NEW CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT OF SRI LANKA

H.M.M.B. SENEVIRATNE

ISBN978-955-52362-9-4

1
Preface

It was in 1977, on the UNDP sponsored erosion and sedimentation survey of Atabage Oya,
Nilambe oya, Maha Oya catchments of Upper Mahaweli, where I indicated the effect f
environmental change on the increase of sediment yield, which may affect reservoir capacity of
Mahaweli Development programme. In 1991, the effect of climate change on desertification in
the Sahelian region of Borno State, Nigeria was published. Then onwards to 2017 many
publications were made on the effect of climate change in the sahelian region of Borno State,
Nigeria and Sri Lanka. Now in 2019 I write on “We live in a NEW climate”.

We have to look for a model of development within the new climate. The best available model
for Sri Lanka is the model of Ancient Rajarata Kingdom model which was a truly innovative
system with a strict legal framework. Today, we have to search for a new environmental
engineering system which is suitable for the new climate based on the ancient model, as present
and future climates of Sri Lanka will be much drier than it was during the period of ancient
kingdom.

H.M.M.B. Seneviratne, B.A. Hons. (Cey), M.Phil. (Notts. UK), PhD. (NTNU, Norway)

Front cover photos –

Top – a large drain cut into rock face to divert scattered overland flow from a massive
rock outcrop into a small tank
Below - wind turbine – second most important carbon free power source in the dry zone of
Sri Lanka, after solar power

2
Chapter 1

Introduction

Studies on climate change began with the study of geology and geomorphology in the early 20 th
century, but the impact of climate change is yet to be fully understood by policy makers and
general public. However, it is evident that climate has been changing from wet to dry and vice
versa throughout the geological and human history. The evolution and survival of man and his
civilizations depended on his ability to adapt to climate change.

Lamb (1977) began the modern discussions on climate change and by the year 2000 climate
change was recognized by policy makers, media and general public.

What is climate change?

All global geological elements and factors are subjected to change through cyclic and non-
cyclic oscillations, which lead to change in temperature and rainfall. The long term climatic
changes resulting from these geological oscillations are named as “Climatic Change”.

Identification of Climate change

Primarily the changes in temperature indicate an expected change in the climate. All major
climatic changes occurred during the geological time period from Pre-Cambrian to Recent are
initiated with a change in temperature. Changes in temperature affect all other elements
(pressure, wind systems and rainfall) of the atmosphere resulting in a general change in climate.

Importance of climate change

All human activities are conducted within a prevailing climate. Stories of the ancient writings
describe Sri Lanka as a place with a comfortable climate and a green environment. It was
known as Lanka, the light of the Indian Ocean as viewed from its closest land mass of South
India. This identification relates to the stable and reliable climate of the time of the beginning of
human habitation and establishment of settlements in Southern India and Sri Lanka. The story
of powerful Lords of Ravana and Rama, arrival of God Skandha, Vishnu and Paththini describe

3
the comfortable climate and abundance of vegetation and water in Sri Lanka in comparison to a
much drier climate in South India.

The ancient Rajarata civilization was established at a time of high level of climatic stability and
climatic instability during the period between 900 AD and 1300 AD, was one of the major
factors for its sudden “mega destruction” and migration of the kingdom to south west. The cool
wet period in the 19th to the middle of 20th century facilitated the growth of plantations, spice
groves and steady cultivation of paddy. The onset of modern climate change has begun to install
dry and wet periods. In addition the monsoon cycle has changed leading to change in nature and
pattern of rain fall and inter-monsoons are invaded by depression type rain resulting in
weakening of thunderstorm activity. Weakening of the monsoons and thunderstorm activity
leads to formation of tornadoes and line squalls at all seasons (lines of large cumulus clouds),
which result in high intensity rainfall leading to flash floods and landslides. The fatalities and
property damage from drought, flash floods and landslides have increased dramatically in the
last 25 years leading to slow economic growth and abandonment of farming as an occupation in
rural areas. (Loss of income to the nation is estimated to be about 20000 to 30000 billion
Rupees).

Globally, climate change is affecting all nations and many attempts are made to manage and
reduce damage. However, conservative estimates indicate that climate change has reduced the
global economic growth by about 2 percent in the last five years (this is a reduction of about US
dollar 2 trillion).

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Chapter 2

Climate change

2.1 Introduction

Climate change in Sri Lanka is discussed under two broad topics

1. Geological change
2. Historical change

2.2Geological climatic change

Geological changes are investigated with the help of radioactive mineral decay and radio carbon
dating. Isotope decay is linked to decay of radioactive minerals in older rocks. Radio carbon
dating is linked to the study of fossils and buried landforms in recent geological periods. The
decaying minerals indicate information on the climate of the time of their formation and
evolution of climate. For example rapid acidification of rocks and unsorted sediments indicate
humid periods and slow acidification and fine sediments indicate dry periods.

Sri Lanka is situated on a synclinorium constructed by Pre Cambrian mountain building (about
1600 million years ago), when Sri Lanka was a part of the Gondwana land within a mega
continent block named Gondwana by geological studies.

5
Figure 2.1 Late Proterozoic Gondwanaland and geosyncline

Gondwanaland Geosyncline Gondwanaland

About 10000kms long

About 3000 kilometers wide

Taprobanian Geosyncline in the late Proterozoic – rivers in blue lines/ different colours to
indicate different types of sediments (clay, silt, sand, and gravel of various origins). (all figures
and explanations are based on author’s understanding of the events. They should not be taken as
a hypothesis)

Information indicate that the Geosyncline was formed by crustal warping in the Late
Proterozoic and it was gradually filled with sediments (riverine when warm and humid and
glacial when cold and sand and dust when arid) over a period of about 100 million years from
650 million years before to about 550 million years ago. The geosyncline was a massive land
area with a length of more than 10000 kilometers and a width of about 3000 kilometers. The
present day Sri Lanka, parts of southernmost South Africa, Northern Australia, South India (to
the Thapthi-Narbada faults) and probably parts of Northern Antarctica may have been inside of
this geosynclines. For example present Indo-Gangatic valley area is a geosynclines which is
being filled with riverine (India), glacial (Kashmir and Uttarakand) and desert (in Sind)
sediements.

Sri Lanka was not an island and was located in an area close to South Africa at this time and had
a humid climate. The synclinorium was formed within a massive Taprobanian geosynclines,
which was a massive depression formed on Gondwana land. This was a time of high
temperatures, mountain building and volcanic activity. However, time to time, in the periods of
volcanic activity, massive ash clouds prevented heat from the sun and the land was subjected to
cold climates.

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Figure 2.2 During the Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian

(all figures and explanations are based on author’s understanding of the events. They should not
be taken as a hypothesis)

Probable
position of
Sri Lanka

The rocks formed during this period are rarely seen on the surface of Sri Lanka. Katharagama,
Warana (Figure 4), Ambagaspitiya and Thonigala granites may have been formed in the process

7
of granitisation of the rocks of this period. Most of the rocks formed during this period have
decayed and re-metamorphosis by later mountain building and volcanic activity.

8
 Figure 1. Geology of Sri Lanka

Based on Cooray, (1967) and

Seneviratne (1977)
Figure 2.3

Key:-

Highland series

Vijayan Series

Miocene Limestone

Wanni

Gneisses

B
i
n
t
e
n
n G
a n
e
i
s
s
e
s

Minihagalkanda
Beds (Miocene)
Sandstones

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Key

Older Granites

Other granites

Thonigala granite

Warana granite

Amgaspitiya granite

Thabbowa-Andigama sandstones and shale

Katharagama complex granites

Rathnapura sedimentary beds with gems

Kadugannawa complex Gneiss

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 Figure 2.4. Warana Granite

See Appendix 1 for the global geological time scale and as adjusted for Sri Lanka

The minerals and rock fragments which are in the present day surface rocks of Sri Lanka were
deposited in the geosynclines during this period.

Paleozoic Era

Crust
Mantle

Figure 2.5 Paleozoic Era- beginning from Cambrian, the deposits of the
geosynclines were folded and in the process there was intrusion of
granitic materials (red areas and purple lines) and fractures were formed
(orange lines). (all figures and explanations are based on author’s
understanding of the events. They should not be taken as a hypothesis)

The time period between Cambrian and Permian is included in the Paleozoic era. Cambrian
period is well known for a mixture of warm and cold climates. Evidences for glaciations in the
Cambrian period are found in South Africa and Scandinavian countries. The land now we
identify as Sri Lanka was also subjected to these variations, but any trace of evidence is not
found or yet to be discovered. Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods of the Cambrian Era
are known for their warm and dry climates. However, the wet times of the Devonian led to the

11
growth of vegetation which resulted in the formation of largest coal deposits of today, indicating
a high humid environment.

Folded and fractured rocks of the Vijayan and Highland series of Sri Lanka were formed at
various periods within the Cambrian. However, the shape and chemical mixture of minerals and
rock fragments indicate warm humid periods, wet and dry periods and desert and glacial periods
with millions of years between them. The folded strata rose to an average of about 8000 meters
and large mountain range was formed.

At the end of Paleozoic, Permian period began with an extremely arid climate and a mass
extinction occurred. By this time the massive mountain range was eroded heavily and large
plains were formed.

Figure 2.6 At the end of Paleozoic large even surfaces (peneplains) were formed (thick black
line is the landform outline). The structure of the former folded strata (green, orange and purple
lines show remnants of the folded structure) was eroded and parts of them remained. Some
igneous intrusions (red colour) and metamorphic rock series (yellow colour) were unearthed.
Dotted line in blue indicates the Jurassic high sea level. (all figures and explanations are based
on author’s understanding of the events. They should not be taken as a hypothesis)

Mesozoic Era

Dry climate was established at the beginning of Mezosoic Era, The evolution of the
Gondwanaland accelerated in the Triassic with the formation of Pangea. Generally earth was
hotter than today, but many warm and dry, warm and humid, cold and arid periods occurred in
close succession than in the Paleozoic. In the Triassic massive amounts of sandstones and shale
were formed from the sand and clay deposited during the earlier period of arid climates. At the
middle of the Triassic an opening in the Pangea led to the formation of Tethys sea. Tethys sea

12
was the geosyncline, which accumulated sediments to form the Himalaya-Alps mountain range
during Alpine orogeny.

