IET Intelligent Transport Systems

Research Article

ISSN 1751-956X
Trajectory analysis for parking lot vacancy Received on 31st October 2014
Revised on 8th March 2016
detection system Accepted on 9th May 2016
doi: 10.1049/iet-its.2014.0271
www.ietdl.org

Imen Masmoudi 1, 2 ✉, Ali Wali 1, Anis Jamoussi 2, Mohamed Adel Alimi 1

1
Department of Engineering of Computer Systems, REGIM-Lab: Research Groups in Intelligent Machines University of Sfax, National
Engineering School of Sfax, BP 1173, Sfax 3038, Tunisia
2
Department of Image Processing, Power’s Mind: Enterprise for Video Surveillance Solutions Development, Sfax, Tunisia
✉ E-mail: imen.masmoudi@ieee.org

Abstract: Taking a vacant parking lot in crowded metropolitan areas is a major problem especially with the huge number
of vehicles. In this study, the authors provide a vision-based system for real-time management of parking spaces in the
case of outdoor parking. Different real-world challenges may face these systems such as weather conditions,
luminance variation, perspective distortion and inter-spaces occlusion. In this study, they propose a decisional module
based on a tracking approach that determines in real time the state of the parking lots and localises the vacant parking
spaces according to several extracted attributes. This decision is based on local characteristics of the parking spaces as
well as the performed vehicles’ events.

1 Introduction approach, they integrate a three-dimensional (3D) scene

Drivers in urban areas are suffering from the problem of finding and
locating available parking spaces, especially during the peak hours.
They continue to drive along the parking passages or the roads until
they find their need. However, this behaviour can lead to another
problem of traffic congestion. The main objective of a parking
management system is to ensure an easy task for the drivers to
find an available parking space through the roads.
The first proposed systems are relying on different kinds of
sensors such as the wireless or the ultrasonic ones. While these
techniques are able to detect exactly where the cars are parked,
they require high costs of installation and maintenance for each
individual parking lot. Thus, there is a growing interest in the use
of vision-based approaches as the surveillance cameras are already
installed in most of the parking stations. In addition, a single
installed camera can handle an important number of parking
spaces simultaneously without extra costs, while providing reliable
results. Masaki [1] presents the first proposed machine vision
systems for intelligent transportation solutions. Though more
sensitive to variations of lighting, weather conditions, shadow and
occlusion effects, many parking space detection algorithms have
already been proposed based on vision techniques.
Different approaches of presenting the parking model and detecting
the vacancies are proposed. Fusek et al. [2] and Tschentscher et al. [3]
present a parking space as a rectangular ground area to detect the
existent cars by extracting their descriptors. Lee et al. [4] represent
the parking spaces as rectangular regions of interest composed of
several blocks, and detect the vacancy using the entropy relying on
the number of detected foreground pixels within the region of interest
(ROI). Shih and Tsai [5] detect automatically the boundary lines
delimiting the parking spaces in the ground based on a wide range
camera and perform a pixel by pixel difference to detect the range of
foreground object introduced within this space, to detect if a parking
space is occupied or not.
Wu et al. [6] and Huang et al. [7] presented a two categories
classification of the existing approaches. The authors classify the
methods of parking spaces modelling into: car-oriented approaches
which consider the image area where it is probably the existence
of cars and extract vehicles characteristics within this area, and
space-oriented approaches which are based on the ground
extracted area of a parking space. The authors present then their
surface-based approach as a third category of systems. In their
information and consider a parking lot as a set of six different
planes, and for each normalised plane, the histogram of oriented
gradients features are extracted and compressed. Then a proposed
plane-based Bayesian hierarchical framework (BHF) is used to
integrate 3D scene information with the plane-based classification
results to obtain the status of the parking spaces. The approach
presented in [8] is based on 3D model for the parking spaces
representation too. Each parking lot volume is estimated by a
parallelepiped with a height of half of the average lengths of the
four base sides. Tomas [9] proposes a probabilistic model
representing all possible positions of car within a parking space.
This method provides a set of discriminative features and presents
a 3D probabilistic model in order to decide the presence of a vehicle.
In [10–12], Liu et al., Masmoudi et al. and Ng and Chua present
another category of approaches which relies on the learning and
classification of trajectories and events of cars. A feature vector is
extracted for each trajectory of an object in motion and the system
detects the vacancy or occupancy based on a classification.
Our project introduces a new system providing robust results for
parking vacancies detection to facilitate the task of finding an
available parking space. For the extraction of the parking model, we
propose a new on-street surfaces based model in order to reduce the
problem of inter-spaces occlusion. Then, we adopt a decisional
module to effectively detect the vacancies based on a set of
extracted attributes. These attributes present mainly the trajectories
analysis of the vehicles in motion, the degree of occupancy of each
parking lot as well as its local characterisation. The final phase of
our solution presents an information system that enables the
elaboration of a real-time mobile phone application providing real
state of parking over the map in order to assist the drivers.
This paper is organised as follows: in Section 2, we introduce an
overview of our adopted approach with the detailed used techniques
and modules. Section 3 evaluates the performance of our approach
with comparison according to other existent techniques. Finally,
Section 4 concludes our presented paper.
2 System overview
The main objective of our project is to provide a real-time solution
for vacant parking lots detection in crowded cities. The proposed
solution should be easily adapted with different parking

