READING AND WRITING

What is reading and writing as a subject?

The ability to communicate clearly and effectively forms the foundation of modern life. Reading
and writing skills allow students to seek out information, explore subjects in-depth and gain a
deeper understanding of the world around them. When they cannot read well, they become
discouraged and frustrated by school.

Why are reading and writing skills important?

Reading is important because it develops the mind. ... Understanding the written word
is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching young children to read helps them develop
their language skills. It also helps them learn to listen.

Why are reading and writing connected?

A child's literacy development is dependent on this interconnection between reading
and writing. Basically put: reading affects writing and writing affects reading. ... Therefore,
reading plays a major role in writing. At the same time practice in writing helps children build
their reading skills.

CRITICAL THINKING

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered
from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a
guide to belief and action.
 Critical Thinking is the ability to analyze the way you think and present evidence for
your ideas, rather than simply accepting your personal reasoning as sufficient proof. You
can gain numerous benefits from mastering critical thinking skills, such as better control
of your own learning and empathy for other points of view.
  Critical Thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-
corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and
mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving
abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.

What are the different qualities of critical thinkers?

It is been observed that all the critical thinkers have some qualities which are common. It is
considered that these qualities make them to think smartly and cleverly than others and thus
allow him to take decisions logically.
The critical thinkers take decisions better than others not because of their educational
qualifications or not because of their experiences. Critical thinkers tend to take better decisions
because in most of the cases they apply their education in practical life.

Some of the qualities which are common to the critical thinkers of the world are:

 Active Listening
 Curiosity
 Self-discipline
 Humility

Active Listening
People who communicate well are not only good speakers, but also good listeners. Though
being a good speaker, if the person goes on speaking without listening to others, the words of
the speaker tends to be irrelevant even though the statements are valuable with good stuff.

A listener tends to be an active listener only when he concentrates and provide full attention
towards speaker. The listener should also able to understand the message that is being
conveyed by the speaker apart from the words he speaks.

Curiosity
A person who seems to be curious implies that the person wants to learn something. People
who love to learn new things have the skills of good decision-making. The curiosity of the
person equips the person with all the updates such that the challenges and problems can be
handled in the best possible way. Curious people usually do not like explanations which are not
grounded with any logic.

It is to be learnt that curious is different from that of inquisitiveness. Being inquisitive implies
that trying to peep into the personal and business life of others for gathering rumors whereas
being curious implies trying to learn new things.

Self-Discipline
A self-discipline person does not entertain others to influence the thoughts, and the self-
discipline person takes the decisions with self-reasoning and rationality. Critical thinkers who
are said to be self-discipline know more about themselves than others as they are more
committed than non-critical thinkers. Critical thinkers are more compassionate and always
think on the lines of quality.

Humility
By humility, it implies that the role played by others towards completion of the task successfully
is being downplayed and others are appreciated for the success. Humility also means always
ready to accept and consider new ideas. Critical thinkers always tend to be humble and accept
new ideas and learn new things irrespective of from whom they are learning.

Importance of Critical Thinking

 A good Critical Thinker knows how to separate facts from opinion,how to examin issue
from all sides,how to make rational inferences and how to withhold personal judgment
of biases.
 Rational critical thinkers are generally the voices of reason in times of mass hysteria or
panic. As Franklin Roosevelt said that, “We have nothing to fear but fear itself”. The
Critical thinker usually has the comprehensive skills to consider all possible options and
solve a problem.
 The critical thinker remains calm and knows when he\she is right. The critical thinkers
are less likely to fall for scams or tricks because they approach everything with te
 healthy amount of skepticism. Those who lack critical thinking skills often assume that
everything they here is true, regardless of the source.

Part4: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

Definition
Explains what something is in comparison to other members of its class, along with any
limitations.

Exemplification
Provides typical cases or examples of something.

Description
What something looks like and its characteristics.

Chronology
Is a part of periodization.It is also a part of the discipline of history including earth
history, the earth sciences, and study of the geologic time scale.

Listing
Is a pattern that the writer states the main idea in the forum of a generalization and
gives a list of details or examples to support the general statement.

Comparison and Contrast

Tells how something is like other things or how something is different from other things.

Classification and Division

Groups of items into their parts or types.

Cause and Effects

Details why something happens,what causes it,what are the effects and how it is related
to something else.

Problem solution
 In General is an unsatifctory situation that causes trouble or difficulties.Therefore,it
needs a solution,a way to deal with the situation so that the troubles or difficulties are
removed.

