MLS 111

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
OUTLINE
 Introduction to Anatomy and
Physiology
Definition of terms
Characteristics of a human living
organism
Levels of structural organization
Homeostasis
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
DEFINED
INTRODUCTION
 Anatomy and physiology
(A&P) is about human
structure and function—the
biology of the human body
 We want to know how our
body works!
INTRODUCTION
 A&P is a foundation for
advanced study in health
care, pathophysiology, and
other health-care-related fields
 Anatomy and Physiology are
always related . Structure
determines what functions can
take place.
 The Human Body…
“So God created man in his own image, in
the image of God created he him; male and
female created he them.” (Genesis 1:27)
An Introduction to the Human
Body
 Anatomy
the study of the structure and shape
of the body and body parts & their
relationships to one another.
from Greek, from ana- ‘up’
+ tomia ‘cutting’ (from temnein ‘to
cut’).
Definition of Physiology

 PHYSIOLOGY – Study of the normal

functioning of a living organism and
its component parts
-Includes all its physical and
chemical processes
-from Ancient
Greek φύσις (physis), meaning
'nature, origin', and -λογία (-logia),
meaning 'study of')
Anatomy—The Study of Form

 Examining structure of the

human body
 Inspection
 Palpation
 Auscultation
 Percussion

 Cadaver dissection
 Cutting and separation of
tissues to reveal their
relationships

 Exploratory surgery
 Imaging techniques
10
Inspection

 Theuse of the senses of vision, smell

and hearing to observe the normal
condition or any deviations from
normal of various body parts.
Palpation
 Touch & feel with hands to determine:
 Texture – use fingertips (roughness, smoothness).
 Temperature – use back of hand (warm, hot, cold).
 Moisture (dry, wet, or moist).
 Organ location and size
 Consistency of structure (solid, fluid, filled)

 Slow and systematic

 Light to deep
 Light palpation (tenderness)
 Deep palpation (abdominal
organs/masses)
Light palpation
Deep palpation
Percussion

 Tap a portion of the body to elicit

tenderness that varies with the
density of underlying structures.
 Percussion denotes location, size
and density of underlying
structures, percussion requires
dexterity.
Percussion 16
Auscultation

 “To LISTEN”
 Direct or immediate auscultation: accomplished
by the unassisted ear that is without amplifying
device. This form of auscultation often involves the
application of the ear directly to a body surface
where the sound is most prominent.
 Mediate auscultation: the use of sound
augmentation device such as a stethoscope in the
detection of body sounds.
Auscultation

 “Listening to body sounds

 Movement of air (lungs)

 Blood flow (heart)

 Fluid & gas movement

(bowels)

 Remember the sound

changes in the abdomen…
Medical Imaging

 Allowsvisualization of structures
without surgery
 Useful for confirmation of diagnosis
 Examples of imaging techniques
Conventional Radiography

 A single burst of xrays

 Produces 2-D image
on film
 Known as
radiography or xray
 Poor resolution of soft
tissues
 Major use is
osteology
Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

 Moving x-ray beam

 Image produced on
a video monitor of a
cross-section through
body
 Computer
generated image
reveals more soft
tissue detail
 kidney & gallstones
 Multiple scans used
to build 3D views
Angiogram

 Radiopaque material
injected into blood
vessels
 Before and after
images compared
with a computer
program
 Image of blood vessel
is shown on a monitor
Ultrasound (US)

 High-frequency sound
waves emitted by hand-
held device
 Safe, noninvasive &
painless
 Image or sonogram is
displayed on video
monitor
 Used for fetal ultrasound
and examination of pelvic
& abdominal organs,
heart and blood flow
through blood vessels
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)  Body exposed to high-
energy magnetic field
 Protons align
themselves relative to
magnetic field
 Pulse of radiowaves
used to generate an
image on video
monitor
 Can not use on
patient with metal in
their body
 Reveals fine detail
within soft tissues
Positron Emission Tomography(PET)
 Substance that emits
positively charged
particles is injected into
body
 Collision with negatively
charged electrons in
tissues releases gamma
rays
 Camera detects
gamma rays &
computer generates
image displayed on
monitor
Cadaver Dissection
First Autopsy