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Fig. 1 Proposed process

dispositions independently of the used camera orientation. So, it is
important to adapt an approach that can be generalised in different
contexts.
As introduced in Fig. 1, our process presents first an off-line phase
of configuration which will define the disposition of the studied
parking. The online phase presents a first step to extract data from
the video sequences, then a decisional module providing the final
decision according to the already extracted results and finally an
information system that provides a real-time update of the parking
information for further use.
2.1 3D parking modelling
The first phase is the parking modelling which is an off-line step
necessary to be achieved just one time while installing the camera

Fig. 2 Different parking models presentation

a Ground model
b 3D model
c Proposed model

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and the system in a new parking. This phase is crucial and can Table 1 Case of occlusion handling
influence the results of our paper. Fig. 2 presents first the main
Model Occupancy FP FN TP TN
two used models in the existent research, as well as our new
proposed one [13]. ground model (a) O, O, O 0 2 1 0
The first presented model in Fig. 2a is a basic model based on the (b) O, O, O 0 1 2 0
ground tracing of the parking spaces. The adoption of such a model proposed model (a) O, V, V 0 0 1 2
can accentuate the problem of inter-spaces occlusion, where a parked (b) O, O, V 0 0 2 1
car can cover an important part of its adjacent space next to it. The
model presented in Fig. 2b is a 3D model used to determine the
whole volume of each parking space presented as a cube. Fig. 2c Table 2 Temporal integration for parking events definition
presents our introduced ‘on-street surface’ model, which is partially
inspired from the 3D model. In this model, we are only interested st−1 st Event
in the surface of the parking space that is tangent to the street. The
idea is to preserve from the whole 3D cube presenting a parking out out out
out in entering
space, the most important area that can give us reliable results with in in in
a great reduction of the inter-spaces occlusion. Independently of the in out leaving
position of the camera and the disposition of the parking spaces in
the scene, these on-street surfaces, presented in Fig. 2c, can model
the parking lot with a meaningful reduction of the problem of consequently to detect and extract the objects in motion. It has the
occlusion. More details about our introduced model will be more advantage of re-estimating permanently the model of the
explained in Sections 2.3.2 and 2.3.4. background. It is reliable, efficient and can reduce the problems of
Fig. 3 demonstrates a case where a parked car can occlude the noise caused by the illumination changes and diverse weather
parking spaces next to it. To study this case, we perform our tests conditions in the scene at different times of the day. For example,
based on two different parking models. The first results are the apparition of a shadow in the scene and its change of position
obtained with a ground model and the second results are obtained throughout the day do not affect the results of foreground objects
based on our new proposed model. In this sample, we are detection and consequently the phase of tracking and parking state
interested in three successive parking spaces, and we present their detection. As detailed in [14], it presents each pixel of the image
states with ‘O’ if the space is occupied and with ‘V’ if it is vacant. with a mixture of N Gaussians. It estimates parametrically the
Table 1 points the obtained results for these two models and distribution of random variables modelling them as a sum of several