VENN DIAGRAM
a Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common.
SPIDER MAP
a Spider Map (sometimes called a semantic map) is a type of graphic organizer that is used to
investigate and enumerate various aspects of a single theme or topic, helping the student to
organize their thoughts. It looks a bit like a spider's web, hence its name.

PROBLEM SOLUTION MAP

a solution map displays a logical analysis of the way one might arrive from the given data to
the solution of the problem. The solution map includes a statement of all laws and principles
used at every stage, so that students' knowledge base is reinforce

NETWORK TREE DIAGRAM TREE

Diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that shows how items are related to one another.
The tree's trunk represents the main topic, and the branches represent relevant facts, factors,
influences, traits, people, or outcomes. A family tree is an example of a tree diagram.
TIMELINE
a timeline is a type of graphic organizer that shows specific events in sequence, usually with
dates, in a linear fashion. Timelines are particularly useful for studying or reviewing history,
because the timeline will visually display major events over a period of time.

PLOT DIAGRAM
the Plot in a story. Diagram is an organizational tool focusing on a pyramid or triangular shape,
which is used to map the events
SERIES OF EVENTS CHAIN
sequence of events including steps in a linear procedure, the chain of events caused by
some event or the stages of something.

FISHBONE MAP
a fishbone map (sometimes called a herringbone map) is a type of graphic organizer that is
used to explore the many aspects or effects of a complex topic, helping the student to organize
their thoughts in a simple, visual way.

CYCLE
Cycle Diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that shows how items are related to one
another in a repeating cycle.

PERSUASION MAP
The Persuasion Map is an interactive graphic organizer that enables students to map out their
arguments for a persuasive essay or debate. Students begin by determining their goal or thesis.
They then identify three reasons to support their argument, and three facts or examples to
validate each reason.
 LOGICAL FALACIES
FALLACY DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
is a type of logical fallacy, The animal shelter is a
which is a belief or claim place that values animal
1.False Dilemma
based on mistaken rights and never
reasoning. False Dilemma euthanizes animals, or the
is a fallacy based on an animal shelter is a place
"either-or" type of that kills innocent animals.
argument. Two choices are
presented, when more
might exist, and the claim
is made that one is false
and one is true-or one is
acceptable and the other is
not. Often, there are other
alternatives, or both
choices might be false or
true.
2. Appeal to Ignorance can be found everywhere You can't prove that there
in everyday conversation, aren't Martians living in
in advertising, in politics caves under the surface of
and in history. Mars, so it is reasonable
for me to believe there
are.

3. SLIPPERY SNOPE is a flawed argument. If we allow the children to

There are many different
types of logical fallacy.
Slippery slope is one
example of a fallacy. It is
an argument that suggests
taking a minor action will
lead to major and
sometimes ludicrous
consequences.
4. Complex Question A question that has a
presupposition built in,
which implies something
but protects the one
asking the question from
accusations of false claims.
It is a form of misleading
choose the movie this
time, they are going to
expect to be able to
choose the school they go
to or the doctors they visit.
How many school
shootings should we
tolerate before we change
the gun laws?
(The presupposition is that
changing the gun laws will
 discourse, and it is a fallacy
when the audience does
not detect the assumed
information implicit in the
question and accepts it as
a fact.
5. Appeal to Force When force, coercion, or
even a threat of force is
used in place of a reason in
an attempt to justify a
conclusion.
6. Appeal to Pity The attempt to distract
from the truth of the
conclusion by the use of
pity.
decrease the number of
school shootings. This may
be the case, but it is a
claim that is implied in the
statement and hidden by a
more complex question.
Reactively, when one hears
a question such as this,
one's mind will attempt to
search for an answer to
the question—which is
actually a distraction from
rejecting the implicit claim
being made. It is quite
brilliant but still fallacious.)
Melvin: Boss, why do I
have to work weekends
when nobody else in the
company does?
Boss: Am I sensing
insubordination? I can find
another employee very
quickly, thanks to
Craigslist, you know.
(Melvin has asked a
legitimate question to
which he did not get a
legitimate answer, rather
his question was deflected
by a threat of force (as
being forced out of his
job.)
I really deserve an “A” on
this paper, professor. Not
only did I study during my
grandmother’s funeral, but
I also passed up the heart
transplant surgery, even
though that was the first
matching donor in 3 years.
(The student deserves an