Jurassic dawned with a more humid and warm climate and present day Sahara desert was a
seasonally wet land. Towards the end of Jurassic a massive rise in sea levels led to opening of
Atlantic Ocean and the drift of Pangea has moved Sri Lanka northwards to a point around 40
degrees south. Massive sea level rise buried all areas below about 330 meters of present day Sri
Lanka. In Sri Lanka, Thabbowa and Andigama sandstones and shale were formed during this
period. The hills and low mountain ranges situated below 300 meter mark of present day Sri
Lanka was buried under the Jurassic sea and became swashed with massive Tsunamis as much
as 100 meters high. Isolated granitic and Gneissic domes and tors were originally formed during
this period. Drift of Pangea accelerated and by the end of Jurassic Sri Lanka was at a point near
20 degrees south.

According to Wadia and Adams towards the end of Jurassic, the area at present over 300 meters
in Sri Lanka was subjected to an uplift. The uplift and the nature of the uplift is subjected to
heavy discussion with no final conclusion yet. However, Sri Lanka became an island by
separation from its larger landmass during the late Mesozoic. The general climate was warm but
many evidences of global arid, glacial and inter-glacial phases may have influenced Sri Lanka is
identified by many researchers.

Cainozoic Era

At the beginning of Cainozoic Era, the present landform profile was almost complete,
except for the separation from Indian sub continent.

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 Figure 2.7. The landform profile of Sri Lanka at the beginning of Cainozoic Era

STAGE 4

FAULTING AND EVOL UTION OF PR E S ENT SCENERY

(EN MAS SE B LOCK UPL IFT – WADIA, CIR CU MSCR IB E BLOCK UPLIFT –
KULAR AT N AM, M ULTI PLE B LOCK - CO ORAY / VI THANAG E - M ULTI PLE
BLOC K AND DIFFERE NTI AL E R OSION

The la nd mass was u pli ft ed to va ri ous he igh ts a nd t he ba sis f or p re sent d ay stru ct ur e was
est ab li she d. The sync li noriu m stru ct ur e w as v isi ble .

THIS H IGHLY SIM PLI FIED VER SION OF THE STRUC TURAL EVOLUTIO N IS
ONLY A P ICTOR IAL F OR M AND SHOU L D NOT BE TAK EN AS HYPO THESIS

The folded strata is mostly hidden (green , red and black lines), granites and blocks of
metamorphic rocks (Red and pink), other mixed formations (green and Yellow areas).

It is evident that the land in and around Sri Lanka was subjected to many varying climates
during the early geological eras, though most of the details are erased by recent changes. In the
Tertiary period Sri Lanka was mostly wet and humid, but dry and cold phases have been
identified. About 6.5 million years ago in the process of formation of Himalayan mountain
range Sri Lanka was separated from Indian sub continent and began a drift to the south west.
The glacial and inter glacial periods were more closely occurring and there were many sea level
changes in and around Sri Lanka.

When the Pleistocene began about 2 million years ago global habitat became stable and Sri
Lanka witnessed a similar environment. Man entered the earth originating from Africa.
Migration of humans led to arrival of man in Sri Lanka about a million years ago.

2.2 Historical Climate: from the beginning of Rajarata civilization

The habitat of Balangoda man and settlements of Yakkha and Naga, are the oldest recorded in
Sri Lanka. It is evident that the climate was mostly humid, but short lived dry and mini-cold
periods were present.

The Ancient kingdom of Rajarata was established at a time when climate was wetter, with
regular monsoon cycles. However, historical texts indicate that dry periods have occurred at
intervals of 3,4 or 5 years followed by about 1 or 2 years of heavy rainfall. This was the normal

14
climate cycle of the tropical dry climates as confirmed by data from Nilometer observations in
Egypt (Bryant, 1997). The wev sediment profiles, tree rings and river terraces and their
sediment profiles provide some information as research data is rare.

At the beginning of the Rajarata civilization there was a clear pattern of wet and dry seasons. In
the story of Kuveni, when Vijaya’s search party went on fact finding tour, Kuveni was spinning
cotton yarn. For cotton to mature there is a need for a minimum dry period of two months.
Climate data of the past one hundred years indicate that when the monsoon cycle was regular
July to September were dry months.

Bank sediments and terraces of Malwathu Oya indicate a high flow level of about 5 to 8 meters
above present high flow levels. This was the reason to build all big structures away from
Malwathu Oya. The excessive high rainfall from line squalls in a wet year (more than 2000
millimeters) indicates these ancient high levels. In 2010, whole flood plain was flooded, which
led to a submerge of most of the constructions on the flood plain, but the sacred sites were not
affected as they are on the high ground on the Right bank. The ruins of palaces and big housing
units on the left bank were also not affected. (1957 major flood occurred when the area received
more than 2100 millimters of rainfall.)

Deduru oya, Kala oya, Nalanda oya, Yan oya and Mee oya have upper level river terraces,
which are flooded only during excessive rainfalls in a wet year, with more than 2000
millimeters. The upper catchments of these rivers are mostly situated in the low hill ranges
which fan out from the central highlands in a fan formation. The only exception is Ritigala,
where upper reaches of Malwathu Oys is situated, but most of its upper reach is in low hill
ranges. In between the hill ranges are plains with flat bottomed valleys, which are flooded with
a mean rainfall of about 700 millimeters. These wet areas are known as villu locally. Most of
them contained large springs in the 1960s. Between 1960 and 2015 most of these spring flow
volumes have reduced by about 60 to 70 percent resulting in becoming seepage points only in
the dry season.

Dry valleys of varying sizes can be identified below these springs, ranging from depths of 2
meters to 5 meters. Therefore, it is evident that there was a massive loss of spring water in the
source areas between the resettlement of Rajarata in the 19 th century and today.

15
The hill ranges of Dambulla, Nalanda, Bambawa, and Karanampotha were the major suppliers
of water to the rivers of Rajarata. Evidences indicate that these hill ranges were covered in
dense forest and were protected by royal decree.

Investigation of a remote and highly inaccessible steep slope area within these ranges indicate
that vegetation with ages over 1500 years are still present in deep valley bottoms. In addition
evidence for rapid higher flow in the streams, with remnants of gravel and mud flows were
identified, indicating super wet conditions during the period of Rajarata kingdom. The folk lore
has that the King Udaya, visited the area and allocated the forest to a deity and placed stone
markers.

Life story of an elder aged 81 says that “a villager found a triangular shaped marker stone with
an inscription. It was heavy and he carried it on his back to his house with an intention of selling
it to an antique dealer. However, within 3 days skin of his back started to rot, and after an advice
from an edura (faith healer), he took the stone back and dropped it in the forest. The wound
healed within 24 hours”. No villager ever went to that area and even today no one enter that
area. The truth of these folklores cannot be verified, but it indicates that there were marker
stones installed by a King named Udaya for a special purpose. This area may have had thick
forest cover and springs which fed one of the major weva (name of the area will be disclosed
only to an academic researcher to prevent vandals entering the area).

The illegal tree cutting was punished in various ways in the ancient kingdom.

“ illegal cutting of trees were punished by a fine or cutting and repairing an area equal
to about 48 cubic meters of weva”. Mihinthale Pillar Inscription, King Mihindu IV.

“ the palm, coconut, tamarind and Mee trees on Mihinthala hill should not be cut or
removed. The persons including the royal servants who break this law should be
punished by a fine and the income collected should be given to the temple” Mihinthala
Pillar Inscription, King Sena II, AD 853-887.

(However, unknowingly, it is in this forest area that the researcher found evidence of ancient
vegetation, but the reader has to remember that the researcher respects local folklore and has
received the blessings of the deity as instructed by the villagers, before entering the forest for
study).

16
The evidence from Mahawamsa and folk lore surrounding early kings indicate that there was
wev building by the rulers and their ministers and village leaders primarily for farming and
domestic uses. Observations made in the village areas of Anuradhapura indicate that there is a
massive conglomeration of small to medium sized rock ponds and ponds and larger ponds (may
have been small wev) with earthen dams in and around rock out crops and low hill ranges.

The short lived (between 2 to 3 weeks after a rainy period of 200 to 300 millimeters in 10 to 14
days) stream emerging from a large rocky outcrop (Left) and the pond (right) at the base of the
rocky outcrop, which retains water for about 2 to 3 months after rainy season. This is located on
the slopes of the Mihinthala Hill and the stream drains finally to Mihinthala weva.

These, may have supplied drinking and bathing water to the population. Today about 95 percent
of these water sources dry within about 2 months of the end of rain (average mean annual
rainfall 1400). Sometimes if the April rains (more than 200 millimeters between march last
week and End of April) come early these water sources are replenished and stay with water to
beginning of July. About 2 to 4 percent of these water sources remain with a very low amount of
water to the beginning of October rains as they have formed by using seepage from the hill side
or the rocky outcrop. It is evident that Gneiss (banded type) and Granulite (fractured) in rock
outcrops larger than half a square kilometer is able to sustain seepage for about 2 to 3 months
after end of rain. However, it is estimated that with about 1800 millimeters of mean annual
rainfall (estimates indicate that the mean annual rainfall was about 300 millimeters higher than
today) in the Rajarata Kingdom, more than 80 percent of these pond remained full for over 6
months or to the beginning of the next rainy season.

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The rock out crop where there are ruins of a naga temple, a big pond is located at the foot of the
hill. This pond retains clear water for an average of 6 months after the North east monsoon rain
ends (2005-2013). Then it’s water becomes murky and dirty, but herdsmen use it as a watering
point for animals. It has a maximum depth of 1.3 meters (2012 January). Life history records
indicate that this pond was a major pond used for bathing before NWSDB began operations in
the area.

This is a permanent pond at the bottom of the rock where the ancient naga temple was located.
Its deep and stay clear all year around. Life history records indicate that it has a folk lore linked
to King Pandukabhaya. People used it as a place to collect drinking water before the

18
establishment of NWSDB in the area. The depth was not recorded as the folklore said not to
enter the pond. The maximum drop of water level was about 40 centimeters from the overflow
level (between 2005 May to 2015 May).

The well cut pond which retains water for about 5 months after rains have ended and never run
dry though water level drop to about 20 centimeters from the spill level of about 1.6 meters.

