from region of higher concentration gradient to the region of lower concentration.
This process is called diffusion and the electric current produced due to this process is known as
diffusion current.

16. Define diffusion length

The minority carrier densities decay exponentially with the distance from the junction,
with a characteristics decay length of LP for holes and LN for electrons. It can be shown that the
average distance a hole diffuses before recombining is equal to LP so that it is called the diffusion
length.
Where
LP = √ DP TP called the hole diffusion Length
LN = √ DN TN is called the electron diffusion length.

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UNIT-II: CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODES

(2 MARKS)

1. Define breakdown voltage and cut-in voltage of a PN junction diode

Breakdown Voltage :
It is a reverse biased voltage; in a PN junction diode anode is negative with respect
to cathode, when the voltage is increased (VR) at which the PN junction breakdown is
occur. This reverse voltage is called as breakdown voltage.
Cut - in Voltage :
It is a forward biased voltage; in a PN junction diode anode is positive with
respect to cathode, when the voltage is increased (VF) at which the current flow through
the PN junction starts increasing rapidly is known as cut-in voltage. It is also called as
knee voltage or threshold voltage.

2. Define PIV of a PN junction diode

PIV is a Peak Inverse Voltage. It is the maximum allowable voltage applied across
the diode when it is connected in reverse bias without destroying the device.

3. Give the diode current equation

Where
I is the diode current,
IS is a scale factor called the saturation current,
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage,

And n is the emission coefficient, also known as the ideality factor. The emission
coefficient n varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor
material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus the notation n is
omitted). The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to
“room temperature” commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a
known constant defined by:

where
q is the magnitude of charge on an electron
k is Boltzmann’s constant,
T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction in kelvins

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4. Give the circuit symbol of a varactor diode

CT

Equivalent circuit

RS RR

5. Give the applications of tunnel diodes

1. Tunnel diode is used as mixers.
2. Being high speed devices, tunnel diode also lend than themselves to high speed
switching and logic operations as flip flop and gate.
3. They are used as low power oscillator up to 1000GHz, because of their simplicity,
frequency stability and immunity to radiation.
4. It may be used throughout microwave range as moderate to low noise pre amplifiers in
all kind of receivers.

6. Give the advantages of tunnel diodes.

1. Low Cost
2. Simplicity construction
3. High speed operation
4. Low temperature sensitivity, low noise and low power
5. Environmental Immunity.

7. Compare avalanche breakdown and zener breakdown?

S.NO Avalanche breakdown
1 This occurs in lightly doped diode
2 These depletion region is very wide
3 Electric field is low
4 It has sufficient kinetic energy and
disrupts covalent bond in crystal and
releasing the valance electron.
Zener breakdown
This occurs in heavily doped diode
This depletion region is very small
electric field is strong.
It break covalent bond and create
new electron – hole pair.

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8. Give the structure of a PIN diode.

P I N

9. What is the advantage of a PIN diode over an ordinary PN junction diode?

PIN diode is a high speed switching device, because its, highly improved
switching time compare with PN diode and it have high resistivity intrinsic layer is
sandwiched between the heavily doped P and N layer. It used as MPST switch.

10. What are multi junction photodiodes?

The multijunction diode is a high-impedance source and provides a negative biased

signal. To actuate a conventional low-impedance meter movement, an impedance transformation
device would be used. Such devices are within the current state of the art. Operational amplifiers
of unity gain may be employed. If has been found that the multi junction diode of this invention,
under open circuit conditions, has an output independent of the junction area. This permits the
use of extremely small units. For example, the device whose response is shown above is about
one-third of the area of the 1/16 th by 1/8 th inch hole normally used in tabulating cards.

11. What is a photovoltaic cell?

Photovoltaic cell is called as solar cell. It works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Which is the light energy is converted to electrical energy, and it is a self generating device,
when the light signal is strikes the device voltage is generated.

12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LEDs?

Ø Advantage:
1. Less power consumption
2. Very small size and weight
3. Operating voltage and Current is less
4. Variety of Spectral output colors

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5. Very fast action and Long life

Ø Disadvantage:
1. Very sensitive device, (it damage by over voltage and over current)
2. Radiated output power is temperature dependent.
3. Low efficiency.

