Today’s Topic

Mathematical Induction
 Prove that 21 divides 4n+1 + 52n-1
whenever n is a positive integer

Basis Step: When n = 1, then 4n+1 + 52n-1 = 41+1 +

52(1)-1 = 42+5 = 21 which is clearly divisible by
21.
Inductive Step: Assume that 4k+1 + 52k-1 is divisible
by 21. We must show that

4(k+1)+1 + 52(k+1)-1 is divisible by 21

4(k+1)+1 + 52(k+1)-1 = 4*4k+1 + 52k+2-1
= 4*4k+1 + 25*52k-1
= 4*4k+1 + (4+21) 52k-1
= 4(4k+1+ 52k-1) +21*52k-1
The first term is divisible by 21 by the
induction hypothesis and clearly the second
term is divisible by 21. Therefore their sum is
divisible by 21.
 Strong induction
• The Principle of Mathematical Induction asserts
that P(k) being true implies P(k+1) is true.
• However, sometimes we need to “look” further
back than 1 step to obtain P(k+1).
• That’s where the Strong Form of Mathematical
Induction comes in useful.
 Strong induction
• Weak mathematical induction assumes P(k) is
true, and uses that (and only that!) to show
P(k+1) is true

• Strong mathematical induction assumes P(1),

P(2), …, P(k) are all true, and uses that to show
that P(k+1) is true.

P(1)  P(2)  P(3)  ...  P(k )  P(k  1)

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 Example of Strong Induction
Consider the sequence defined as follows:
b0 = 1
b1 = 1
bn = 2bn-1 + bn-2 for n>1
1,1, 3,7, 17,…
b0, b1, b2, b3, b4,….
Prove that bn is odd
Inductive Proof Using Strong Induction

Basis Cases: show P(2) is true

b2 = 2b2-1 + b2-2 = 2b1+b0
Clearly b2 is odd because b0 = b1 = 1.

Inductive hypothesis:
P(0), P(1), P(2), P(3), …, P(k) are all true.
(i.e. b0, b1, b2, …..bk-1, bk are all odd).

Inductive step:
Show that P(k+1) is true, i.e. bk+1 is odd.
 Proof Example (cont.)
From the formula
bk+1 = 2bk + bk-1. Clearly the first term is even. By
the inductive hypothesis the second term is odd.
Since the sum of an even integer and an odd
integer is always odd (which we can prove by
number theory), then bk+1 is odd.

In this example we did not need all p(n), 0nk, but we did need
p(k) and p(k-1). Note that a proof using weak induction would
only be able to assume p(k).
 Strong induction example 2
• Show that any number > 1 can be written as the product
of primes

• Base case: P(2) is true, i.e. 2 can be written as the

product of primes
– 2 is the product of 2 (remember that 1 is not prime!)

• Inductive hypothesis: P(2),P(3),P(4) …, P(k) are all true,

i.e. 2,3,4 ….k-1,k all can be written as the product of
primes.

• Inductive step: Show that P(k+1) is true

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 Strong induction example 2
• Inductive step: Show that P(k+1) is true
• There are two cases:
– k+1 is prime
• It can then be written as the product of k+1
– k+1 is composite
• It can be written as the product of two composites,
a and b, where 2 ≤ a ≤ b < k+1
• By the inductive hypothesis, both P(a) and P(b) are
true.

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 Strong induction vs. non-strong
induction
• Prove that any postage >=20 rupees can be
created with 5 and 6 rupees stamps

– Prove using both versions of induction

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 Answer via mathematical induction
• Show base case: P(20):
• 20 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
• Inductive hypothesis: Assume P(k) is true
• Inductive step: Show that P(k+1) is true
• If P(k) uses a 5 rupees stamp, replace that stamp with
a 6 rupees stamp
• If P(k) does not use a 5 rupees stamp, it must use
only 6 rupees stamps
 Since k > 20, there must be at least four 6 rupees stamps
 Replace these with five 5 rupees stamps to obtain k+1

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 Answer via strong induction
• Show base cases: P(20), P(21), P(22), P(23), and P(24)
– 20 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
– 21 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 6
– 22 = 5 + 5 + 6 + 6
– 23 = 5 + 6 + 6 + 6
– 24 = 6 + 6 + 6 + 6
• Inductive hypothesis: Assume P(20), P(21), …, P(k) are
all true
• Inductive step: Show that P(k+1) is true
– We will obtain P(k+1) by adding a 5 rupees stamp to P(k+1-5)
– Since we know P(k+1-5) = P(k-4) is true, our proof is complete
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