presents for each case the measures of FP: false positive, FN: false Gaussians called a kernel. This model is dynamically updated to
negative, TP: true positive and TN: true negative. We note that the affect each pixel to its corresponding distribution. This permits the
results given by the first model are confused and that each parked separation of the foreground mask of the scene from fixed background.
car hides the space next to it. However, we can conclude that our Each object present in the foreground plan will be extracted
proposed approach can handle this case and overcome the problem separately, and the vehicles are selected based on the dimensions
of occlusion. Since our state decision relies on the detection of the of the object. Thus, we will be able to select and track only the
on-street surface that the vehicle in motion is crossing. vehicles in motion through the scene to explore their behaviour
over time. The tracking is performed using the Kalman filter which
is a recursive approach for estimating the state of a given process.
2.2 Real-time data extraction These steps of objects in motion detection and vehicles tracking
are explained in Algorithm 1 (see Fig. 4).
Providing that our approach should be adapted for different parking
Besides the objects in motion detection and tracking, we locally
dispositions, we aim to introduce a real-time approach for detecting
explore the state of a parking space based on the speeded up
the vacancies of the parking lots independently of a specific
robust features (SURFs) speeded up robust features extraction in
architecture of the parking. Since we admit that our camera
order to strengthen the approach of event detection. As presented
provides fixed scene videos, we propose to detect and track the
in [15], the performed tests prove that the application of the
objects in motion. This allows to instantly analyse its trajectory, to
algorithm of SURF as a features descriptor provides good
detect its actions in the parking based on a temporal integration
performances for the local classification of the parking states. So,
and to calculate its degree of occupancy once it is inside a parking
we opted for the combination of the first approach of events
space (Table 2).
recognition and trajectory analysis with the local invariant features
The first phase is the extraction of the objects that are in motion in
extraction and classification.
the fixed scene. Providing this initial condition, we can opt to the
implementation of an adaptive background subtraction algorithm
that adaptively eliminates the background of the parking video and 2.3 Decisional module
extracts the foreground model containing the vehicles in motion.
In our process, we adapt the Gaussian mixture model algorithm to The final decision for a parking lot is based on a set of several
adaptively subtract the background model of the scene, and attributes that can characterise in real time, whether a local

Fig. 3 Case of inter-spaces occlusion

a Case a
b Case b

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& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 463
Fig. 4 Algorithm for vehicles in motion detection and tracking
description of the parking space volume or describe the trajectory of
an object in motion and its belonging to a parking space. During this
phase, we aim to explore the previously obtained results from the
SURF features extraction and objects in motion tracking in order
to extract the necessary attributes for the final decision module.
2.3.1 Trajectory analysis: Once we have extracted all the
objects that are in motion, it is important to follow each one
separately in order to analyse its trajectory over time. This analysis
is important for the understanding of each object trajectory
through the parking. Other than the actual position, a trajectory Tt
at an instant t can be characterised by a descriptor vector presented
with