13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LCDs?

Ø Advantage:
1. Power consumption is very small compared with LED
2. It is used in Watches, pocket calculators, portable instrument displays
3. contrast is high
4. very small size and weight
Ø Disadvantage:
1. The life time is Very less compare with LED
2. The response time is more than LED
3. Operates slowly.

14. What are thermistors?

A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a Thermistor. The resistance of most common
types of thermistor decreases as the temperature rises. It is a bulk semi conductor device
having negative temperature coefficient of resistivity. These are frequently used as
temperature sensors in the range of - 100° to 300°. The resistance decreasing
exponentially with increasing temperature. They are called negative temperature
coefficient, or NTC, thermistors. As the temperature rises, more charge carriers become
available and the resistance falls. Although less often used, it is possible to manufacture positive
temperature coefficient, or PTC, thermistors. These are made of different materials and show
an increase in resistance with temperature.

15. Give the applications of thermistors.

1. In electronic circuit used as temperature compensating devices
2. as a temperature sensor in electronic thermometers.
3. as a sensing element in microwave power measuring equipment.
4. as thermal delay.
5. in control devices actuated by charges in temperature.
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UNIT III-BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

(2 MARKS)

1. Give the circuit representation of a PNP type transistor.

The name transistor is derived from the words transfer and resistor. It has 3 terminal 3
layer device as shown in figure,

2. Give the circuit representation of an NPN type transistor.

3. Define emitter efficiency

Emitter injection ratio or emitter efficiency is the ratio of the electron current to the total
current

The emitter efficiency is obtained from:

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4. Define transport factor

Base transportation factor is the ratio of number of electrons arriving at the collector to the
number of injected electrons.

The base transport factor equals:

5. Define large signal current gain

The large signal current gain of a common base transistor is defined as the ratio of the
negative of the collector current increment to the emitter current change from cutoff (IE = 0) to IE
α = - (Ic – ICBO) / IE – 0

Where ICBO is the reverse saturation current flowing through the reverse biased collector –
base junction. As a magnitude of ICBO is negligible when compared to IE the above term can
express as α = Ic / IE

Since Ic and IE are flowing in opposite directions, α is always positive. Typical value of α
range from 0.90 to 0.955. Also α is not a constant but varies with IE collector voltage VCB and
temperature.

6. Give the relation between large signal current gain, emitter efficiency and
transport factor.
Any of three basic configurations, there is a definite relationship, as pointed out earlier,
between alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ). These relationships are listed as below

7. Give the circuit representation of a CB transistor configuration

(OR)

The above figure represents the circuit diagram of common base configuration
transistor. Base terminal is common to both input characteristics and output
characteristics.

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8. Give the circuit representation of a CC transistor configuration

9. Give the circuit representation of a CE transistor configuration

10. Define early effect

It is defined as the variation of effective base with by collector base voltage is
known as base width modulation or early effect. When the collector to base voltage is
made to increase, it increases the depletion region across the collector base junction. With
the result the effective width of base layer is decrease. It is called as early effect.

11. Define alpha and beta of a transistor.

Current amplification factor (α):
The ratio of change in collector current IC to the change in Emitter current IE at
constant collector base voltage VCB is known as current amplification factor (α)
α = IC / IE at constant VCB

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Base Current amplification factor (β):

It is defined as the ratio between change in collector current IC to the change in
Base current IB
Β = I C / IB

12. Write the h parameter equations for CB configuration.

13. Write the h parameter equations for CC configuration.

14. Write the h parameter equations for CE configuration.

15. How a transistor can be used as a switch?

When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied so
that it operates within its "Active" region and the linear part of the output characteristics curves
are used. However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as an
"ON/OFF" type solid state switch for controlling high power devices such as motors, solenoids
or lamps. If the circuit uses the Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing is arranged to operate in
the output characteristics curves seen previously in the areas known as the "Saturation" and
"Cut-off" regions as shown below.

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16. What are RF transistors?