The technological status of the ancient kingdom was sufficient to build large weirs and the
establishment of Minipe weir was conducted to supply extra water for farming towards the latter
period of the kingdom. However, no large settlements were not established on the flood plain of
Mahaweli river, as the flood levels were much higher than today. The estimates made in 1975
during a survey of probable sedimentation of Mahaweli reservoirs, the gravel flows and river
terraces between former Theldeniya town and present Rantambe reservoir indicated that the
flow levels of Mahaweli was about 5 to 6 meters higher during the period of ancient kingdom.
These higher flow levels can be related to forest cover and present dry valleys in the Nalanda-
Dambulla highland area, underlain by crystalline limestone. Small towns and village
settlements were established on the flood plains of Maduru Oya, Diyabana oya and Ulhitiya
oya. The valley of the Mahaweli was a path of retreat to Rohana during the periods of southern
Indian invasions and local insurrections in the ancient kingdom.

The terraces, remnants of gravel flows occurred about 1000 to 1500 years ago in the area
between present Victoria Dam and Rantembe Dam also support the contention that Mahaweli
valley area had higher flow levels.

The area of Rohana drained by Menik ganga, Walawe ganga and Kirindi oya basins have many
SMWs, which were built during the ancient kingdom period. However, density of wev in

19
Rohana is lower than in the Rajarata kingdom as Rohana was only regional state of the main
kingdom and geomorphology was not suitable for wev building like Rajarata area.

However, all the wev in Rajarata and Ruhuna cannot be filled by only a mean annual rainfall of
about 1800 to 2000, therefore it is evident that the springs have also contributed large quantities
of water. Dry valleys of upper catchment areas of Malwathu, Kala, Mee and Yan oya with
smaller perennial springs today had larger discharge as their highland catchment areas were
under permanent forest cover.

The spring in the upper Kala Oya on the basement complex crystalline
limestone. The dry valley below the spring indicate flow level of about 2 meters above
present.

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Spring in the middle Yan Oya valley, which according to folk lore was a very big spring and
was a major source of drinking water. Even today, it contains high quality drinking water.

Walawe and Menik ganga and Kirindi oya upper catchment areas also have areas which have
been wetlands located on the pediment area between the Southern plains and the Mountain
Ranges over 300 meters. Therefore, the wetter climate with about 300 to 400 millimeters of
higher rainfall originating from a regular monsoon cycle, supported by larger springs and a
dense highland forest cover enabled the Ancient civilization to build as many wev as they
needed.

There is a global change of climate noted by Bryant (1997) from around AD 600, which made
the monsoon cycle irregular. As indicated by flood levels of Nile River, as the monsoon cycle
became irregular there was a reduction in the water supply. This affected the rainfall of the
south Asian region and Sri Lanka. Towards the end of Anuradhapura period of the ancient
Rajarata kingdom there is an increase in edicts on water use and forest conservation, which can
be explained as indicative of reduction of rainfall.

The internal strife (AD 620 to 680) also increased and south Indian invasions began to occur
frequently. However, the kingdom managed to survive due to the irrigation facilities laid down

21
by the great kings of the past. Finally the massive invasion around AD 992 led to the
abandonment of Anuradhapura.

2.2.1Climate of the Ancient Rajarata Kingdom compared with the global climatic regime

AD 65 – 109 King Vasabha

AD 51 to AD68 rainfall below normal and required more wev building in

Anuradhapura for increasing population?

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 AD 275 – 301 King Mahasen

Rain fall below normal from AD274 to AD297 and much below normal by
AD285, new areas of settlement and wev building in the eastern area in and
around Yan OYa and Kanadara Oya (weli Oya). The drift to the east in wev
building, may be to expand the kingdom and to increase irrigable lands by
capturing new water sources.

23
King Upathissa I (AD 365 to 406) conducted major repairs to the wev system,
as he understood the short cycle droughts?

AD 459 -477 King Dhathusena

Rainfall below normal and short cycle fluctuations from AD450 to AD474 wev
building in the another newly developed area. Movement to Kala OYa valley

AD 531-551
Mugalan II

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Mainly Below normal rainfall from AD 500 to AD 530 and wev building.
Mugalan II added Nachchaduwa weva to supplement the increased population at
Anuradhapura as he may have noticed the dry years before him.

AD 575-608 Agbo I

Mainly below normal rainfall from AD 550 to AD 587 and wev

building

AD 608-
618 Agbo
II

AD 590 to AD 610 mainly below normal and wev building

25
AD 625 to 700 highly fluctuating mainly below normal rainfall

26
 AD 820 to 890 highly fluctuating mainly below normal rainfall. King
Sena II (AD 853 to 887) constructed a canal to Mahakanadarawa, may
be to capture more water as dryness was understood?

“ the palm, coconut, tamarind and Mee trees on Mihinthala hill should not be cut or
removed. The persons including the royal servants who break this law should be
punished by a fine and the income collected should be given to the temple” Mihinthala

27
 Pillar Inscription, King Sena II, AD 853-887 (was this to conserve more intensely as
dryness was understood well?).
UdayaII (AD 887 to 898) constructed a 22 kilometer canal from Walawe to Pandikkulam
indicating a shift to the east in the Rohana Kingdom. He further made an extension to Jaya
ganga Maha Vilachchiya weva, indicating dryness or increased population in the area?

AD 950 to 985 highly fluctuating mainly below normal rainfall

.
The technology of water management was the core of the success of the kingdom.

“ The sluice of Tissa weva should be closed nine days after harvest in the fields of
Isurumuniya and allow it to fill again. Then the remaining water can be released first to
the temple and surrounding area and any excess water should be released to Malwathu
Ela. In addition the land belonging to the temple should not be taken over by anyone.”
Wessagiriya Inscription, Mihindu IV, 956-973.

“ illegal cutting of trees were punished by a fine or cutting and repairing an area equal
to about 18 cubic meters of weva”. Mihinthale Pillar Inscription, King Mihindu IV
(these edicts to conserve mre intensely as the dryness was understood well?) .

28
 AD 1070-1170 Vijayabahu I

From around AD 1045 rainfall was below normal to around AD

1067. Was this prompted Vijayabahu to conduct reapirs and build
more wev and canals?

29
 AD 1187-1197
King
Nissankamalla

AD 1153-1186 King Parakramabahu I

Mainly below normal and highly fluctuating rainfall between

1155 to 1200. Building –largest weva was constructed as
population was highly concentrated due to foreign invasions and
internal strife or dryness has forced to construct large reservoirs.

2.2.2 Large Wev( Tank) and ela (canal) building and expansion of the kingdom

Major wev building was aimed at provision of water for growing population and extension of
the kingdom by the establishment of regional city states. The expansion of the kingdom was
conducted with search of areas with reliable supply of water.

30
Major wevs are located after a detailed study of the catchment and capacity of water and
availability of a site suitable for placing the bund. All major wevs have their bunds
pressured against a ridge of stable bedrock or a rock outcrop. Nachchaduwa and
Mahakanadarawa are clearly pressured aginst ridges of stable bed rock, following the
strike of wanni gneiss complex (strike shown in orange lines). The bund is arched aginst
a primary thulweg (Blue line). Nuwara weva has no direct link to its thulweg as its
thulweg was already under control as it received water by diversion at its head water,
therefore controlling the feeder process its thulweg could be controlled.

31
Not only the SMWs and major tanks were constructed with an excellent understanding
on the value of geology and construction techniques, even the ponds were located
following a high standard of understanding of geology. Majority of the ponds are
aligned to the strike of the basement rock facilitating the capture of seepage on the dip
of the rock strata.

After building wev around the capital area in Anuradhapura around AD 70 under King Vasabha
(AD 65 – 119), first inter-basin transfer was conducted, with the construction of Elahera ela
from Aamban ganga. Then after about 450 years since the establishment of the Rajarata
Kingdom, he expanded the irrigation to west by building Mahavilachchiya weva. In addition it
is recorded that he built 11 tanks and 12 canals. These constructions were needed to manage
drought and provide water supply to the expanding kingdom and population. The selection of

32
Amabna ganaga was a result of information on its reliability, which may have been gathered for
a long period by the gem miners working in that area.

Then about 300 years after and 700 years after the establishment of the Rajarata Kingdom
Mahasen made a massive attempt to provide water for the growing population by building
Minneriya in the east, reengineering Elahera Yodha ela to increase capacity, Hurulu and
Kaudulla wevas. Then there was a need to make an extra supply to the growing population in
the Weli Oya branch of Malwathu oya, where he built Mahakanadarawa weva.

Mugalan II (531 – 551) built Padaviya to expand the kingdom towards north east and
Nachchaduwa to supply growing population in the middle malwathu Oya. This wev building
occurred about 850years after the establishment of the Rajarata Kingdom.

It is clear that between 70 AD and 600 AD, large wev building, became necessary and the
interval between big wev building became narrow (Table 1).

Agbo I and II added another large set of large wev and ela to this magnificent formation of
reservoirs of the Ancient Kingdom.

The reduction of interval in large wev construction is mainly due to increase in population and
lack of sufficient storage in small and medium sized tanks ( about 60,000 to 70,000). The low
storage capacity of the medium and small sized tanks may be linked to changing environment
where reduction of forests leading to loss of springs.

Ellangawa (wev cascade) is one of the best systems of water storage, flood and flash flood
management and catering to special local needs. It has the capacity to:

1. Manage rapid flow originating from rocky outcrop type hills

2. Manage flow during high intensity storms
3. Managed with local populace as their bunds required no special knowledge of
construction. Their thulwegs were short and did not produce turbulent flow

33
In an investigation of the density, it was found that, highest number of ellangawa is associated
with areas:

1. There is high density of low ridges mainly composed of rocky outcrops and flat
bottomed valleys
2. Major food producing large flat bottomed valleys where large wev could not be located
as large alluvial basin is submerged
3. Closer to the capital or large peripheral settlements

However, a marked decrease in mean annual rainfall and long dry periods or short periods of
management failure can lead to sedimentation and overgrowth of vegetation in small and
medium sized wev, making them insufficient for the purpose they are built ( like today in Sri
Lanka all small and medium sized wev are encroached by man, which have destroyed the
purpose of ellangawa and the weva). In addition, the small and medium sized wev can be easily
destroyed by advancing invaders (20 minor and 8 major in the Anuradhapura period) or regional
insurrections ( about 40 in the Anuradhapura period) against the kingdom.