 In the year 1286 we

have reference to a
human dissection
being performed to
determine the
cause of death.
 Today, this
procedure is called
an autopsy.
ANATOMY
 Microscopic vs Macroscopic (Gross)
Anatomy
 Subspecialties:
 Cytology, histology, developmental
anatomy/ embryology
 Surface anatomy, systemic anatomy,
regional anatomy, living anatomy,
clinical anatomy, radiographic
anatomy, pathologic anatomy
CYTOLOGY
HISTOLOGY
DEVELOPMENTAL
ANATOMY/EMBRYOLOGY
SURFACE ANATOMY
SURFACE ANATOMY
SURFACE ANATOMY
SYSTEMIC ANATOMY
REGIONAL ANATOMY
ANATOMY
 Livinganatomy
 Clinical anatomy
 Radiographic Anatomy
 Pathologic Anatomy
 Exploratory Cytology
Surgery

Histology

Medical Imaging Gross Anatomy

An Introduction to the Human
Body
 Physiology
science of body functions
normal and abnormal adult
physiology is studied in this class
some genetic variations occur
Subspecialties

 Physiology
 cell physiology, systems physiology,
pathophysiology, exercise physiology,
neurophysiology, endocrinology,
cardiovascular physiology,
immunophysiology, respiratory
physiology, renal physiology, and
reproductive physiology
The Origins of
Biomedical Sciences
Primitive Times

 Illness and diseases were a punishment

from the Gods
 First physicians were witch doctors who
treated illness with ceremonies
 Herbs and plants were 1st
pharmaceuticals – Foxglove (digitalis);
Quinine (cinchona tree); Atropine
(belladonna plant); Morphine (poppy
plant)
Primitive Times
 TREPANATION - One of the first surgeries; a hole
was cut into the skull to release demons
Egypt (3000 BC-300BC)
 Early references
to anatomy from
ancient Egypt
(1500 BC)

 Egyptians
believed the liver
to be a part of the
soul that formed
the seat of
thought & feeling
Early Egyptians
 Perfected the
science of
mummification.
 Major organs were
removed and
placed in jars.
 Body cavity was
filled with a
“sawdust-like”
material.
 Body was wrapped
in linen cloth shrouds.
Early Egyptians

 First to keep accurate

health records
 Wrote prescriptions on
papyrus
 Physicians were priests
 Temples were used as
places of worships,
medical schools, and
hospitals
 Leeches would be use for
bloodletting (draining
human blood)
Early Egyptians

 The study of anatomy flourished in

Alexandria between 300-150 B.C.
 Only criminals were allowed to be
dissected because these early
cultures were very superstitious and
believed that an intact body was
necessary for a successful afterlife.
Ancient Chinese (1700
BC-AD 220)  Religion prohibited
dissection
 Believed you had to
treat both the body
and spirit
 Recorded a
pharmacopoeia of
medications based
on herbs
 Therapies included
acupuncture
Ancient Hebrews

 The Hebrews were God’s

chosen people and they
followed God’s laws to stay
healthy
 These laws are recorded in
the Old Testament of the
Bible
Ancient Hebrews

 The laws told the Hebrews

what was safe to eat:
 Cows
 Sheep
 Goats
Ancient Hebrews

 The laws told the Hebrews

what was NOT safe to eat:
 Lions
 Bears
 Pigs
Ancient Hebrews

 Why?
 Because God understood
what the Hebrews did not
know
 Some foods can have
organisms, or tiny living
things called germs which
cause disease
 Some foods can have
parasites, or small organisms,
which can make people sick
Ancient Hebrews

 God gave the Hebrews laws because He

loved them and wanted to keep them safe
• Just like He loves you!
• We know that God is real
because He gave these
instructions to the
Hebrews before people
knew how to live long
and healthy lives
Greek and Roman Legacy

 Physicians in Mesopotamia
 3,000 years ago used herbal drugs, salts, and
physical therapy