The RF bipolar transistor is planner in the form and mostly Si, NPN type operating
up to 5db. At high frequency (RF) the reactance due to junction capacitance depend on
the depletion width and bias voltage etc., RF current handling capability, high power gain,
low base resistance, and low output capacitance. This device is intended for Class A, B, or C
amplifier, oscillator, or frequency multiplier circuits and is specifically designed for operation in
the VHF-UHF region.

17. What are power transistors?

Power transistor is a semiconductor and widely used in electronic devices as an amplifier or a
switch. It handles high voltage and high current rating. These transistors are mostly used in
switching mode. A heavy-duty transistor designed for power-amplifier and power-control
service. It has following specification

1) High current capability

2) Small reverse leak current
3) High reliability
4) High quality and low price

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UNIT IV-FET AND UJT

(2 MARKS)

1. Why a Field Effect Transistor is called so?

The field-effect transistor (FET) controls the current between two points but does so
differently than the bipolar transistor. The FET operates by the effects of an electric field on the
flow of electrons through a single type of semiconductor material. This is why the device is
called as field effect transistor. It is sometimes called a unipolar transistor.

2. What are the types of FET?

Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications.
1. Junction FET (JFET) and
2. Metal-Oxide- Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
I. Depletion and Enhancement MOSFET (DE MOSFET)
II. Enhancement – only MOSFET or E – only MOSFET

3. Define pinch off voltage of a JFET

It is the minimum drain – source voltage at which the drain current essentially
become constant. When a voltage is applied between drain and source (VDS) current flows and
the silicon channel acts rather like a conventional resistor. Now if VDS is increased (with VGS
held at zero volts) towards what is called the pinch off value VP, the drain current ID also at first,
increases. The transistor is working in the "ohmic region" as shown in Fig

4. List the advantages and disadvantages of JFET.

Advantage:
1. it has a very high input impedance ( in the order of 100MΩ)
2. The operation of JFET is depends upon the bulk material current carriers that do
not cross the junctions. There for inherent noise is absent.
3. It has negative temperature co – efficient of resistance
4. It has very power gain, small in size, long life and high efficiency.

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Disadvantage:
1. High leakage current. Low input impedance than MOSFET.
2. Less transconductance.
3. Amplification factor is not sufficient.

4. Define Tran conductance of JFET.

It is the ratio of change in drain current (∆ID) to the change in gate – source
voltage (∆VGS) at constant drain source voltage (VDS).
Trans conductance gfs = ∆ ID / ∆ VGS at constant VDS in mA or micromho

5. Define drain resistance of JFET.

It is the ratio of change in drain – source voltage (VDS) to the change in drain
current (∆ID) at constant gate – source voltage VGS
Drain resistance rD = ∆VDS / ∆ ID at constant VGS

6. Define amplification factor of JFET.

It is the ratio of change in drain – source voltage (VDS) to the change in gate –
source voltage VGS (∆VGS) at constant drain current ID
Amplification factor µ = ∆VDS / ∆ VGS at constant ID

7. List the applications of JFET

a. The JFET Differential Amplifier
b. A Low-Noise Amplifier
c. The JFET Constant Current Source
d. The JFET Analog Switch
e. The JFET Voltage Controlled Resistor

8. State the principle of operation of MOSFETs.

The basic principle of the device is a voltage on the oxide-insulated gate electrode (G)
can induce a conducting channel between the two other contacts called source (S) and drain (D).
The channel can be of n-type or p-type, and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a pMOSFET
the gate terminal is formed as a small capacitor. One plate of this capacitor is the gate and the
other plate is the channel with metal oxide as the dielectric. When the negative voltage is
applied on the gate, electrons accumulate on it. These electrons repel the conduction band

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electrons in the n-channel therefore less number of conduction electrons are made available for
current conduction through the channel. The greater negative voltage on the gate, the lesser is
the current conduction from source to drain. If the gate is positive more electrons are made
available in n-channel. Consequently current from source to drain.