Tt = Pt , Dt , Vt (1)
where Pt is the actual position of the tracked object at the instant
t and Dt represents the direction of motion of the object. Whether
it is passing from the street to the parking spaces or the inverse; Vt
is the measure of velocity of the object at t.
2.3.2 Parking events detection: The detection of the parking
events consists of the detection of the most important actions that
can perform a vehicle in a parking. At an instant t, we can
principally specify the event Et as
† Car Out: When a vehicle moves in the street out of the parking
spaces specified in our parking model.
† Car Entering: When a vehicle crosses the on-street surface of a
parking space and enters.
† Car In: When a vehicle is inside a parking space.
† Car Leaving: When a vehicle quits a parking space and goes to
the street.
The recognition of these events relies on the results of the tracking
of the detected foreground objects as well as the already extracted
Fig. 6 Car event detection
a Car ‘Out’
b Car ‘Entering’
c Car ‘In’
464
Fig. 5 Algorithm for vehicles’ events detection
parking model. The tracking provides real-time information about
the object’s position at an instant t. On the basis of this
information, we can determine if the vehicle in motion is
overlapping with a parking space. We can define each of the
previously defined parking events as a succession of vehicle’s
actions over time. So, it is important to perform a temporal
integration in order to detect these events while happening.
A car’s position pt at an instant t is defined according to the centre
of the bounding box surrounding it. We can verify if it is overlapping
with our extracted parking model or not according to its position. At
an instant t, a vehicle state st can be ‘Out’ of all parking spaces or ‘In’
a specific parking lot. To calculate this state, we present the on-street
surface of each parking space as a set of four segments (L1; L2; L3;
L4) as presented in Fig. 2c. A vehicle is considered crossing the
on-street surface only if its position is inside the surface delimited
with these four segments. The position of a given vehicle at the
coordinates (x, y) to the line L1( p11; p12) is calculated as
d1 = (p12 · x − p11 · x) × (y − p11 · y) − (p12 · y − p11 · y)
× (x − p11 · x) (2)
d2, d3 and d4 can be calculated similarly. The vehicle state st is ‘In’
and the tracked vehicle is considered crossing a parking on-surface
only if these four measurements are positive. By elaborating a
temporal integration of the previous states, we can define four
essential events of the vehicles in the parking.
The process of parking events detection, previously described, can
be more detailed in Algorithm 2 (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 6 presents a case where a vehicle passes through three
successive events in the parking. First the vehicle is ‘Out’ of all
the parking lots, then it is ‘Entering’ to the first parking space and
finally it is ‘In’.
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Fig. 7 Algorithm for degree of occupancy calculation
2.3.3 Degree of occupancy: A car ‘Entering’, ‘In’ or ‘Leaving’
a parking model can interfere with one or more parking space at the
same time which leads to confusion in results. To deal with this
problem, we introduce the calculation of the degree of occupancy
of a parking space by a vehicle. The idea is to calculate how much
a detected vehicle, interfering with a parking space, really belongs
to the volume of this space.
To verify if the vehicle is inside a parking volume j, we define the
cube presenting the parking lot as a polygon’s contour Lotj.
Moreover, we calculate, at an instant t, the degree of occupancy
Occ of the box Boxi delimiting the vehicle in motion to that cube.
We can accord to each pixel a relative degree of membership
according to its position compared with the parking cube. The
pixels in the centre present the highest level of belonging and they
are shown in darker colour. The more we move away from the
centre of the cube, the more the degree of membership is reduced
and the pixels are presented in a light colour. A detailed
description of this function is presented in Algorithm 3 (see Fig. 7).
To determine the occupancy Occt of the vehicle box Boxi in the
parking space cube Contourj, we calculate the percentage of the
pixels inside the volume Nbrin according to the total number
Nbrtotal of pixels in the area of the cube
Nbrin
Occt = . (3)
Nbrtotal
To decide if a pixel p(x, y) belongs or not to the parking space cube
Cj, we calculate the distance dxyj which measures the minimum of the