Table 2.1 Progress in large wev building

Time and King Years (approximate) Interval in
after the establishment years
of the Rajarata
Kingdom
AD 65-109 Vasabha 450 450
AD 275-301 Mahasen 700 250
AD 459-477 Dathusena 800 100
AD 531-551 Mugalan II 850 150
AD 575-608 Agbo I 900 50
AD 608-618 Agbo II 920 20
AD1070-1110 Vijayabahu I 1400 500
AD1153-1186 Parakramabahu I 1400 500
AD1187-1197 Nissankamalla 1450 500

Therefore water shortage and flood were the norm of the Rajarata civilization as in all other
ancient civilisations. The ability to continue the supply of water decided the fate of the
civilization. The primary load of the economic prosperity was carried by the large wev, which
produced the surplus of food and provide water for the city state.

34
The large wev and canal systems were located mainly for

1. Irrigation and food production

2. The construction of peripheral systems was built as a support for retreating and
advancing armies. The value of peripheral irrigation systems were first understood from
the experiences gained on the Dhutugemunu war campaign, in which he has to send
forward regiments to establish the food base for an army of about 60,000.

The utilization of the rivers in the uninhabited mountain area (first Amban Ganga and then
Mahaweli ganaga) extension of city state to all directions by building large wev units and
extension and reengineering of ela (canals) in the Anuradhapura period indicate that the
environmental management planners had the knowledge and ability to implement a master plan
of survival in the civilization without any foreign help. This was attained by a strict governance
by most of the rulers though a fair number of them had to utilse insurrection or inter dynastical
wars to become the ruler. About half of the life time of Anuradhapura Rajarata civilization was
in chaos due to inter dynastical wars and insurrections, and populace may have been subjected
to displacement and misery. However, the “Ksathriyas” ( the ruling class of Rajrarata) had an
excellent capacity to survive and rebuild the kingdom many times (about 4 times). It is because
their national Strategic Development Plan was one of a kind.

The historical sources have not much information on the famines and droughts of the
Anuradhapura period of Rajarata civilization, indicating wev construction made life stable.
However, there were about 3 to 4 famines and 3,4 and 5 year drought cycles were common.
161BC, 103 BC, AD 37, AD 138 and AD 560 are recorded as times of serious droughts.

First notification of a serious drought appears in Mahawamsa from 161 BC to 137 BC, that is
during the reign of Dhutugemunu. The great famine (baminitiya saya) occurred during the
period of retreat by King Vattagamini Abhaya (Valagambahu - BC 103 to 89) against the attack
and occupation of Anuradhapura by Tamil forces. Both these have occurred before the
construction of large wev in the periphery of Anuradhapura. The effect of those droughts may
have led to learn larger wev building and inter basin water transfer in the middle and latter part
of the Rajarata kingdom. However, two above mentioned drought and famine have a link to
foreign invasions, which may have resulted in destruction of the irrigation system and people

35
fleeing to the periphery, which had no support of irrigation at this early period of the Rajarata
kingdom.

After 103 the next drought occurred about 100 years later (AD 37) and the next another 100
years later (AD 138). The 100 year drought and flood are recorded in myth and also in the
modern day climatic cycles.

Dry periods of 5,10,15,20 occurred to end of Anuradhapura period in mostly long waves

From around 1065 short cycles of 2, 3 and five years entered the pattern

2.2.2 Small and Medium sized Weva (SMWs)

A detailed study of the location, size and storage capacity of 100 small and medium sized
(SMW) wev revealed the following

The names of the SMWs, indicate that topography of the location, local resource base
(suitability for a special food or medicinal plant, clay, sand, gravel, stones, special vegetation,
special animals, caves, a temple , a well known person (arhat, monk, teacher, craftsman, hero)
place of scenic beauty etc. may have been the reason for the construction.

Local resource base was very important to a civilization based on organic matter for its food
(staple, other types (tubers, leaves, fruits and spices) construction (clay, gravel stones, wood,
leaves) religious purposes (flowers, incense, oils), animal rearing (hides, bones for gums, sinew
for binding) preparation of medicines (oils, pastes, mixtures). The officers and workers in
charge of the supply chain have to travel to places where their product was available in a
particular time when it is available, sometimes part of the party has to stay and attend to the
forest and animals, partly prepare the product before transport (drying or smoking). Therefore,
maintaining the supply chain was a massive enterprise, which had to be primarily supported by
a good supply of water as most of the collection and preparation of organic material was
conducted in the dry periods.

In the preapration for war people and officers have to collect massive amounts of material. For
example the folklore says “when Gemunu (Dhutugemunu) was on his way to conquer Rajarata,

36
they rested at Mahiyangana to collect food and other requirements. He was accompanied by his
ten strong men. These ten men had the habit of hunting when they had free time. In that free
time they went hunting in the present Horabora weva area, and in their leisure after hunting they
constructed the weva. As they wanted it to be a secret to Gamini, they covered their stories of
leisure with lies. As the wev was constructed in secrecy ( Secrecy is Horen in Sinhala) and
without telling the truth to Gamini (Boru is for lying in Sinhala), the weva is named Sorabora
weva. (Horen Boruwen constructed weva = Horabora weva= later the sound change to
Sorabora weva). In this war campaign Gamini sent forward units to farm and store food and
some of the SMWs in the Maduru Oya catchment were constructed by them.

Bulnkulama weva at Mihinthale is a Vvihara Vapi or weva of the temple. It is constructed with
the aim of supplying water to about 5000 sangha and annual pilgrimage (may have been around
a million as Anuradhapura city and it environment may have had about minimum population of
3,000,000.

Most of the SMWs are named by the builder and the surrounding area is identified with the
same name. however, folklore indicates that when the name of SMW is related to construction
method (Galenbindunuweva) names of trees (Palugasweva, Siyambalagasweva, Halmillewa,
Unagasweva, Konweva, Kolongasweva, Mailagasweva, Thimbiriweva, Rathmalgahaweva) , the
tree was in abundance in the area and a settlement was established to collect the produce and a
SMW built. When, a SMW is to be constructed and when the engineers or the builder is met
with a group of animals in the land or in caves around the area, they have named the weva
accordingly. Some SMW are associated with the builders official position, local deity
(Yakadadutuweva).

1. They were constructed mainly by local leadership, private individuals and regional
princes
2. Their primary purpose varied with their location: drinking water, farming community
for staple food production, farming community for non-staple food production, animal
husbandry, support a temple and pilgrims, support an industry (pottery, brick making,
wood work, stone work, herbal gardens and medicinal products preparation), growth of
special types of valuable timber (ebony, satin wood) etc. etc
3. Temporary hide-outs when in retreat from advancing armies

37
Expansion of the SMW were determined by various factors

1. In and around the city, they were built to provide drinking water, royal ( recreation) and
state needs (army camps) and recreation for general public
2. When they were built in isolation they may have been used by army on watch along
main trade routes and mining
3. When they were build in the periphery of cities it was the special need for their location
4. Sometimes, when the ruler on retreat facing an enemy force, these were built for
temporary use, but remained as some of the accompanying people may settle there to
keep it as a place for future retreat.
5. Over population of the settlement and at times of internal strife some people with their
kith and kin may have migrated far away from the settled area (the occurrence of the
same name in different parts of the area indicate some idea about their connection).

Location s SMWs indicate they were constructed on requirement and not on any master
plan. However, the availability of water, springs and suitability for the purpose was
paramount. There is high denisty of SMWs in and around hills with rocky outcrops and
decreas on the plain surface. However, the bunds are safely pressured against the bed
rock strike or to non-porus highground. All the wev bunds had the arch shape, with
different angular positions adjusted to the location. Most of them are open arch type but
38
there were acute aches in some places. Wev and ela were maintained well and cleaned
regularly.

Keeping stable weva through community labour

“ illegal cutting of trees were punished by a fine or cutting and repairing an area equal to about
18 cubic meters of weva”. Mihinthale Pillar Inscription, King Mihindu IV.

Preserving the major water supply point to Mihinthale vihara weva

“ the palm, coconut, tamarind and Mee trees on Mihinthala hill should not be cut or removed.
The persons including the royal servants who break this law should be punished by a fine and
the income collected should be given to the temple” Mihinthale Pillar Inscription, King Sena II,
AD 853-887.

Irrigation management under constant watch

“ The sluice of Tissa weva should be closed nine days after harvest in the fields of Isurumuniya
and allow it to fill again. Then the remaining water can be released first to the temple and
surrounding area and any excess water should be released to Malwathu Ela. In addition the land
belonging to the temple should not be taken over by anyone.”
Wessagiriya Inscription, Mihindu IV, 956-973.

“ 2 Aka (an older currency) was fined for flooding of paddy fields (over use of water), before
ploughing (there was a set standard for ploughing). If ploughing was not done correctly the
person at fault was fined with one Kalang of gold. If the ploughing was not done as prescribed
the person at fault was fined 5 kalangs of gold.”

About 70,000 SMWs are a result of

1. Climate change in one sector and search of new areas with

more spring water

2. Special needs

3. Internal strife and change of allegiance may drift people to

new areas

4. Regional rulers attempts to provide more land for farming,

sometimes to understand the process of wev building

39
Non-random distribution indicates

1. Established for requirement

2. Established by all types of leaders, village, regional,

wealthy, king

3. Established for experiment

Small and medium sized wev and climate

Small and medium sized wev is a product of climate. It was first built, where there was
sufficient flow and spring capacity, which was decided by the prevailing climate. The total
number of SMWs indicate that the climate of the ancient Rajarata kingdom was much higher
than today. It is possible to agree with Bryant (1997) and decide that mean annual rainfall was
about 300 millimeters higher at the time of ancient Rajarata kingdom, when the monsoon cycle
was fully active. The observations made between 2015 may and 2015 may in the dry zone of Sri
Lanka indicate that the full capacity of the SMW system was attained only in a year where mean
annual rainfall reached the level of 1700 millimeters (but at present about 90 percent of SMWs
reach spill level with about 800 millimeters as they are heavily sedimented (about 80 percent of
them have only about half the original capacity and the rest 20 percent has less than 20 percent
of original capacity). Therefore, SMWs have no capacity to fulfill the original responsibility of
managing the spring levels, water supply, prevent flooding and store sufficient water even for
one season, if the January rains fail.