9. Give the circuit symbol of a P-channel enhancement MOSFET

10. Give the circuit symbol of a P-channel depletion MOSFET

11. Compare N channel and P Channel MOSFETs

S.NO N channel MOSFET
1 ON resistance is smaller than
PMOS, thus it is smaller in time
and occupies space.
2 Size is small as well as its
junction capacitance also small
result in which very fast
operation.
3 It require positive gate drain
supply,
P channel MOSFET
The mobility of electron in silicon at
normal electric field is about 2.5 times that
of holes thus it’s on resistance is high
hence it occupies more space in IC
fabrication.
Size is greater than NMOS, the internal
capacitance reduces the speed of
operation.
It require negative gate drain supply.

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12. Define threshold voltage.

Threshold voltage is defined as the minimum voltage that required making the transistor ON.
Transistor may be either NMOS or PMOS. For NMOS the value of threshold voltage is positive
value and for PMOS the value of threshold voltage is negative value.

13. What is Gate capacitance?

The gate electrode forms a parallel plate capacitor with the channel, where Sio2 layer act
as dielectric. This formation of gate is called as gate capacitance. The gate definition spacer
defines the walls of a second etched trench that is used to remove a portion of the p-n junction,
thereby further reducing the junction capacitance

14. What are the applications of CCD?

Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) have made possible a revolution in image processing
They consist of a series of light-sensitive elements, called pixels, arranged in a square or
rectangular array. When CCDs are exposed to light, an image of the object being observed is
formed; this image can be extracted from the CCD and stored on a computer for later analysis.
CCDs are used in a variety of modern instruments, ranging from scanners and photocopiers to
video cameras and digital still cameras. They have transformed the way scientists measure and
chart the universe. Because CCDs are available in a wide price range, they are accessible to
amateurs as well as professionals, and enable both to make significant contributions to modern
astronomy.
The potential of the charge-coupling concept for digital memory has been recognized.
Applications to image sensing and signal processing requirements have, however, preceded the
application of CCD to memory. This occurred because relatively simple charge-coupled devices
offered new performance potentials for image sensing and signal processing. Nonetheless, the
basic shift-register nature of CCD implies that its greatest opportunity for widespread application
lies in the highly competitive area of high density semiconductor memory. Today, sophisticated
CCD memory components are emerging.

15. What are BBDs?

The BBD consists of series MOSFET switches with capacitor connected at their nodes
sampled values of input signal are stored as charge on the capacitor. It can be transferred from
one stage to next by controlling the switches using a clock pulses.

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A capacitive delay device comprising a sequence of capacitances, in which information is

transferred by charge transfer. The device is provided with at least one auxiliary store which has
been connected between a first and a second capacitance, whilst after a charge transfer between
the capacitances a residual charge transfer takes place between the first capacitance and the
auxiliary store, after which the charge stored in the auxiliary store and in the second capacitance
is transferred to a capacitance succeeding the second capacitance.

16. What is the difference between a UJT and a BJT?

S.NO UJT
1 It is 2 layer 3 terminal device
2 It has no ability to amplify the
signal.
3 Current conduction is only due
to one type of charge carriers.
Majority charge carriers
4 It is used as oscillator
BJT
It is 3 layer 3 terminal device
It has the ability to amplify the signal
Current conduction is both types of charge
carriers. In electron and holes.
It is used as amplifier

17. Define intrinsic ratio-off ratio of a UJT.

The intrinsic standoff ratio η is the ratio of voltage drop across RB1 (VA) to the battery
voltage RBBO (VBB). It varies from 0.4 to 0.8 for different devices. The schematic symbol is
Figure below
Intrinsic standoff ratio η = VA / VBB

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UNIT 5: SCR AND PRINCIPLES OF IC

(2 MARKS)

1. Give the basic structure and circuit symbol of an SCR

(OR)

2. Draw the two transistor version of SCR.

3. Define latching current of an SCR

It is the minimum current flowing from anode to cathode when SCR goes from OFF state
to ON state and remains in ON state even after gate bias is removed. It is greater than but very
close to Holding current.

4. Define holding current of an SCR

It is that value of current below which the SCR switches from the conduction state (ON
state) to the forward blocking state.

