Introduction

What is milling?
A manufacturing process in which a rotating,
Chapter 23 multitooth cutter removes material while
Machining Processes Used to Produce traveling along various axes with respect to the
Various Shapes workpiece.
Other processes will be discussed, such as
Planing, shaping, broaching, sawing, filing, and gear
Alexandra Schönning, Ph.D.
Mechanical Engineering manufacturing.
University of North Florida

Figures by
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Kalpakijan and Schmid

Page 23-1 Page 23-2

Milling operations Slab Milling

Slab milling (Figure a)

Arbor, cutter
Face milling (Figure b)
Spindle and cutter
End milling (Figure c)
Spindle, shank, end mill
Figure 23.3 A typical
part that can be
Also called peripheral milling
produced on a milling The axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece
machine equipped
with computer
surface to be machined
controls. Such parts The cutter has a teeth along its circumference where
can be made
efficiently and
each tooth acts as a single point cutting tool
repetitively on
computer numerical
Conventional vs. Climb milling
control (CNC) Conventional milling
machines, without the • Also called up-milling: the rotation of the cutter is such that it first
need for refixturing or engages the workpiece at the bottom.
reclamping the part. • The cut is not a function of the surface characteristics
• Common method of milling.
• Proper clamping is necessary to prevent the upward rotation of the
cutter.
Climb milling
• Also called down-milling: the rotation is such that the cutter first
engages the workpiece at the top.
• Cutting forces holds the workpiece in place. However, a rigid setup is
important since there are high impact forces.

Page 23-3 Page 23-4

Conventional and Climb Milling Milling Parameters

The velocity at the point of Material Removal Rate
Figure 23.4 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab milling operation,
showing depth of cut, d, feed per tooth, f, chip depth of cut, tc, and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic
contact
illustration of cutter travel distance lc to reach full depth of cut. V ω⋅ r rad
⋅ length l⋅ w⋅ d
s
N = angular speed in rpm. This version
MRR w⋅ d ⋅ v
t
V π⋅ D⋅ N of the formula is used in the book. It
includes the unit conversion from rpm to
radiance per minute. The units of the
Definitions of symbols
velocity are distance/min. Definition of Symbols
tc: chip thickness
The chip thickness can be found f: feed per tooth of cutter
2⋅ f ⋅ d As tc gets larger the
D: depth of cut
tc forces on the cutter tooth
increases N: angular speed in rpm
D
n: number of teeth on cutter periphery
Feed per tooth v: linear speed (feed rate)
V: speed of cutter
v t: cutting time
f L: length of the workpiece
N⋅ n Lc: extent of the cutter's first contact
Cutting time with the workpiece (illustration on next
page)
w: width of cut
t ( l + lc)
It is assumed that lc<<l
v
Page 23-5 Page 23-6

1
 Illustration of Lc
Lc: extent of the cutter's
first contact with the
workpiece
Summary of Milling Parameters and Formulas
TABLE 23.1
N = Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm
f = Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth
D = Cutter diameter, mm or in.
n = Number of teeth on cutter
v = Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./min
V = Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min
=D N
f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth
=v /N n
l = Length of cut, mm or in.
t = Cutting time, s or min
=( l+lc ) v , where lc =extent of the cutter’s first contact with workpiece
MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min
=w d v , where w is the width of cut
Torque = N-m or lb-ft
( Fc ) (D/2)
Power = kW or hp
= (Torque) (ω ), where ω = 2π N radians/min
Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must
be used in the formulas.