distances of the pixel from all the edges of the cube
dxyj = min d(p(x, y), c jk ). (4)
k the tree presented in Fig. 9.
where cjk is the segment k of the whole contour Contourj.
2.3.4 Features classification: Once the SURF key points vectors
are extracted, we pass to the phase of classification which is performed
initially to learn the dataset of images that present the car images and
no car images. In our case, we have to elaborate a binary classification
Cl to distinguish between the two cases of vacant spaces or occupied
spaces. The trained database will be then used in real time to decide on
the state of the parking spaces. For this phase, we opted for the support
vector machine (SVM) algorithm which predicts for each input data
which of the two given classes is the output.
The application of the SURF features extraction should be
performed based on region of interest images that represent in best
the real states of the parking spaces. To ensure this condition, we
propose to extract the middle plane from the parking cube volume
as regions of interest. As described in Fig. 8, the sample presents
two cases of a vacant parking space and an occupied one.
2.3.5 Decision tree: The final phase of our process is the
decisional module which decides of the vacancy or the occupancy
of the parking spaces involved in the first extracted model. After
the extraction of the main results of the trajectory tracking and
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Fig. 8 Regions of interest selection for the SURF extraction
analysis of the vehicles in motion and the local extraction and
classification of the SURF key points, we should perform a final
decision combining these parameters according to the gain in
information that presents each parameter.
We propose the use of the decision tree to produce a final decision
of the parking vacancies based on the different extracted attributes.
As defined in [16], a decision tree is a predictive model that is
used to classify an instance to a set of classes based on their
attributes’ values. The instances are classified by sorting them
down the decision tree from the root node to a leaf node which
provides the final classification of the instances. Every node in the
decision tree presents an attribute and each branch from this node
corresponds to a possible value that can present the attribute.
In our case of study, the decision tree can determine if a specific
foreground object in motion Oi occupies a region of parking space
Rj or not at an instant t. The attributes that construct the decision
tree are already extracted in the previous phases and are:
† D: the direction of motion of the object.
† V: the velocity of the object.
† E: the detected car event.
† Occ: the degree of occupancy.
† Cl: the SURF features classification.
To correctly construct the decision tree we should determine
which of these attributes is the best one to classify the instances.
We should first define the attribute to be set as the root of the tree.
For that purpose, each attribute is evaluated statistically to
determine how well it classifies the training examples according to
the algorithm iterative dichotomiser 3 (ID3).
Table 3 presents the calculated gain for each attribute and the one
having the best results is set in the root node of the tree.
Once we have determined the root node which is the degree of
occupancy, we iteratively repeat the calculation of gain in order to
finish the construction of the decision tree. The final results lead to
The novelty of our paper consists in the newly proposed approach
for vacant parking lots detection. The combination of the traditional
methods (Gaussian mixture model (GMM), Kalman, SURF) is used
as a tool in the first online phase, as presented in Fig. 1, to extract the
relevant information from the video stream. Our contribution is
focused on the decision about the vacancy of parking spaces based
on the decision module. In this module, we rely on several
attributes, used for the first time for parking vacancy detection
such as the velocity, the direction of vehicle, the degree of
occupancy of the vehicle inside a parking space as well as the
detection of parking events and the local classification. The final
decision, made based on these attributes according to their gain in
information, leads to a system with good performance.
Table 3 Information gain for the attributes
Attribute Gain, %
D 9.2304
V 10.2493
E 28.6605
Occ 28.8015
Cl 23.0583
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 Fig. 12 Mobile phone application