On 25 field visits to 64 SMWs, on November, 2010 it was clear that SMW’s are filled after 42
percent of the rainfall and all the farmers indicated that the SMWs are filled, because they are
heavily filled with sediments and the upper reach (thawulla) and sides are filled by various
groups of people (elitist as they said). Therefore, 34 percent said that water will be just enough
for farming , 60 percent said if January rains fail there will be a shortage of water and 16
percent were not able to evaluate the situation.

40
A middle part of a SMW, where the swan can walk (about 5 centimeters of water. In reality as
the bed profile indicate that this spot should have about 40 centimeters of water. Therefore,
there is about 38 centimeters of sediments at the spot shown.

After a rainstorm of 91 millimeters the flow full of sediments entering a SMW

(sediments in orange colour – red arrow)

Therefore it is confirmed that SMWs are an indicator of the climate of the Rajarata Kingdom
and capability of the Rajarata civilization in the process of flood and drought management.

41
However, the present distribution is mainly a result of over population, water supply and special
needs of the economy of the kingdom.

Chapter 3

From the end of Ancient Rajarata Kingdom to 1500

Evidences from the Nilometer, indicate a dry period towards the end of the Rajarata
Kingdom to AD 1300.

42
The short cycle variation began dominating the climate. Though the climate became wetter than
before AD 1300, it never was the more reliable climatewhich existaed in the early and middle
part of the Rajarata Kingdom. As the Nilomter indicate there was slight increase in rainfall from
AD 13oo to AD 1500, with the rainfall fluctuating closer to normal or average levels. Therefore,
in Dambadeni and Kurunegala Kingdoms, there was a slightly lower rainfall than in the early
wet periods, which suited paddy cultivation.

The many SMWs in the Dambadeni and Kurunegala kingdoms may have been built to adjust to
a constant occurrence of a dry period. The SMWs in the Kotte kingdom also indicate that there
was a definite dry period and brine water wetlands were unable to provide clean water to the
populace.

It is evident that the climate has constantly fluctuated without famines, but there occurred some
dry years, which made water storage a strategic activity from the beginning of the ancient to the
end of Kotte Kingdom.

However, the user system was planned and maintained well, only to be disturbed, damaged or
destroyed by foreign invasions and internal strife. The little evidence available in the records
and folk lore indicate that kingdoms of the period between BC 250 to AD 1500 were
knowledgeable of the climate change and made scientific planning adjustments to avoid famine.

The success of the Rajarata kingdom and its survival against droughts, floods, internal strife,
massive south Indian invasions and massive war campaigns against the invader depended on its

43
technical organization. The ruins at Ritigala, Ridee vihara and many institutional buildings in
the capital of the kingdom indicate that there was a highly innovative group of technicians
continuously engaged in the search of new methodology and applications.

This group consists of engineers (shilpa), doctors (veda) and priests (sangha) working in unison
to solve problems related to development and advising the king. This group may have stayed as
an independent group at times of internal strife supporting the order of the knights (Ksathriya),
which helped the civilization to recover and re-build. At times of preparation for war against an
invader they supported the strongest knight (Ksathriya) with knowledge. This type of group will
always have regional or sometimes global (the world of that time may have extended to India,
south east Asia and probably China) connections and may have received new technologies from
their foreign counterparts (in South India or another distant places). Further, historical evidences
indicate that some of these technical people were living in the kingdom and there was a system
of technical exchange between the regional and global systems.

Ritigal in myth is related to mighty powers of Hindu Gods in battle against Ravana, Ravana
using it as a launching pad for his airplane (Dandu Monara) and God Hanuman carrying a piece
of Himalaya with special medicinal herbs to cure badly wounded God Lakshaman. However, it
is an isolated hill range with an average elevation of about 400 meters with a peak height of 766
meters. Origin of the hill range may be linked to Jurassic fault activity in Sri Lankan land mass.
Ritigala was sanctuary first and then a monastery, which may have received its name from the
meaning sanctuary (ariththa) or the tall trees Riti (Antiaris toxicaria) which grows straight into
an average height of about 30 meters.

It is mentioned in Mahawamsa in attachment to Pandukabhaya (377-307 BC), King

Dutugemunu (161-137 BC), King Lanji Tissa (119 – 109 BC), King Jetthatissa in the seventh
century and King Sena I (846-866 AD) made it a monastery. The ruins at Ritigala indicate that it
was a well managed unit for retreat of the kings and equipped with medicine and basic items for
recuperation. Further, it may have been a place of a training ground for recruits of the additional
armed force personnel require for the recapturing the capital of the kingdom and arms
manufacturing before it became a monastery. It is the belief of the author that Ritigal was a
research and development unit hidden in the safety of the isolated mountain range which can be
defended well by Special Forces guarding the king. It special nature provides itself with

44
perennial springs, sufficient material for experiments on constructions and preparation of
medicines and other types of mixtures.

Ridee vihara, where King Dhutugemunu found silver to be used in the basement construction of
the Ruwanweliseya may have been another place of technical importance into Polonnaruwa
period.

The long range climatic data has no evidences for a drastic change in climate at the time of
invasion and rule of Kalingha Magha or the shift of kingdom to Dambadeniya. However, it was
wetter than the period before 1200.

The damaging rule of Kalinga Magha may have led the group of engineers (shilpa), doctors
(veda) and priests (sangha) to leave or go into hiding in fear of persecution. As given in
historical notes Kalingha Magha rule was violent and repressive and his programme of pillage
has destroyed the constructions of the Rajarata kingdom. The wev system was a based on
regular maintenance and constant infusion of technical advice. Damaged wev system may have
resulted in famine and if Kalinga Magha was so notorious large number of people may have
perished in the battles and repression. Loss of ecological balance of the engineered landscape
of the Rajarata kingdom may have led to spread f mosquito-borne and helminthes diseases. The
massive drift to the south therefore was not due to climatic change, but a result of non-
availability of a technical structure to prevent the damages arising from any change in climatic
regime and develop.

45
Chapter 4

1500 AD to 2018 AD

Time between 1500 AD and AD 1700 the climate was similar to the period between 1300 and
1500. Around 1600 AD pattern changed with many years of above normal temperatures and
rainfall, which continued to around 1700 AD.

The record of war campaigns by Portuguese and Dutch indicate rainy wet environments in and
around Kandyan kingdom and the presence of malaria. Presence of malaria indicates a definite
dry period, which denotes a more regular monsoon cycle. This pattern continued to about 1800
enabling Dutch to have a very successful cultivation of cinnamon.

46
From around 1800 the pattern became dotted with few years of above average and few years of
below average rainfall and temperatures. Mainly it was a pattern of 5 year fluctuating cycles.
This pattern has some similarity with the present pattern of rainfall in Sri Lanka.

47
From 1900 AD to 1935 AD, temperatures stayed much below normal indicating a cool period of
climate with mostly average rainfall. This is time of establishment of plantations in Sri Lanka.
Whole of hill country was suitable for the growth of tea, rubber, cocoa, black pepper, cloves,
nutmeg and cardamom. Presently warm eastern hill region of Sri lanka was also readily
cultivated with tea and rubber during this period. based on the record it is clear the climate was
wet and cool, with a regular monsoon cycle. However, 5 and 10 years droughts and flood were
well engraved in this regular climate.

48
This climatic pattern continued to about 1990 with slowly increasing temperatures. By year
2000 temperatures increased rapidly with increased variability in rainfall. The 3,5 and 10 year
droughts and 5 and 10 year floods remained as a common feature of the climate.

49
In the dry zone the effect of drought was increasing and large scale inter basin water transfer
began with the Accelerated Mahaweli Project. Research on incoming effects of climatic change
was published and the public authorities were advised to take measures of management and
mitigation.

Population increase became an important issue related to climate change and rural urban
migrations began by 2000. About 20 percent of these migrants were farmers and farmer
labourers, who have changed their occupation due to effect of increasing dryness, which
increased the uncertainty of their harvest. Farming, was becoming a high risk occupation due to
changing nature and pattern of rainfall resulting from failure in the monsoon cycle.

Climatic change and related social problems have been studied by many and Sri Lanka is yet to
construct a Strategic Development Plan for the nation to avoid climate related hazards and
disasters. Since 2000 there is a constant increase in drought and flood damage, with increased
numbers of fatalities. It is evident that the national economy is seriously affected and famine is
avoided only with the help of large scale food imports.

50
The large scale inter basin transfer system has failed to prevent the effects of 2016 to 2018
drought of the dry zone.

Future

The above graph indicates the trend of rainfall in the dry zone of Sri Lanka calculated in 2007
(Seneviratne, 2007). It has clearly predicted the 206 -2018 drought, but the audience at the
seminar in 2007 were not willing to accept the fact that a major drought is coming. A senior
administrator commented quietly after the seminar to one of his associates, which was
overheard by an academic “ it is a ploy to get more funds for research which will benefit you
(university academics). Seneviratne (1975, 1977, 1991, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010 and 2018) and
many others in Sri Lanka have indicated the effect of climate change and I am sad today as I
have seen the suffering of the farmers between 2016 and 2018 and some farmers who
committed suicide after the loss of investment. The above type administrators in policy making
prevent planning for future for SMWs and dry zone farmer.

51
On the basis of present general irrigation policy, wev have become a unit of irrigation, which is
not properly managed and prepared for its place in the future civilization of Sri Lanka. Most of
the SMWs are in the process of conversion into rainy period reservoirs and abandoned land in
the dry season. Field investigations revealed that only about 14 percent of SMWs are capable of
any form of water supply to the community, unless fed by a inter basin transfer. 2016 – 2018
drought indicated that even inter basin transfer is not a fully reliable source as the basin system
of the central highlands are subjected to low rainfall. The water has become polluted and
people around the SMWs cannot use them for any purpose other than non-domestic uses. In
some areas, people construct wells to irrigate a secondary crop or obtain water for construction,
vehicle washing and garden watering. The field work indicates that none of the 56 villages
surveyed use wev water for drinking. In the survey area 6 wev were utilized by the NWSDB to
supply water after purification, but only 21 percent of the recipients used the NWSDB water for
drinking. 34 percent utilized it after filtration at home (filters provided or bought in the
programme to control renal failure), 45 percent utilized NWSDB water for domestic purposes
other than drinking. Within the 45 percent who used NWSDB water for domestic purposes 17
percent utilized bottled drinking water supplied by the trade and 28 percent utilized water from
a well nearby which is recommended as chloride free.