 Hippocrates, the Greek physician

 “Father of medicine”
 Established a code of ethics (Hippocratic Oath)
 Urged physicians to seek natural causes of
disease rather than attributing them to acts of
the gods and demons
Greek and Roman Legacy
 Aristotle
 One of the first philosophers to write
about anatomy and physiology
 Believed that diseases had either
supernatural causes or physical causes
 Calledsupernatural causes of
disease theologi
 Callednatural causes for disease
physiologi
 This
gave rise to the terms physician
and physiology
 Believed that complex structures are
built from simpler parts
Greek and Roman Legacy

 Claudius Galen

 Physician to the Roman gladiators

 Did animal dissections since use of
cadavers was banned in his time
 Saw science as a method of discover, not
just a body of facts taken on faith
 Wrote book advising followers to trust their
own observation more than the teaching
of dogma of the “ancient masters”
Middle Ages/Middle Ages
(5th-17 AD)
 Came with the fall of Roman Empire in A.D. 476 and
lasted nearly 1000 years.
 Dissections of cadavers were totally prohibited during
this period, and molesting a corpse was a criminal act
that was frequently punished by burning at the stake.
 If mysterious death occurred, examination by inspection
and palpation were allowed.
 During the Bubonic plague epidemic in the sixth century,
however a few necropsies and dissections were
performed in hopes of determining the cause of dread
disease.
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 Christian culture of Europe in Middle Ages

 Science severely repressed
 Taught
medicine primarily as dogmatic
commentary on Galen and Aristotle
 Crude medical illustrations
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 In
Jewish and Muslim cultures free
inquiry was less inhibited

 Jewishphysician Maimonides (Moses

ben Maimon)
Wrote 10 influential medical texts
Was physician to Egyptian sultan,
Saladin
Arabic Medicine

 During the Dark Ages, Greek medical

texts were salvaged by the Moslems
and translated into Arabic and
augmented with sophisticated
pharmaceutical information
 The Islamic world was the center of
medical knowledge.
 Many herbs and spices like nutmeg,
cloves, and mace were not originally
valued as cooking ingredients, but as
medicines
Ibn Sina, or Avicena (980-
1037)
 Was a great scholar, physician, poet, and
statesman, the “Father of Science” and
encyclopaedist
 He was the author of more than one hundred
works, the most prominent of which is the
Canon of Medicine (c. 1000). This book
contains valuable anatomical and
physiological information adopted from
Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galenthe best
medical work produced in the feudal age
and served as the source of knowledge for
physicians of the East and West until the
seventeenth century.
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 Andreas Vesalius
 Taught anatomy in Italy
 Catholic Church relaxed restrictions on
dissection of cadavers and permitting
autopsies
 Barbering and surgery were considered
“kindred arts of the knife”
 Performed his own dissections rather than the
barber-surgeons
 Published first atlas of anatomy, De Humani
Corporis Fabrica (On the Structure of the
Human Body) in 1543
De Humani Corporis Fabrica
(1543)
De Humani Corporis Fabrica
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 William Harvey
 Early physiologist—contributions represent
the birth of experimental physiology
 Remembered for early studies on blood
circulation
 Realized blood flows out from heart and
back to it again
 Published book De Motu Cordis (On the
Motion of the Heart) in 1628
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 Michael Servetus
 Along with Harvey, they were the first
Western scientists to realize that blood
must circulate continuously around the
body, from the heart to other organs, and
back to the heart again
Early Medical Illustrations
The Birth of Modern Medicine
 Robert Hooke
 Made many
improvements to the
compound microscope—
two lenses: ocular lens
(eyepiece) and objective
lens (near specimen)
 Invented specimen stage,
illuminator, coarse and
fine focus controls
 His
microscopes
magnified only 30X
 First
to see and name
“cells”
 Published first
comprehensive book of
microscopy
(Micrographia) in 1665
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 Antony van Leeuwenhoek

 Invented a simple (single-lens) microscope with great
magnification to look at fabrics (200X)
 Published his observations of blood, lake water, sperm,
bacteria from tooth scrapings, and many other things

 Carl Zeiss and Ernst Abbe

 Greatly improved compound microscopes
 Added condenser and superior optics
 Eliminated blurry edges (spherical aberration) and
rainbowlike distortions (chromatic aberration)
Cell Theory
The Birth of Modern Medicine