7.Appeal to Consequences Concluding that an idea or
proposition is true or false
because the consequences
of it being true or false are
desirable or undesirable.
The fallacy lies in the fact
that the desirability is not
related to the truth value
of the idea or proposition.
This comes in two forms:
the positive and negative.
8.Bandwagon is a fallacy based on the
assumption that the
opinion of the majority is
“A” for effort and
dedication but,
unfortunately, papers are
not graded that way. The
fact that we should pity
her has nothing to do with
the quality of the paper
written, and if we were to
adjust the grade because
of the sob stories, we
would have fallen victim to
the appeal to pity.)
Example (positive):
If there is objective
morality, then good moral
behavior will be rewarded
after death. I want to be
rewarded; therefore,
morality must be
objective.
Example (negative):
If there is no objective
morality, then all the bad
people will not be
punished for their bad
behavior after death. I
don’t like that; therefore,
morality must be
objective.
(The fact that one wants to
be rewarded, or wants
other people to suffer, says
nothing to the truth claim
of objective morality.
These examples are also
begging the question that
there is life after death.)
"Carling Lager, Britain's
Number One Lager"
(advertising slogan)
 always valid: that is,
everyone believes it, so
you should too. It is also
called an appeal to
popularity, the authority of
the many, and
argumentum ad populum
(Latin for "appeal to the
people"). Argumentum ad
populum proves only that
a belief is popular, not that
it's true. The fallacy occurs,
says Alex Michalos in
Principles of Logic, when
the appeal is offered in
place of a convincing
argument for the view in
question.
9.Attacking the Person/AD is the term for an A politician arguing that
HOMINEM argument with emotional his opponent cannot
appeal, rather than logical possibly be a good choice
appeal. Another use for for women because he has
the term ad hominem is a religious conviction that
for an emotional attack on causes him to be pro-life.
a person or his/her
character rather than
refuting the points he/she
made.
10.Appeal to Authority Insisting that a claim is Richard Dawkins, an
true simply because a valid evolutionary biologist and
authority or expert on the perhaps the foremost
issue said it was true, expert in the field, says
without any other that evolution is true.
supporting evidence Therefore, it's true.
offered. Also see the
appeal to false authority.
(Richard Dawkins certainly
knows about evolution,
and he can confidently tell
us that it is true, but that
doesn't make it true. What
makes it true is the
preponderance of evidence
for the theory.)
11.Anonymous Authority When an unspecified
source is used as evidence
for the claim. This is
commonly indicated by
phrases such as “They say
that...”, “It has been
said...”, “I heard that...”,
“Studies show...”, or
generalized groups such
as, “scientists say...”
When we fail to specify a
source of the authority, we
can’t verify the source,
thus the credibility of the
argument. Appeals to
anonymous sources are
more often than not, a
way to fabricate,
exaggerate, or
misrepresent facts in order
to deceive others into
accepting your claim. At
times, this deception is
done subconsciously -- it
might not always be
deliberate.
12.Hasty Generalization is a fallacy in which a
conclusion is not logically
justified by sufficient or
unbiased evidence. It's
also called an insufficient
sample, a converse
accident, a faulty
generalization, a biased
generalization, jumping to
a conclusion, secundum
quid, and a neglect of
qualifications.
13.False Analogy When an analogy is used
to prove or disprove an
argument, but the analogy
is too dissimilar to be
You know, they say that if
you swallow gum it takes
seven years to digest. So
whatever you do, don’t
swallow the gum!
(“They” are wrong as
“they” usually are. Gum
passes through the system
relatively unchanged but
does not hang around for 7
years like a college student
terrified to get a job.
“They” is a common form
of appeal to anonymous
authority.)
My father smoked four
packs of cigarettes a day
since age fourteen and
lived until age sixty-nine.
Therefore, smoking really
can’t be that bad for you.
(It is extremely
unreasonable (and
dangerous) to draw a
universal conclusion about
the health risks of smoking
by the case study of one
man.)
Not believing in the literal
resurrection of Jesus
because the Bible has
errors and contradictions,
 effective, that is, it is
unlike the argument more
than it is like the
argument.
14.Accident An accident fallacy is an
error in reasoning caused
by sweeping
generalizations. It occurs
when you assume that a
rule-of-thumb applies to
everyone or every
situation, including
obvious exceptions. While
generalizing helps make
the world easier to
understand, often
generalizations do not
apply to every situation.
An accident fallacy is using
such a generalization to
draw an incorrect
conclusion about an
obvious exception.
15.Post Hoc (a shortened form of post
hoc, ergo propter hoc) is a
fallacy in which one event
is said to be the cause of a
later event simply because
it occurred earlier.
Remember, correlation
does not equal causation.
You cannot blame your
friends for a rain delay just
because every time they
go with you to a ballgame
is like denying that the
Titanic sank because eye-
witnesses did not agree if
the ship broke in half
before or after it sank.
(This is an actual analogy
used by, I am sorry to say,
one of my favorite
Christian debaters (one
who usually seems to value
reason and logic.)
Many of you would not
disagree that it is wrong to
cut people with knives,
and this is supported by
the law. However,
surgeons use scalpels to
cut people open every day,
and that’s both legal and,
most of us would say,
moral. In this case, it
would be illogical to argue
that surgery is wrong or
should be illegal based on
the statement that it’s
wrong to cut people with
knives. Surgery is an
obvious exception, and
almost all of us know that.
Our soccer team was
losing until I bought new
shoes. We have not lost a
game since I got my lucky
shoes!
 it storms and play is
delayed. Likewise, because
a baseball pitcher grows a
beard (or wears the same
socks, etc.) during the
postseason doesn't mean
he will pitch better.
16.Wrong Direction is a logical fallacy that The street lights turning on
occurs when a cause is causes the Sun to set.
mistakenly considered an
effect.
17.Complex Cause A single cause is identified The Challenger explosion
when the effect is actually was caused by the cold
caused by a number of weather. (True, however,
interacting objects or it would not have occurred
events. The result is had the O-rings been
oversimplification or properly constructed.)
reductionism. A variation
of this fallacy is the
feedback loop, where the
effect is itself a part of the
cause. Many of the
intractable disagreements
we have debated for
generations are so difficult
because it is so difficult to
isolate the relevant or
primary causes of an
effect.
18.Irrelevant Conclusion Irrelevant Conclusion is the Parents who work full-time
informal fallacy of cannot give ample
presenting an argument attention to their children.
that may or may not be
logically valid, but fails
nonetheless to address the
issue in question. More
colloquially, it is also
known as missing the
point.
19.Straw Man Substituting a person’s Ted: Biological evolution is
actual position or both a theory and a fact.
argument with a distorted, Edwin: That is ridiculous!
exaggerated, or How can you possibly be
misrepresented version of absolutely certain that we
the position of the evolved from pond scum!