34 percent of the farmers indicate that cleaned weva supports a more stable water source for
farming in the Maha season and some vegetable or pulse farming in the early part of the dry
season. 29 percent said that the cleaned weva and ela has increased the ground water capacity
and wells were more stable. 18 percent said that the cleaned weva has provided a place of
recreation for the young as a bathing spot during the rainy season. 89 percent of the farmers
indicate that most of the time the weva cleaning is required regularly, if the population is to
benefit from cleaning. 76 percent were of the view that SMWs have to be managed by the
farmer committees, with the advice from government.

This book has come to an end. Tomorrow if the the ancient wev builders visit wev they
have constructed in the ancient times, they will definitely ask the following question.

“With all the technology available, why these present people are keeping the wev in this
dilapidated condition and destroying them. We designed them to our climatic regime;

52
don’t they understand that the water supply changes with climate and increasing
population?”

Today, the view of modern policy makers is that wev cannot be cleaned, reengineered or
redesigned and they just blame their citizenery for wrong doings, but all wev upper
reaches are damaged by citizenery with construction permits issued by the public
authorities.

53
Chapter 5

New Reality: Population, Governance and Society

Developing World is overpopulated

Developed world has managed its population and grow at a rate they can provide
planning and limit the effect of changed climate and associated disasters. The nations
which have achieved the highest resilience to climate change like Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria and Singapore have the following
characteristics.
1. Population management
2. Economic diversification through use of all available technological adaptations
and local resource use
3. Excellent governance through lowest possible level of corruption

Developing world is heavily overpopulated, due to lack of modernization and belief in

tribal ideas and corrupt governance the effect of changed climate and associated
disasters increases on an annual basis. By 2018 it is clear that the political leadership of
the developing world and in Sri Lanka is unable to plan for the changed climate.
Developing world is unable to plan properly for the rising population as there is no will
to plan its population and infrastructure. They have

1. Unlimited growth of population by hanging on to some belief systems which

emanate from poor understanding of their religious or cultural philosophies
2. Dependence on imported economic philosophies which enrich
commercialization of economies without making an attempt to utilise local
resources
4. Governance by foolish leadership which has linked them to political power
based on feudal family or political party and engage in highest possible level of
corruption. This governance system has made the populace of these nations to be

54
 a set of fools, which think personnel wealth collection is the way to
development.

Therefore, people in people of the developing world face many disasters including the
effect of changed climate and associated disasters. These people live on marginal areas
because they are fertile or they are attached to the ancestry. They will stay in the same
areas of risk as they have no safe place to go to earn a decent living. When subjected to
the effect of changed climate and associated disasters they survive with immediate help
from emergency relief and then they receive some help to rehabilitate from the
government. Government, have no definite plan for the areas as it is extremely
expensive to provide alternate areas and it is cheaper to provide relief and rehabilitation
assistance. Government, media and NGO’s will indicate the damage and loss of life as
unfortunate and forget it soon. It is the cycle corruption and poverty which increases the
disaster vulnerability.

It is evident that the changed climate has played a major role in the destruction of all the
past civilizations and will play a definitive role in the destruction of the modern
civilization.

Variability found with climatic data of the 20th and 21st centuries (see Seneviratne,
2005 and 2007 for details)

In the Wet Zone

Monsoon cycle is weaker than before
Approach of South West monsoon is mostly delayed and bifurcates into 2 or 3 branches
The cloud system is different from monsoonal, but has a potential of higher intensity
rainfall

In the Dry zone

East and south of Anuradhapura wetter for few years as SW monsoon bifurcate
North east monsoon is weaker than before
West of Anuradhapura wetter in years of more depression activity in Bay of Bengal
North of Anuradhapura wetter when more cyclonic and thunderstorm activity

Cloud approaches and rain – as given in folk lore, by elders and observed between 2005
and 2015

55
Reliable rainfall line from Kebithigollewa, Horowpothana to Anuradhapura
Another from Puttalam, Nochchiyagama to Anuradhapura
Another from Nikeweratiya to Kekirawa
Thunderstorm lines drifting from Knuckles to Nalanda –Dambulla ridge and to
Kekirawa to Horowpothana to Mihinthale and Anuradhapura
Heavy cloud collisions and massive lightning strikes occur when massive multi-cell
cumulus clouds converge together on Mihinthale from South East and North East. The
2006 Mini Tornado and massive strikes of lightning occur during those convergences.

Case of Sri Lanka

Case of Sri Lanka is identified as “Fools of Paradise” in this submission, because the
leadership and people of Sri Lanka give the name “paradise island” to Sri Lanka in their
commercial identification of Sri Lanka. Therefore in the past 60 year history of Sri
Lanka, it had failed to plan properly and implements the plans constructed properly. By
2018 Sri Lanka became one of the worst affected nations by climate related disasters
though past and present governments have introduced plans to change the country like
“country forward” (rata perata), “new country” (aluth ratak).

A Nation Saving Plan (major items only)

The understanding

There is no permanence in the global environment. It is ever changing and ever

evolving. We live in a living planet.

56
The rulers, policy makers and administrators have not managed to provide sustainable
solutions to since the population of Sri Lanka passed the 10 million mark in the 1980s.
2015 -2017 drought indicated all the programmes conducted by governments from 1970
to today be unable to maintain the minimum required water quantity for survival rate of
farming in the dry and intermediate zones of Sri Lanka and drought relief were given to
about 2 million people. However, the government between 1970 and today have
obtained loans amounting to about 200 billion US dollars on the pretext of trans-basin
water transfer or rehabilitation of tank system etc. etc., making Sri Lanka one of the
most indebted countries in the world. It is clear that all policies of all the governments
have failed and as the respondents have named the Accelerated Mahaweli Development
Programme (in Sinhala Mahaweli Sanwardhana Mandalaya, abbrivated MSM = people
translated the sounds of MSM to Maha Salli Mankollaya, - Great Cash Robbery in
English) as a programme which wasted valuable dollar loans.

The policy makers must accept the following:

Sri Lanka is over populated and a programme of limiting the growth of population has
to begin immediately

We are in a changed climate; rainfall is reduced by about a mean of 300 millimeters to

annually between 300 and 500 millimeters in the dry and intermediate zones from the
required amount in the last 30 year period.

Upper reaches of the rivers, from where water for trans-basin water transfer is obtained
record a changed climate with 30 to 40 percent reduction in rainfall.

Increased population from 11 million in the 1980s to 23 million today has doubled the
water requirement.

Forest cover has recorded a drop of 30 percent since 1980 and most of the forest areas
are utilized for illegal logging and mining activities making their actual presence to
below 20 percent of the coverage of 1980s.

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Politicians, experts and people in water related activities have not accepted the fact that
climate has changed and indicate that, it is the “they” who waste water, “they” cut the
forest, “they” do the mining, “they” encroach.

Politicians and experts are in the cities, mostly within air conditioned environment,
drinking quality bottled water, visiting the affected areas in luxury. People have become
helpless within inefficient and corrupt governance and depend on and beg for relief.
When people beg for relief, the politicians and experts beg for US dollar loans and aid
to provide relief. Then after rains have stabilized all is forgotten and politicians and
experts will go to town and in to their air conditioned living. People stay in village,
farming, cutting fire wood, encroaching on reservations and indicating that “they” waste
water, “they” cut the forest, “they” do the mining, “they” encroach, always thinking
“they” as problem. People continue to collect fire wood for consumption and sell,
timber for consumption and sell, encroach on forest to cultivate auxiliary crops to
supplement their income, engage in part time or full time employment in the towns
nearby, migrate to other larger urban areas and migrate to employment abroad to
survive and live.

The senior officials working in the dry zone, travel from Colombo or Kandy to their
offices in the dry zone (or anywhere), mostly on Tuesday and reach their destinations by
mid day and return to Kandy or Colombo by Thursday evening. Most of the field
officers of agriculture, forestry, wild life, irrigation (the saviours of the farmer) reside in
local towns and visit when required or in response to a media report. Farmer gets
regular visits from micro-finance companies or “local loan giver”, as the farmer is in
debt to survive and complain “they” (governance) are responsible for their problems”.
For the last 50 years, media have reported the difficulties encountered by farmers,
though every government has indicated “they” will solve the problem, but “they” have
not. This is because “they do not want to, as long as they can keep the farmer poor, they
can bargain for their vote”, a farmer who could not sell his paddy harvest properly to the
government stores, said over the TV. Another farmer said “they support large traders

58
who can store and sell after at a higher price or supply to middleclass supermarket
stores”. Any how the whole system of marketing of farm products is highly inefficient
and corrupt since the loss of honest leadership by 1980s. At present, the system has
reached an alarming level of corruption, that even the orders given by the President of
the nation are not followed properly. As some farmers said “even the President is
helpless within this highly corrupt system”.

Therefore,

We need a revolution in the way we manage, environment, farming, and marketing of

farm products. We can learn from Peoples Republic of China, but farmers, laborers,
small scale business people and other types of low income and poor people have to
unite to establish a political system where there will be lowest possible corruption as
none of the existing political parties have not to solved the problem.

Existing political party system is based on an ideology of developing self, family and
peers only and they cannot think of service to people. The membership of these parties
can be bought for money, by the two three major ‘diasporas’ of Sinhalese, Tamils and
Muslims. These Diasporas have their own extremists ideology of nationalism and have
no relevance to the farmer and the labourer, who build the nation. They have meetings
in western world they live and have parties, talk about financing the nationalist or
religious dreams. The local politicians need their help to hide their wealth abroad,
support their kith and kin who are living in the western countries and fund their political
goals. The Tamil Diaspora had massive amounts of money which they spent on
financing a separatist war, which killed about 50 thousand Tamil youth to achieve
nothing. Sinhala Diaspora is supporting extremist sinhal Buddhist ideologies which
attempt to divide the Sinhala nation. Muslims have not yet made a big offensive though
elements of terrorism are in the making. None of this has a future in Sri Lanka, until the
youth from farmers and labourers are ready to give their life to the soverignity of the
nation.