 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

 Withimproved microscopes, examination of a
wide variety of specimens followed
 Concluded that “all organisms were
composed of cells”
 First tenet of cell theory
 Considered as the most important
breakthrough in biomedical history
 Allfunctions of the body are interpreted as
effects of cellular activity
Living in a Revolution
 Modern biomedical science
 Technological enhancements
 Advances in medical imaging have enhanced our diagnostic ability
and life-support strategies

 Genetic Revolution
 Human genome is finished
 Gene therapy is being used to treat disease

 Early pioneers were important

 Established
scientific way of thinking
 Replaced superstition with natural laws
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION
The Hierarchy of Complexity
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 Organism is composed of
organ systems Organism

 Organ systems composed of

organs

 Organs composed of tissues

 Tissues composed of cells Organ Tissue

Organ system

 Cells composed of organelles Cell

Macromolecule
Organelle

 Organelles composed of
molecules
Atom
Molecule

 Molecules composed of
atoms
Structural Organization of Matter
 Structural Organization of Matter
1. Chemical Level
a. Atoms
(Proton, Neutron, electrons)

b. Molecules
(Two or more atoms joined
together by either covalent
or ionic bonds)
Four biologically important
organic molecules in the
human body
a. Proteins which are
made from 20 different
Amino Acids
 Structural Organization of Matter
Four Biologically-
Important Organic
molecules:
b. Complex
Carbohydrates - made
from simple sugars
c. Nucleic Acids made
for nucleotides
d. Lipids made from fatty
acids and glycerol
2. Cells
(Smallest structural and
functional units of the
human body)
 Structural Organization of Matter
3. Tissues
(group of cells and the
materials surrounding
them that work together
to perform a particular
function)
4. Organs
(composed of two or
more tissues work
together to provide
specific functions and
they usually have specific
shapes)
 Structural Organization of Matter
5. Organ systems
(consist of one or more
organs that provide a
common function)
a. Integumentary system
b. Skeletal system
c. Muscular system
d. Nervous system
Structural Organization of Matter

e. Endocrine system
f. Cardiovascular system
g. Lymphatic system
h. Respiratory system
I. Digestive system
j. Urinary system
k. Reproductive system
Figure 1.2.1
Anatomical Variation

 No two humans are exactly alike

 70% most common structure

 30% anatomically variant
 Variable number of organs
 Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries

 Variation in organ locations (situs

solitus, situs inversus, dextrocardia,
situs perversus)
Anatomical Variation
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Normal

Pelvic kidney Horseshoe kidney

Normal

Variations in branches of the aorta

Anatomical Variation

Abdominal Aorta and Common Iliac Arteries

Physiological Variation
 Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity
 Typical physiological values
 Reference man
 22 years old, 154 lb, light physical activity
 Consumes 2,800 kcal/day
 Reference woman
 Same as man except 128 lb and 2,000
kcal/day
 Failure to consider variation can lead to
overmedication of elderly or medicating women on
the basis of research done on men
CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE LIVING HUMAN
ORGANISM
 Basic Life Processes

1. Metabolism
Sum of all biochemical
processes of cells, tissues,
organs, and organ systems
2. Responsiveness
Ability to detect and
respond to changes in the
internal and external
environment
3. Movement
Occurs at the intracellular,
cellular, organ levels
 Basic Life Processes

4. Growth
Increase in number of cells, size of
cells, tissues, organs, and the body.
Single cell to multicellular complex
organism
5. Differentiation
Process a cell undergoes to develop
from a unspecialized to a specialized
cell
6. Reproduction
Formation of new cells for growth,
repair, or replacement, or the
production of a new individual.
HOMEOSTASIS
 Basic Life Processes

 Homeostasis
Equilibrium of the body’s internal
environment produced by the
interaction of organ systems and
regulatory processes (feedback
systems).
Homeostasis is a dynamic
condition in response to changing
conditions.
 Homeostasis and Body Fluids