Lc
Page 23-7 Page 23-8

Example
Face Milling
A slab milling operation is being • Specific energy: 1.1 hp*min/in3
carried out on a 12-in long, 4 in ○ Table 20:2 (annealed mild
steel) Cutter is mounted on a spindle Leaves feed marks on the
wide annealed mild steel block at Find having an external axis of machined surface
a feed f=0.01 in/tooth and a • Material Removal Rate rotation perpendicular to the
depth of cut d=1/8 in. The cutter Terminology in figure
is D=2in in diameter, and has 20 • Power workpiece surface
• Torque Workpiece moves along a
straight teeth, rotates at N = • Cutting time
100rpm, and is wider than the in straight path at a linear speed, v.
block to be machined. Calculate v := f ⋅ N⋅ n v = 20 Direction of cutter
the material Removal rate, min Conventional milling (Fig. c)
estimate the power and torque in
3 • up-milling
required for this operation, and MRR := w⋅ d ⋅ v MRR = 10 Climb milling (Fig. b)
calculate the cutting time. min • down-milling
Given:
• w=4in Power := spec_enrg ⋅ MRR Power = 11 hp
• L=12 in
• f=0.01 in/tooth Power 33000
• d=1/8 in Torque := ⋅ Torque = 577.7 lb⋅ ft
• D=2 in N 2⋅ π
• n = 20 teeth Lc := D⋅ d
• N = 100 rpm Lc = 0.5 in
• Cutter width > block width
( L + Lc)
t := ⋅ 60
n t = 37.5 seconds Figure 23.8 Terminology for a
face-milling cutter.
Page 23-9 Page 23-10

Face Milling Cutter and Insert Position in Face Milling

Figure 23.10 (a) Relative position
of the cutter and insert as it first
engages the workpiece in face
milling, (b) insert positions
towards the end of the cut, and (c)
examples of exit angles of insert,
showing desirable (positive or
negative angle) and undesirable
(zero angle) positions. In all
v figures, the cutter spindle is
perpendicular to the page.

d w
Third example in figure c: the
insert exits the workpiece
suddenly as opposed to exiting
with an angle.

Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts.

Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
Page 23-11 Page 23-12

2
 End milling
The cutter, called an end
mill, rotates about an axis
perpendicular to the
workpiece surface
(typically – can be at an
angle)
Ball nose: A type of end
mill in which the bottom
surface is rounded
Used in the production of
curved surfaces for dies
and molds
Other Milling Operations and Cutters
T-slot cutter Shell milling
Note order of cuts:
• 1st: cut slott so the T-cutter
can move
• 2nd: finish the T-slot
Arbor
Other Milling Operations and Cutters
Straddle milling: two or more
cutters are mounted on an
arbor and are used to machine
two parallel surfaces on the
workpiece
Easier to keep tolerances than if
milling one surface at a time
Form milling: produces
curved profiles. Also used in
machining gear teeth.
Circular cutters can be used
for slotting and slitting.
Slitting saws are typically <
5mm.
T-slot cutters: used to mill T-
slots which are used in
clamping workpieces to the
work table. (figure next page)
Page 23-13 Page 23-14
Tool holders
Milling cutters are classified as
Has a hollow inside. Arbor cutters
Mounted on a shank.
• Allows the same shank to be
• Mounted on an arbor
used for different size cutters • Used in slab, face, straddle, and form milling
Shank cutters
• The cutter and the shank are one piece.
• Examples include end mills
• Straight shanks
♦ Mounted using collets, chucks or special end mill holder
• Tapered shanks
○ Tapered for better clamping.
○ Common on larger end mills
Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cutting ○ Mounted in tapered tool holders
with a milling cutter. (b) A
shell mill.
Page 23-15 Page 23-16
Milling Process Capabilities
Process capabilities include
Surface finish, dimensional tolerance, production
rate, and cost consideration
Feed rate (typical): 0.1 mm/tooth – 0.5 mm/tooth
Depth of cut (typical): 1-8 mm
Cutting speeds (varies much): 30m/min to
3000m/min
Figure 23.13 Mounting a
milling cutter on an arbor for
use on a horizontal milling
machine.
Page 23-17 Page 23-18
3
 TABLE 23.3 Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining*

Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Tools

Drills, HSS, straight shank
Size (in.)
1/4
Cost ($)
1.00–2.00
Dimensions for Machine Tools Coated (TiN)
1/2
1/4
3.00–6.00
2.60–3.00
1/2 10–15
Tapered shank 1/4 2.50–7.00
1 15–45
2 80–85
TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for
Some Machine Tools Approximate 3
4
250
950
Maximum dimension Power Maximum Cost of Reamers, HSS, hand 1/4
1/2
10–15
10–15
Machine tool m (ft) (kW) speed
Milling machines (table travel)
Selected Tools Chucking 1/2
1
5–10
20–25
Knee-and-column 1.4 (4.6) 20 4000 rpm for Machining End mills, HSS
1 1/2
1/2
40–55
10–15
Bed 4.3 (14) 1 15–30
Numerical control 5 (16.5) Carbide-tipped 1/2 30–35
Planers (table travel) 10 (33) 100 1.7 1 45–60
Broaching machines (length) 2 (6.5) 0.9 MN Solid carbide 1/2 30–70
1 180
Gear cutting (gear diameter) 5 (16.5) Burs, carbide 1/2 10–20
Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications. 1 50–60
Milling cutters, HSS, staggered tooth, wide 4 35–75
8 130–260
Collets (5 core) 1 10–20
*Cost depends on the particular type of material and shape of tool, its quality,
and the amount purchased.

Page 23-19 Page 23-20

TABLE 23.4
General-purpose starting

Feed
conditions
Speed
Range of conditions
Feed Speed
General Troubleshooting Guide for Milling
Workpiece
material Cutting tool
mm/tooth
(in./tooth)
m/min
(ft/min)
mm/tooth
(in./tooth)
m/min
(ft/min) Operations
Low-C and free- Uncoated carbide, 0.13–0.20 120–180 0.085–0.38 90–425
machining steels coated carbide, (0.005–0.008) (400–600) (0.003–0.015) (300–1400)
cermets TABLE 23.5
Alloy steels Problem Probable causes
Soft Uncoated, coated, 0.10–0.18 90–170 0.08–0.30 60–370
cermets (0.004–0.007) (300–550) (0.003–0.012) (200–1200) Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cutting
General Hard Cermets, PCBN 0.10–0.15
(0.004–0.006)
180–210
(600–700)
0.08–0.25
(0.003–0.010)
75–460
(250–1500)
parameters too high.
Tool wear excessive Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool
Recommendations Cast iron, gray
Soft Uncoated, coated,
cermets, SiN
0.10–10.20
(0.004–0.008)
120–760
(400–2500)
0.08–0.38
(0.003–0.015)
90–1370
(300–4500) angles; improper cutting fluid.
for Milling Hard Cermets, SiN,
PCBN
0.10–0.20
(0.004–0.008)
120–210
(400–700)
0.08–0.38
(0.003–0.015)
90–460
(300–1500)
Rough surface finish Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool
chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter.
Operations
Stainless steel, Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.18 120–370 0.08–0.38 90–500
austenitic cermets (0.005–0.007) (400–1200) (0.003–0.015) (300–1800) Tolerances too broad Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips
High-temperature Uncoated, coated, 0.10–0.18 30–370 0.08–0.38 30–550
alloys, nickel base cermets, SiN, (0.004–0.007) (100–1200) (0.003–0.015) (90–1800) clogging cutter.
PCBN Workpiece surface Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small.
Titanium alloys Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.15 50–60 0.08–0.38 40–140
cermets (0.005–0.006) (175–200) (0.003–0.015) (125–450) burnished
Aluminum alloys Back striking Dull cutting tools; cutter spindle tilt; negative tool angles.
Free machining Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.23 610–900 0.08–0.46 300–3000
PCD (0.005–0.009) (2000–3000) (0.003–0.018) (1000–10,000) Chatter marks Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and
High silicon PCD 0.13
(0.005)
610
(2000)
0.08–0.38
(0.003–0–015)
370–910
(1200–3000)
width of cut too large.
Copper alloys Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.23 300–760 0.08–0.46 90–1070 Burr formation Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or
PCD (0.005–0.009) (1000–2500) (0.003–0.018) (300–3500)
Thermoplastics and Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.23 270–460 0.08–0.46 90–1370
exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry.
thermosets PCD (0.005–0.009) (900–1500) (0.003–0.018) (300–4500) Breakout Lead angle too low; incorrect cutting edge geometry; incorrect angle
Source: Based on data from Kennametal Inc.
of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.
Note: Depths of cut, d , usually are in the range of 1–8 mm (0.04–0.3 in.). PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boron nitride;
PCD: polycrystalline diamond.
Note: See also Table 22.2 for range of cutting speeds within tool material groups.