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In a survey of the northern conflict zone in 2000 the following declaration was made by
a youth from a farmer family on the reality of the situation.

“I and my elder brother joined armed forces as income from farming was not sufficient.
My elder brother died in an operation against LTTE. My mother says that I should
resign and come home as I am the only male sibling left in the family, but Sir, we have
to finish what we have begun, and otherwise this (LTTE) will continue to kill innocent
people of the border villages”.

Therefore, it is this group of people “ farmer and labourer boys” who keep the nation
ONE. The political parties or politicians of the so called democracy (demo – crazy),
have failed woefully and it is time the farmer, labourer and SME operator unite to form
a new force centered on village and town not on leadership of demo-crazy political
party.

Though politicians complain of lack of money, there is much money in circulation and
massive business system is in operation in Sri Lanka. Most of them boast that they have
begun from the low or middle income families, but today their wealth has reached
billions. How can this happen? This did not happen in the Ancient Rajarata Kingdom.
Until Kalinga Maga destroyed the irrigation system and the farmer organization,
Rajarata kingdom prospered for almost 2000 years.

Kings and people together, with the locality to be governed by people’s organization
with the support of the King on “help on need basis”, nation has constructed irrigation
works which have displaced about 3.24 million square kilometers of soil and rock
(about 50 times the total land area of the country) to build about 40 big tanks, 400
medium sized tanks, more than 50,000 small tanks, more than 400,000 large ponds,
more than 10,000 kilometers of canals, largest dagobas, stone sculptures and lived a life
without poverty. Today we can argue that they did not have modern comforts, but they
lived in a civilization, we are today proud of. The most important thing to remember is

60
that the climatic change did not destroy our ancient Rajarata civilization, but the internal
strife and lack of readiness for invasions.

The total defeat of the terror of LTTE, shows that once the training is given, the village
boys from farmer families can defeat any army which enters our nation. More than 90
percent of the soldiers died in the LTTE operation were boys from farmer families.
Most of the people died from bombings were from farming and labour families, who
travel on buses and trains and walk.

Other than for a handful of politicians, none of their kith and kin die from the LTTE
operations. Some of them even had no decency to accept our farmer boys can defeat
LTTE as one said “ they are going Medawachchi, not Killinochchi”, who was banished
by his own leader recently as the ‘karma” of laughing at the farmer boys, returned to
him with vengeance.

It is time this party politics woven around family inheritance and worship of power to
be thrown out and power to be distributed on a community basis among all the ethnic
and religious groups of Sri Lanka, if we are to survive the climate change and develop.

Then

As understood by the planners and technologists of the ancient Rajarata kingdom of Sri
Lanka, we have to accept that only innovative technological plans are able to provide an
environment to live in a changed climate.

As conducted by the Rajarata management system we have to continue to reengineer

our environment to live in a changed climate

For this to succeed:

Handover, the village to the farmer and their leader like during the Ancient Rajarata
kingdom. All related support systems have to be provided through the village and their

61
leader. Any inefficiency or corruption has to be punished like in the ancient Rajarata
kingdom laws. The majority of “they” will vanish and the people will remain.

What was like in the Ancient kingdom

1. Low density population – Rajarata kingdom was a city state. Out of a maximum
population of 8 million about 3 million lived in the Capital. First at
Anuradhapura and then in Polonnaruwa.

2. Another 3 million lived in the areas with large tanks. Dispersed settlement had
only a total of about 2 million.

3. Under major tanks extensive commercial agriculture was practiced to produce

grains of various types ( rainy season paddy, dry season pulses)

4. Small tanks were established for various purposes like special crops, craft
products and security. Special crops ( cotton, weaving materials etc.) varied with
the suitability of the area including medicinal plants. Forests around them
provided forest products like honey, fruits etc.. Some small tanks were
associated with production of cooking utensils, metal work, wood work, stone
work etc.

5. Weirs were built in principal area of mining to support mining and farming for
the mining community

6. Border areas around the major ports had settlements with armed forces units
with medium sized tanks to support the garrisons.

7. Hunting and gathering was practiced in the thick forests. Dried and smoked
meat was produced for consumption. Meat eating was part of the diet as
inscriptions indicate. Spices and special medicinal varieties were gathered from
thick forest by a specialized work force. These people lived in the areas closer to
forests and sometimes the deep forest activity was conducted by aboriginals
called “adivasi”.

Social order

Highly mobilized royalty, armed forces and population with edicts governing the
society

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 1. Royals who became corrupt, foolish or misbehaved were killed o0r removed by
force. The armed forces were highly disciplined and protected the rights of the
people and nation in removing corrupt, foolish or misbehaving royals.
2. Instructions on irrigation, farming, trading and behavior
3. Taxes were collected promptly, Fines for not following the instructions
4. Killing of a royal, an administrator, riot, armed robbery, rape were punishable by
death
5. Rule of law strictly adhered to

The Rajarata kingdom was a system of governance where people’s will was listened to
and the armed forces have supported the rule of law and prevented royals being
misbehaving. However, time to time this connection was broken for short periods of
time, but the status quo was reestablished quickly. That is why Kalinga Magha with his
extreme vandalism destroyed the administration and armed forces capability of the
Sinhala people to destroy the civilization.

Once the new social order is established the following organizational framework
can be established.

Organisational Framework

Sri Lanka has to reorganize the present system as the inefficient and corrupt public
sector is unable to manage financial resources. The political organization has to be
removed from its special privileges with reference to development funding and a
National Planning and Development Unit has to be established under the Supreme
Court to install National Strategic development Plan, until the corruption can be brought
under control.

The university research system has to be the primary research into new climate and
National Strategic development Plan. This is because even the public sector research
administration and service system, including all types of management institutions linked
to public sector is highly inefficient and corrupt.

Establishment of truly legalized and privatized local community organizations (Farmer

companies, Labour Management Companies, Technical Services Companies, Transport
Companies etc), which are to be operated by local manpower under their own legal
boundaries.

Participation

Public and Private Small and Medium Scale companies SMEs

63
Public enterprise

Community organizations organized into private sector SME’s

Policy interventions

Large scale constructions

SMEs

All medium and small scale (village, small towns (population less than 20,000)

Stages 1 and 2 will begin simultaneously

Stage I (1 to 2 years)

A massive clean-up opearation of the environment within the limits of available

technology

Today most of the rainwater originating from towns and cities are polluted by mixing
the domestic, industrial and water used by commercial units as these above mentioned
units dump their used water to storm water drainage. This practice results in a massive
wastage of less polluted rain water, which cane used directly for farming and sme
industrial work if stored in ponds or small reservoirs. Separation of used water in the
large settlements, towns and cities to prevent water pollution and utilise rainwater to be
directed to reservoirs and new ponds constructed to hold extra amounts of water. If this
system is established, it will also help to reduce the high temperatures in and around
urban areas.

Development of solar power and wind power (conducted by University Science and
Engineering Faculty Research Grants)

Stage 2 (1 to 25 years)

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Establishment of the highland preservation zone above 1500 meter level

25 year plan to remove all settlements and cultivation located above 1500 meter level.
An above a line drawn as given in the map (Map 5.1) will cover this highland
preservation zone. About 700,000 people have to be resettled. A tunnel from Ramboda
to Hakgala has to be constructed and the existing main roads can be utilized only for
controlled tourism and forest product harvesting with a minimum of traffic and human
presence. This will increase the water capacity of Mahaweli River by 40 to 50 percent
in the next 50 years, which will be sufficient to generate sufficient hydro power and
irrigation water for the nation. In Gongala, Knuckles, Dolosbage and Alagalla, Asgiriya
and Ambokka mountain ranges strict natural forest reserves should be established in the
areas over 1200 meters,w hich will increase water capacity of the rivers originating
from them by a minimum of 30 percent. All high mountain settlements in these areas
have to be resettled. This is the only solution to nation’s energy and irrigation water
problem in the new changed climate. Actually, we are going back to the Rajarata model
where upper mountain area (Malaya) was kept in total preservation, and there was
sufficient water to adjust to any changing climate. By permanently preserving about
2500 square kilometers of highland catchment areas, Sri Lanka will have sufficient
water for irrigation, power generation, drinking and other uses.

In addition water transfers from Kelani, Kalu, Gin and Nilwala should continue. Kelani-
Malwathu oya canal has to be built as given in Colombo Plan Initiative of 1958.

65
 Map 5.1 Area to remove ( rounded areas in light orange transparent
colour) all settlements and cultivation located above 1500 meter level in
a 25 year programme. Red line is the tunnel under Piduruthalagala –
Horton Plains highland

10 year plan to reengineer the large wev and SMWs

Large wev reengineering – 50 year programme

All large wev are in a well managed state, but some environmental reengineering on
their upper boundaries and upper watersheds will be necessary. Critical upper catchment
area rehabilitation may include removal of some constructions and small settled areas
(relocation of about a maximum of 300,000 people). All large and medium scale
tourism investments can remain within the reengineered system, with strict management
of waste disposal, water use and drainage.

66
Small and medium scale wev (SMW) reengineering – 50 year programme

The increased intensity of rainfall emerging from climate change bring heavy rainstorm
to the dry zone which leads to overflow of medium and small scale wev, which results
in flash floods at frequency of about once or twice a year when October – November
rainfall exceeds an average of about 700 millimeters.

An extra deep pool can be constructed to collect this excess water from high intensity
rainfall without exerting pressure on the present dam. The pool is blocked by a sluice
made of heavy concrete foundation which will below the water line of the main weva
when main weva is full. The sluice door has to be made f hollow concrte and filled
when water level of the main weva is full. As the water level in the main weva is
lowered, the water in the hollow sluice gate can be emptied as to lift it from the base
and allow water in the deep pool to be released to main weva. When the bottom of
upper deep pool is constructed about 0.5 meters above the deepest part of the lower
main weva, it is possible to have gravity flow to the main weva.