 Compartments
for Body Fluids
1. Intracellular
2. Extracellular
a. Interstitial
-the internal
environment
b. Plasma*
Control of Homeostasis

 Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by

 external stimuli
intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen
 internal stimuli
psychological stresses
exercise
 Disruptions are usually mild & temporary
 If homeostasis is not maintained, death may
result
CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS

 Homeostatic imbalances occur because of

disruptions from the external or internal environments.
 Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system
and endocrine system, acting together or
independently.
 The nervous system detects changes and sends
nerve impulses to counteract the disruption.
 The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by
secreting hormones.
 Whereas nerve impulses cause rapid changes,
hormones usually work more slowly.
 Examples: CO2, O2, temperature, pH, blood
pressure, …
Components of Feedback Loop

 Receptor
 monitors a controlled condition
 senses change in the body
 Integrating/Control center
 processes the sensory
information, “makes a decision,”
 determines next action/response
 Effector
 receives directions from the
control center
 carries out the final corrective
action to restore homeostasis
The Negative
Feedback
System
Negative Feedback
Systems
DECREASE STIMULI IF
TOO HIGH

INCREASE STIMULI IF
TOO LOW
Negative Feedback
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Sweating

37.5 oC
Core body temperature

(99.5 Vasodilation
oF)

37.0 oC Set point

(98.6 oF)

Vasoconstriction
36.5 oC
(97.7
oF)
Time

Shivering

 Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature

 If too warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and
sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)
 If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction)
and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism)
Postural Change in Blood Pressure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Person rises
from bed
Blood pressure rises Blood drains from
to normal; homeostasis upper body, creating
is restored homeostatic imbalance

Cardiac center
accelerates heartbeat Baroreceptors above
heart respond to drop
in blood pressure

Baroreceptors send signals

to cardiac center of brainstem
 Homeostatis and Negative
Feedback
 Sitting up in bed causes a drop in blood
pressure in the head and upper torso region
(local imbalance in homeostasis); detected by
baroreceptors

 Baroreceptors (sensory nerve endings) in the

arteries near the heart alert the cardiac center
in the brainstem. They transmit to the cardiac
center
 Homeostatis and Negative
Feedback
 Cardiac center sends nerve signals that
increase the heart rate and return the blood
pressure to normal; regulates heart rate

 Failure of this to feedback loop may produce

dizziness in the elderly
The Positive
Feedback System
Positive Feedback and Rapid
Change
 Self-amplifying cycle
 Leads to greater change in the same
direction
 Feedback loop is repeated—change
produces more change
 Normal way of producing rapid changes
 Occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein
digestion, fever, and generation of nerve
signals
Positive Feedback and Rapid
Change
 During birth, the head of the fetus pushes
against the cervix and stimulates its
nerve endings
 Hormone oxytocin is secreted from the
pituitary gland
 Oxytocin travels through the bloodstream to
the uterus stimulating it to contract
 This action pushes the fetus downward
toward cervix, thus stimulating the cervix
more, causing the positive feedback loop to
be repeated
Positive Feedback Loops
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3 Brain stimulates
pituitary gland to
secrete oxytocin

4
Oxytocin stimulates uterine
2 Nerve impulses contractions and pushes
from cervix fetus toward cervix
transmitted
to brain

1 Head of fetus
pushes against cervix
Homeostatic Imbalances

 Disruption of homeostasis can lead to disorder,

disease, aging and death
 Disorder is a general term for any change or
abnormality of function.
 Disease is a more specific term for an illness
characterized by a recognizable set of signs and
symptoms.
 A local disease is one that affects one part or a
limited region of the body.
 A systemic disease affects either the entire body
or several parts.
Homeostatic Imbalances

 Disease is a more specific term for an illness

characterized by a recognizable set of signs and
symptoms.
 Signs are objective changes that a clinician can
observe and measure; e.g., fever or rash.
 Symptoms are subjective changes in body
functions that are not apparent to an observer;
e.g., headache or nausea.
 Diagnosis is the art of distinguishing one disease from
another or determining the nature of a disease; a
diagnosis is generally arrived at after the taking of a
medical history and the administration of a physical
examination.
The End 121