Page 23-21 Page 23-22

Surface Features and Corner Defects Design and Operating Guidelines for Milling
Similar to the guidelines for turning
Use standard milling cutters
Internal cavities and pockets with
sharp corners should be avoided
since cutters have a finite radius
Workpieces should be sufficiently
rigid to minimize any defects
resulting from clamping and cutting
forces.
Minimizing vibrations
Cutters should be mounted close to
spindle to reduce tool deflection
Tool holders and fixtures should be
as rigid as possible
If vibration occurs
• Modify tool shape and/or process
conditions
• Used a cutter with fewer teeth or
with random tooth spacing
Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. For
troubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc.
Guidelines for turning
Parts should be able to easily be
fixed to the workholding devices
Dimensional accuracy should be as
wide as permissible
Sharp corners, tapers (manual), and
major dimensional variations
should be avoided (minimize
machine time and material waste)
Blanks to be machined should be as
close to final dimension as possible
Cutting tool should be able to travel
across the workpiece without
obstruction
Commercially available cutting
tools, inserts, and tool holders
should be used
Minimize tool overhang
Support workpiece rigidly
Tools should have high stiffness
and damping capacity
When vibration occurs: modify one
of the parameters

Page 23-23 Page 23-24

4
 Milling Machines Other types of milling machines
Column-and-knee type machines Bed-typed milling
Most common
The spindle may be horizontal or A bed is used instead of the knee. No vertical
vertical movement is possible.
Machine consists of
A work table: on which the The work table is mounted directly on the bed.
workpiece is clamped. Horizontal spindle
A saddle: supports the table and Used in high production runs for simple parts.
moves in a perpendicular direction Figure 23.17 Schematic
A knee: supports the saddle and illustration of a bed-type
allows for vertical movement milling machine. Note the
(depth of cut) single vertical-spindle cutter
An overarm: in horizontal and two horizontal spindle
machines. It can accommodate cutters. Source: ASM
different arbor lengths International.
A head: contains a spindle and
cutter holder
Plain miling machines: 3 axes
Universal column-and-knee milling
machines: 4th axes (rotational)

vertical spindle

Page 23-25 Page 23-26

Broaching and Broaching Machines

Planing and shaping
What is a broach? Pitch = k*sqrt(L) (to find
A long multitooth cutting tool. appropriate pitch)
Cutting operation by which flat surfaces, Used for what?
• k = 1.76 when L is in mm
• k = 0.35 when L is in inches
grooves, and notches are produced along the To machine internal or external • L = length of surface to be cut
surfaces, such as holes of
length of the workpiece. different sections, the teeth of At least two or more teeth
should be in contact.
internal gears, multiple spline
Typically performed on large workpieces. The holes, and flat surfaces. Different type of broaches exist
• Surface broaches:
workplane is mounted on a table that travels Terminology and geometry:
Rake angle typically from 0-20
○ Slab broaches (for cutting flat
along a straight path degrees.
surfaces), slot, contour,
dovetail.
Clearance angle typically from • Internal broaches
A horizontal cross-rail can be moved vertically 0-4 degrees. ○ hole, keyway, internal gear, and
rifling
Shaping: similar to planing but for smaller parts
Used to machine notches, keyways

Figure 23.20 Typical parts that can be

made on a planer.

Page 23-27 Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach. Page 23-28

Broaching and Broaching Machines Chipbreakers and a Broaching Machine

Turn broaching Figure 23.23 Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach. (c) Vertical
broaching machine. Source: Ty Miles, Inc.
The workpiece is rotated between centers, and the broach
passes tangentially across the bearing surfaces and remove (a) (c)
material
Broaching Machines
Either pull or push the broaches and are made either
horizontally or vertically.
Forces required depend on workpiece material, total depth and
width of cut, and cutting speed.
Broaching process parameters
Cutting speeds range from 1.5m/min for high strength alloys (b)
to 15m/min for Aluminum alloys
Ceramic inserts may be used for finishing operations
Design Considerations for Broaching
Parts should be designed such that they can be clamped
securely
Blind holes, sharp corners, dovetail, splines, and large flat
surfaces should be avoided

Page 23-29 Page 23-30

5
 Sawing
Internal Broach and Turn Broaching
A saw consists of a blade with a series of small teeth. ☺
The width of the cut is called the kerf and is typically thin
resulting in little waste material.
At least two or three teeth should be engaged for the blade to
prevent snagging (catching the saw tooth on the workpiece).
The thinner the stock, the finer the saw teeth should be, and the
greater the number per unit length.

Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach

used for enlarging long holes.

Figure 23.27 Examples

Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaft of various sawing
rotates while the broaches pass tangentially across the operations. Source:
crankshaft’s bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll DoALL Company.
Cutting Tool Company.

Page 23-31 Page 23-32

Sawing Sawing
Types of saw teeth Types of saws
Hacksaw: Straight blades, reciprocating motion. Cutting only
takes place during one of the two reciprocating strokes.
Circular saw: Also called cold saw.
Band saw: continuous long, flexible blades and have a
continuous cutting action.
Diamond edge blades and diamond wire saws: high strength
wire is coated with diamond particles. Used for cutting hard
metallic, nonmetallic, and composite materials.
Friction sawing
A steel blade, or disk, rubs against the workpiece at speeds up
to 7600m/min.
The frictional energy is converted into heat, which softens a
Figure 23.28 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth set on saw teeth, staggered to narrow zone in the workpiece.
provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing. Used to cut hard ferrous metals and reinforced plastics.
Commonly used to remove flash form castings

Page 23-33 Page 23-34

Filing and Finishing Gear Manufacturing by Machining

Filing: Small scale removal of material from a How are gears

surface, corner, or hole, including removal of manufactured?
Casting, forging,
burrs. extrusion, drawing, thread
rolling, powder Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.
Shapes: flat, round, half round, and triangular metallurgy, blanking sheet
Rotary files and burs: metal, injection molding
(non metallic), casting
Used for removing material in die making, deburring, (non metallic), and
scale removal from surfaces, and producing chamfers machining.
on parts Gears can be machined
by
Form cutting (future
slides)
Gear generating (future
slides)
Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source: Gear terminology
The Copper Group.
Page 23-35 Page 23-36

6
 Form Cutting Gear Generating
The gear-tooth shape is The cutting tools in gear A rack-shaped straight
produced by cutting the gear cutter
blank around its periphery. generating may be one of
• The generating tool is a
After each tooth is cut, the
Figure 23.32 (a) Producing gear teeth on a
blank by from cutting. (b) Schematic the following: segment of a rack which
cutter is withdrawn, and the illustration of gear generating with a pinion-
shaped gear cutter. (c) Schematic illustration
A pinion-shaped cutter reciprocates parallel to the
gear blank is rotated of gear generating in a gear shaper using a • The cutter is one of the gears axis of the gear blank.
(indexed). pinion-shaped cutter. Note that the cutter in a conjugate pair. The
reciprocates vertically. (d) Gear generating
Form cutting can be done on with rack-shaped cutter. other gear is the blank.
milling machines, with the
cutter mounted on an arbor
and the gear blank mounted in
a dividing head.
Limitation:
Form cutting can only produce
gear teeth that have constant
width (spur and helical but not
beveled gears.

Page 23-37 Page 23-38

Gear Generating Cutting Bevel Gears

Hob: A worm or screw
made into a gear-
generating tool.
It consists of slots that will
be used to cut the teeth.
The angle between the
axis of the hob and the
gear are about 90 degrees
apart.

Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting a
spiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.

Page 23-39 Page 23-40

Gear Finishing Procedures Gear Manufacturers Association

Grinding Honing AGMA: American Gear Manufacturers
• The tool is a plastic gear
Form Grinding impregnated with fine Association
• The shape of the wheel is abrasive particles.
identical to the tooth Sets the standards for gears in the US
spacing. (Figure A) • Improves surface finish.
Generating Lapping
• The grinding wheel acts as • To further improve surface
shown in Figure (b) finish.
• Uses an abrasive compound

Page 23-41 Page 23-42