20.Affirming the Consequent
21.Denying the Antecedent
argument.
An error in formal logic
where if the consequent is
said to be true, the
antecedent is said to be
true, as a result.
It is a fallacy in formal logic
where in a standard
if/then premise, the
antecedent (what comes
after the “if”) is made not
Ted: Actually, that is a
gross misrepresentation of
my assertion. I never
claimed we evolved from
pond scum. Unlike math
and logic, science is based
on empirical evidence and,
therefore, a scientific fact
is something that is
confirmed to such a
degree that it would be
perverse to withhold
provisional consent. The
empirical evidence for the
fact that biological
evolution does occur falls
into this category.
(Edwin has ignorantly
mischaracterized the
argument by a) assuming
we evolved from pond
scum (whatever that is
exactly), and b) assuming
“fact” means “certainty”.)
If taxes are lowered, I will
have more money to
spend.
I have more money to
spend.
Therefore, taxes must
have been lowered.
(I could have had more
money to spend simply
because I gave up crack-
cocaine, prostitute
solicitation, and baby-seal-
clubbing expeditions.)
If it barks, it is a dog.
It doesn’t bark.
Therefore, it’s not a dog.
(It is not that clear that a
 true, then it is concluded
that the consequent (what
comes after the “then”) is
not true.
22.Inconsistency In terms of a fallacious
argument, two or more
propositions are asserted
that cannot both possibly
be true. In a more general
sense, holding two or
more views/beliefs that
cannot all be true
together. Quotes from
Yogi Berra (even if
apocryphal) are great
examples of fallacies,
especially inconsistencies.
Types of Claims
Claim of Fact
existence of something/definition or classification/facts inferences about past present or future.
fallacy is being committed,
but because this is a
formal argument following
a strict form, even if the
conclusion seems to be
true, the argument is still
invalid. This is why
fallacies can be very tricky
and deceptive. Since it
doesn’t bark, we cannot
conclude with certainty
that it isn’t a dog -- it could
be a dog who just can’t
bark.)
"I never said most of the
things I said." - Yogi Berra
(I know this requires no
explanation, and I don't
mean to insult your
intelligence, but for
consistency's sake, I will
explain. If he had said
those things, then he said
them, which is a
contradiction to his claim
that he never said them.
This is both an internal
inconsistency and a logical
inconsistency. It is internal
because the inconsistency
is contained within the
statement itself; it doesn't
require any other premises
or arguments.)
Claims of Value
taste & morals / good-bad, make value judgments/ resolve conflict between values/ quasi policy,
rightness of it; relative merit.