5. Define forward current rating and breakdown voltage of SCR.

Forward current rating of SCR is defined as that the maximum anode current that it
can handle without destruction.
Break down voltage is the reverse voltage in which the breakdown occurs, and
breakings happened in junction J1 and unction 3 when Anode is negative with respect to cathode.

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6. Why an SCR is operated only in forward biased condition?

The reverse bias condition is represented by -V. A reverse bias exists when the potential
applied across the SCR results in the cathode being more positive than the anode. In this
condition the SCR is non-conducting and the application of a trigger voltage will have no effect
on the device. In the reverse bias mode, the knee of the curve is known as the Peak Inverse
Voltage PIV (or Peak Reverse Voltage - PRV) and this value cannot be exceeded or the device
will break-down and be destroyed. A good Rule-of -Thumb is to select a device with a PIV of at
least three times the RMS value of the applied voltage. Therefore current conduction in reverse
bias is negligible. This is a fact that SCR operated only in forward bias.

7. Give the basic structure and circuit symbol of a TRIAC

8. Give the two SCR version of a TRIAC

The SCR will only operate when the anode is positive to the cathode. Two SCR's can be
placed back-to-back in order to operate with positive and negative voltages. A Triac is equivalent
to two SCR's back-to-back.

9. Give the basic structure and circuit symbol of a DIAC

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10. Give the two transistor analogy of GTO

11. What is meant by epitaxial layer?

In the Monolithic IC manufacturing process is consider the layer preparation. The second
layer of N type material which is grown as a single crystal extension on the substrate. For this
purpose the wafer put in diffusion furnace. A gas mixture of silicon atoms and pentavalent atoms
is passed over the wafers. This form a thin layer of n type semiconductor on heated surface of
the substrate. This thin layer is called epitaxial layer.

12. How electrical isolation is provided between the different components fabricated
in an IC?

Si02 layer is removed from the desired areas to penetrate into the N-type epitaxial layer
through the openings in Si02 layer and ultimately reach the P-type substrate. The temperature and
time period of diffusion are required to be carefully controlled. The process results in formation
of N-type regions, called the isolation islands. The name is given as they are separated by back-
to-back P-N junctions. Their purpose is to permit electrical isolation between various
components of IC. Each electrical element is later on formed in a separate isolation island. The
bottom of the N-type isolation island ultimately forms the collector of an N-P-N transistor.

13. What is the use of photolithography in IC manufacturing?

Photolithographic process is used to remove the Sio2 layer from selective area in which
impurities required the diffusion process.

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P.LOGANATHAN, AP / EEE V.M.K.V.E.C
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

14. Why buried layer is needed in collector region?

The presence of a buried layer may cause the value of the collector breakdown voltages,
BVCES and BVCBO, to be considerably less than existing theory predicts. A method for forming a
buried layer below the collector region of a transistor of an integrated circuit uses a second
doping agent (Phosphorus) in addition to a main doping agent (antimony). The use of the second
doping agent solves the problem of undesired intermediate or phantom layers caused by the
external diffusion (out-diffusion) of the doping agent in a P-type doped isolation layer below the
buried layer. The use of the second doping agent also solves the problem of providing a collector
region for transistors of the integrated circuit with a concentration of impurities which is
typically 10 times higher than that of the collector region of a power transistor integrated
monolithically on the same chip. The use of the second doping agent finally makes it possible to
achieve collector regions for the transistors of the integrated circuit with a concentration of
impurities which differs from transistor to transistor in accordance with the circuit functions to
be carried out.

14. What is the advantage of CMOS over NMOS?

The most important advantage of CMOS is the very low static power consumption in
compare with NMOS technology. Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high
noise immunity and low static power consumption. On the other hand, CMOS technology is
more complex to fabricate then NMOS technology, so it is more expensive. However, almost
every today’s digital circuits are CMOS. You want to use NMOS only when you want to
fabricate fast and low-cost a simple circuit.

16. What are the advantages of thick film hybrid circuits?

Advantage:
1. Relatively simple processing assembly techniques.
2. Low development cost and high reliable
3. Higher frequency performance
4. Reduced size leading to reduced weight and high density
5. High thermal conductivity of substrates.

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P.LOGANATHAN, AP / EEE V.M.K.V.E.C