Fig. 9 Constructed decision tree

An algorithm describing the main process of data extraction and
decision making is presented in Algorithm 4 (see Fig. 10).
2.4 Drivers’ guidance
In this section, we present our information system proposed to
complement our vision-based approach for parking lots vacancies
detection. The real-time state of each covered parking station is
communicated to a central server once there is a change of state.
The gathering of all these data in the server is organised in an
XML file describing the relevant information for each parking
station, especially the real-time update of the number of vacant
parking spaces.
These information will serve to provide a global view about the
state of the parking stations at a city level. We propose a mobile
phone application with an interactive interface to the user. Fig. 11
presents the architecture of our implemented information system
where the mobile phone application is connected to the central
database via a Json Web Service. In this system, a driver can
choose a specified parking station and request our system to
receive the information about its real-time state.
The mobile phone application displays all the covered parking
stations within a map, as presented in Fig. 12, and gives the
possibility to the driver to navigate and to choose a specified
station. The user is also able to consult the real-time state of
vacancy of this chosen station by clicking on its logo. A detailed
description of this mobile phone application is provided by
Masmoudi et al. [17].

3 Experimental results

The development of our system was performed using the library

OpenCv and the measurements presented were taken with a
machine having the following characteristics: processor Intel Core
i5 and memory 1.2 GB.
The first performed tests, presented in Table 4, are focusing on the
necessary execution time depending on the evolution of the number
of moving vehicles simultaneously as well as the number of the
treated parking lots in the stations.
The evaluation of the effectiveness of our approach is performed
with several tests based on the database of video VIRAT [18]. Our
evaluation is based principally on the measurements of the FP rate,
the FN rate and the accuracy (ACC).
The database VIRAT provides different video surveillance records
for different parking situations and dispositions. To evaluate our
approach, we performed several tests for each of the parking
dispositions and the results are presented in Fig. 13.
In this table, we present also the measurements of the recall and
the precision. The performed measurements of the performance of
Fig. 10 Algorithm for final decision making

Table 4 Measurements of execution time in milliseconds

One Two Three Four Five
vehicle vehicles vehicles vehicles vehicles

10 154 171 177 192 201

spaces
20 160 170 184 204 215
spaces
30 168 179 200 220 236
spaces
40 175 193 211 237 255
spaces
50 185 196 224 249 271
spaces
60 188 205 238 256 284
spaces
Fig. 11 Architecture of web service

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Fig. 13 Performances of our approach
our approach under different parking dispositions provide good
results which overcome 94.15% of ACC and demonstrate that our
system is able to handle an important number of parking spaces
per camera even with large distances. The major problem that can
be caused, when the parking places are far away from the camera,
is the perspective distortion. A distant parking space occupies a
reduced region in the received video stream. This can affect the
results of our system, if we are only relying on a local
classification of this space. Besides the classification of the SURF
features, our decision module considers also the trajectory analysis
of the vehicle in motion as well as the detection of the parking
events, which are less sensitive to the farther distances. Thus, our
system is able to overcome the problem of perspective distortion.
Our approach should also perform well in different weather
conditions and illumination variations. So, it is important to test
their performances in these conditions. It was possible to retrieve a
dataset of videos from the Clemson University web site. The
obtained dataset contains records for three different days with
several weather conditions. The first day is a typical day condition,
the second day is so sunny and the third day is cloudy. The
performed tests within this database lead to the results presented in
Fig. 14.
Though the poor quality of the videos available in the dataset, the
obtained results prove that the performance of our method reach a
rate of 94.23% of ACC at least, and overcome the rate of 95.75%
for recall and 97.16% for the precision. These tests prove also that
our measurements can resist to the different weather conditions
and illumination variation.
To compare our approach to other implemented methods, we
opted for the development of several approaches such as the
method presented in [3] and the approach of [19]. The evaluation
was based on the database VIRAT and performed within several
video sequences of different parking dispositions. Table 5 presents
average measurements of recall and precision for each approach
with comparison with our newly proposed approach. Moreover,
Fig. 14 Results for different weather conditions
Table 5 Approaches results comparison
Recall Precision Computation time, ms
approach [3] 0.8 0.89 142
approach [19] 0.94 0.89 165
our approach 0.97 0.94 154
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& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
we present also the average of computation time in milliseconds as
it was implemented.
4 Conclusion
This paper presents a vision-based approach to detect the vacancies
of parking spaces in an outdoor context. We introduce first a new
parking model based on the vertical on-street surfaces in order to
handle the problem of inter-spaces occlusion and to correctly
represent the parking independently of its disposition according to
the surveillance camera. Unlike the previous proposed approaches,
the elaboration of the decision module allowed us to combine a
local classification approach and a trajectory-based approach in
order to provide efficient results for a final decision making. The
obtained results show good performances of the system and that it
is proposed in order to operate in real-world situations and
approve the previously proposed systems.
Further the first phase of vision-based detection of vacant parking
places, our proposed system provides also drivers’ guidance module.
It provides a real-time update of the parking spaces to the drivers via
a mobile phone application in order to guide them and facilitate the
task of finding an available parking space.
More amelioration needs to be performed in order to enlarge the
capacity of our system and make it able to cover and treat several
number of parking stations simultaneously while maintaining the
good performance of our system.
5 Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of this work by grants
from the General Direction of Scientific Research (DGRST),
Tunisia, under the ARUB programme. The research and
innovation are performed in the framework of a thesis MOBIDOC
financed by the European under the programme Project of support
for Research and innovation System (PASRI).
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