Weirs on upstream

Dark blue colour = existing weva

Light blue colour – the new upper deep pool
Red bar = under water sluice to hold water of the upper deep pool when the main wev
water recedes. This can be opened when the lower weva reaches its critical stage of
storage or as required for farming or water supply

Streams in the upper part have to be channeled by sluices to guide water from main
stream main weva. After the main weva reaches the spill level of the upper deeper pool,
the water will spill over the underground sluice and fill the upper deeper pool. Some of

67
the smaller stream coming from a side can be directly linked to upper deeper pool. All
streams entering weva must be guided by weirs to prevent rapid sedimentation. Material
accumulated in these weirs can be sorted for sand, gravel, clay and vegetation residue,
which can be utilized in preparing compost and used in construction. Weir construction
is essential as the wev upper reaches, because upstream areas of most of the small and
medium sized weva are heavily utilized for human activities and produce large
quantities of sediments and waste.

Recycling – 50 year programme

Out of a total of about 70,000 SMWs about 20,000 are critical to the dry and
intermediate zones. In the Ancient Rajarata the water usage was only local and
traditional only, with most of the used water remained in the catchment or in the weva.
But today water use is complex with large quantity of water is drained by cultivation
wells and other types of wells built in the catchment. Some of these wells are connected
to pipe lines and taken far or out of the catchment for consumption. The waste water is
drained out into the open and evaporates or guided to soak away pits and lost to
surrounding soil. Therefore, the springs or ground water supply to weva is much
reduced. This water has to be collected recycled and directed to local streams to
enhance springs and wet lands. This water can then be tapped by cultivation wells built
along the stream lines for agriculture and local small and medium scale industrial
purposes.

The weva must be managed by a fully leagalised wev community investment and
development companies formed within the new programme. The government
authorities will act on an advisory and protection basis. Any small forest areas within
the cacthments of SMWs are to be managed on the principles of forest harvesting by
community companies. Population optimum for a community company can be set as
100,000. Sometimes more than one weva may be managed by a wev community
investment and development company of 100,000 people. The belief is that 100,000

68
people will make an optimum level for investment and development of the SMW
system.

Major rivers and their tributaries with a width of 5 meters or above –1000 meters above
mean sea level

All the upper most reaches of major rivers and their tributaries in the highlands and hill
ranges above 1000 meters have to be strictly managed for wetness. No major
construction or farming activity should be allowed within 500 meters. Any human
activity or housing within these limits have to be phased out over a 50 year period by
providing new safe area to the increasing population away from the river banks.
Existing housing and other constructions can remain but farming or clearing have to be
stopped and the land lost have to be provided away from the banks.

Major rivers and their tributaries with a width of 5 meters or above –500 to 1000 meters
above mean sea level- 50 year programme

All the upper most reaches of major rivers and their tributaries in the highlands and hill
ranges between 500 to 1000 meters have to be strictly managed for wetness. No major
construction or farming activity should be allowed within 500 meters. Any human
activity or housing within these limits have to be phased out over a 50 year period by
providing new safe area to the increasing population away from the river banks.
Existing housing and other constructions can remain but farming or clearing have to be
stopped and the land lost have to be provided away from the banks.

Major rivers and their tributaries with a width of 5 meters or above –500 meters or
below mean sea level – 50 year programme

Large areas of these river banks are home to large, medium and small size towns and
cities, which contribute to serious problem of river water used in agriculture and
drinking from downstream diversions and supply units of various types. The waste
water from the towns have to be directed away within a 50 year programme into
recycling systems, which can later be directed to the river at a safe level. This type of
activity is a major water source in all developed countries and large and medium sized
towns. The energy for the recycling process can be generated from a local solar power
plant or a biogas plant connected to urban waste.

A set barrages on all major rivers in the wet zone (Maha oya, Attanagalu oya, Kelani,
Kalu, Gin and Nilwala), with an aim of trans-basin transfer to minimize damage from
floods and flash floods. When pumping is required, solar power has to be developed in
the locality.

69
A set of lakes and large ponds to be located in the wet lands of wet zone and dry zone to
store water from sudden flash floods, which can also be used also for fish farming and
recreation. Flash floods resulting from high intensity rainfall occur at a frequency of
about 4 a year in all parts of the country and ponds can be constructed with the help of
weirs in the highlands. In the dry zone depressions located outside the stream lines can
be used to construct ponds.

Marketing

If we in Sri Lanka to adapt to the new climate, our primary responsibility are to think in
a revolutionary way to store, package and sell agricultural products. In here we have to
learn from our ancient systems and the most modern systems of today.

Stage 1. Establishment of storage systems financed by a combined investments of

people and rich individuals through a SME system firms. For every 100,000 population
a storage facility system has to be established.

a) New storage systems can be built or rehabilitate old storage facilities of the
former Paddy marketing Board or any other organization.
b) Rich private individuals can built storage system and people can store in them
for a fee. Large rice millers already have a massive network of storage facility,
therefore storage capacities for every 100,000 people can be investigated by the
University research system by utilizing their research allocations in their
catchment areas and find solutions.

Marketing of farm produce is the major problem of agriculture in Sri Lanka. Since the
loss of public service of late Marketing Department, farmers and other groups of low
income people were pushed to the bottom line of consumers. We have establish a new
marketing system with a private venture small and medium scale storage, packing and
sell system.

Product storage

Product storage is a serious problem of faming. Three types of sotorage systems kave to
be established with the aid of public and private investment partnership

1. The private individuals with higher incomes have to be connected to storage

system as they have space and investment capacity to store food at various
scales.

Grains from the low income farmers can be stored in these systems, to be used
by the farmer ata a later stage or to be sold to the

70
 Cold storage system for vegetables and fruits are to be powered by solar power
at the scales available has to be utilized for energy supply. Cold storage anGrain
storage can be allowed on the basis of a insurance
2.

Marketing

Annual operations

All storm drainage systems to be rehabilitated and maintained by a community based

system- public and private

All weirs and streams to be included in a management programme to be cleaned and

maintained on an annual basis

All the above proposals have to be tested by a pilot programme of 2 years with the
participation of University research and public sector research and necessary
adjustments made.

If we are to survive the changed climate we have to engineer the impossible.

Climate Change of 20th century to future

Though, there is a conflict between the scientists and public authorities on the nature
and scale of climatic change, climate change is a naturally occurring phenomenon of the
earth. Humans have made adjustments to climate change since the beginning of history
with varying degrees of success. Globally, there is a concerted effort to adjust and adapt
to climatic change of 20th Century and beyond and the future of modern Sri Lankans
will depend on their ability to utilise the global data base to adjust and adapt to present
wave of climatic change and changed climate.

Technology of Rajarata civilization has left us remnants of the data base on

organizational structure and innovative path, which may be the best option to begin our
adjustment and adaptation to changing climate. It is the responsibility of the present
day policy maker and scientist to utilise that data base in a mix of modern knowledge
and construct the modern adjustments and adaptations.

Prediction for the next 200 years – Global and Sri Lanka

71
Globally all past civilizations were destroyed either by war or changing climate. The
present civilization is also constantly threatened by war and changed climate. The
developed nations are managing the war and climate change by increasing their capacity
to defend and adjusting rapidly to climate change, but data indicate that they are losing.

Developing nations, including Sri Lanka is in the verge of collapse in the battle against
war and climate change. Impact of wars and climate change will seriously damage
food supply and political stability. Most of the developing nations (except for the large
and militarily strong), will begin to suffer heavily in the next 30 to 40 years and begin
their destruction in about 100 years. Large scale migrations originating from inability to
sustain good governance and food security in Africa and Middle east has already begun.

In Sri Lanka brain drain has reached a level which has an effect on its technological
development, mainly due to poor governance. By 2019, Sri Lanka became a country
which is seriously affected by natural and societal disasters. The research conducted on
the topics of climate change and governance in the last 20 to 30 years is yet to be
meaningfully utilized by the political authority. Sri Lanka has passed the point of no
return with reference to climate change and governance and if the master plan given
above is not utilized, poor will begin to revolt, destroying the political stability. If the
policy maker is unwilling to listen to the scientist, dry zone of Sri Lanka will be
uninhabitable in another 150 to 200 years and the rest of the area will be affected
seriously. If the master plan given above is not utilized and used with continuous
improvements present civilization of Sri Lanka as we know it, will end in about 500
years.

If we are to achieve some form of stability within the continuing climate change, which
is associated with increasing hazards and disasters, first, we have to defeat the present
inefficient and corrupt leadership and establish the Rajarata system of governance under
a system where people have real power similar to the present system of Peoples
Republic of China.

72
This is the end of my research on climate change as I have published on the topic from
1977 to 2018 and written about many times and two of my predictions have come true.

Firstly, in a survey on erosion and sedimentation of upper Mahaweli river system in

1977, I managed to predict that if environmental management is not properly
established there will be water shortage in dams within a period of about 30 years. By
2010 the water shortage in the dams was confirmed.

Secondly, I predicted in 2005 that if no adjustments to water supply systems are found
the dry zone will enter into a hazard zone with recurring disaster within a period of 30
years. By 2018 it was clear that the dry zone has entered into the predicted scenario,
much earlier than expected.

We are in a new climate. Present system of governance is incapable of finding solutions

for the effect of new climate. Therefore we have to find a new governance system. We
have to find new solutions.

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References

Bryant, E. (1997) Climate, Process and Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Lamb, H.H. (1977) Climate : Past, Present and Future, Vol. 2, Methuen, London

Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (1975) The New Village, Daily News, Lake House Publishing

Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (1977) Soil Erosion and Conservation Survey, Atabage-Mul Oya,
UNDP/University of Colombo, Colombo.

Senevirathne, H.M.M.B. (1991) Micro-Erosion processes in a changing climatic

environment, in Gadzama, N.M; etal, Arid Zone Hydrology and Water Resources,
University of Ibadan press, 451-460.

Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (2005) Climatic Change and Development, Sri Lanka Journal of
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Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (2005) Climatic Change and Development, PED Foundation,

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Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (2006) Living Planet, ISBN 955-98808-2-9 (Internet - Banda

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98808-3-7, (Internet - Banda Seneviratne in scribd.com)

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Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (2018) Disaster Management, 2nd Edition, Mathale. ISBN -978-98808-
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http://www.longrangeweather.com/300bc.htm

https://lanka.com/about/attractions/ritigala-mountain/

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