Reciprocating Engine

Engr. Ren Ren Talag

AERO BOARD EXAM 2011
Outlines of the Review:
Part I: Engine Classifications, Construction, and
Nomenclature

Part II: Engine Characteristics, Definition, and

Principles

Part III: Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic

Applications
Part I: Engine Classifications,
Constructions, and Nomenclature
What is a Reciprocating Engine?

 A reciprocating engine is a type of heat engine

that derives its name from the back-and-forth,
or reciprocating movement of its pistons. It is
this reciprocating motion that produces the
mechanical energy needed to accomplish work.
Engine Requirements:
 Lightweight – powerplant weight must be kept as
low as possible to provide greater weight for
useful load and provide a margin of safety.
 Reliability – a powerplant is reliable when it can
be depended upon to do what it is intended for it
to do by the manufacturer.
 Durability – this is the measure the engine life,
while maintaining the desired reliability.
 Compactness – it is necessary to affect proper
streamlining and balance of the airplane, and in
single engine airplane, the shape and size of the
engine affects the visibility of the pilot.
 Flexibility – the ability to operate efficiently
regardless of the conditions.
 Weight per horsepower – the ratio of the weight
of the engine to the horsepower it can produce.
This is the factor that engine manufacturers
consider the most. The engine must produce a
large amount of power but must also be light in
construction.
 Specific power output – the amount of power
produced in a given amount of fuel.
 Fuel economy – it is a factor of the fuel
characteristics, fuel must be more resistant to
detonation, to allow an increase in engine
compression ratio.
 Balance – if the powerplant is free from
vibration, it is said to be balance.
 Reasonable cost – the first cost must be low
enough to meet the competition in the market and
be accepted by the airframe manufacturer.
 Economy of operation – it must have a
reasonable cost of operation, it must be such
that it will make profit for the operator.
Types of Reciprocating Engine:
- Reciprocating engine is usually classified according to its cylinder
arrangement namely:

 Radial engine
- Single row
- Double row
- Multiple row or corncob
 In-Line engine
- In line upright
- In line inverted
 V-Type engine
- V type upright
- V type inverted
- Double V or Fan type
 Opposed or Flat type engine
 X type engine
Radial Engines
A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders
arranged radially about a central crankcase.
single-row radial engine has an odd number of cylinders
attached radially to a crankcase. A typical configuration
consists of five to nine cylinders evenly spaced on the
same circular plane with all pistons connected to a single
crankshaft.
multiple-row radial engines consisted of two single row
engines in line with each other connected to a single
crankshaft. This type of engine is sometimes referred to
as a double-row radial engine and typically has a total of
14 or 18 cylinders.
Greatest drag of all types
Most widely used engines ever built
Figure 1-2. Radial engines helped
revolutionize aviation with their high power
and dependability.
Trivia:
 One of the largest multiple-row radial engines was the Pratt and
Whitney R-4360, which consisted of 28 cylinders arranged in four
staggered rows of seven cylinders each. The R-4360 developed a
maximum 3,400 horsepower and represented the most powerful
production radial engine ever used at that time.
In-Line Engines
An in-line engine generally has an even number of
cylinders that are aligned in a single row parallel
with the crankshaft. This engine can be either
liq-uid-cooled or air cooled and the pistons can
be located either upright above the crankshaft or
inverted below the crankshaft.
Figure 1-4. A popular version of the in-line engine
consisted of cylinders that were inverted. A typical in-
line engine con-sists of four to six cylinders and
develops anywhere from 90 to 200 horsepower.
In-line Engines Advantages
An in-line engine has a comparatively small
frontal area and, therefore, allows for better
streamlining. Least drag.
Another advantage of the in-line engine is that,
when mounted with the cylinders inverted, the
crankshaft is higher off the ground. The higher
crankshaft allowed greater propeller ground
clearance which, in turn, permitted the use of
shorter landing gear.
In-Line Engines Disadvantages:
have relatively low power-to-weight ratios.
 the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled in-line
engine receive relatively little cooling air, so in-
line engines were typically limited to only four or
six cylinders.
 With these limitations, most in-line engine
designs were confined to low- and medium-
horsepower engines used in light aircraft.
V-type Engines
the cylinders of a V-type engine are arranged around
a single crankshaft in two in-line banks that are 45,
60, or 90 degrees apart.
Since V-type engines had two rows of cylinders, they
were typically capable of producing more horsepower
than an in-line engine.
The cylinders on a V-type engine could be above the
crankshaft or below it, in which case the engine is
referred to as an inverted V-type engine.
Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders and were
either liquid-cooled or air cooled.
Figure 1-5. V-type engines provide an
excellent combina-tion of weight, power,
and small frontal area.
Opposed Engines
opposed-type engines are the most popular
reciprocating engines used on light aircraft.
 A typical opposed engine can produce as little as
36 horsepower to as much as 400 horsepower.
 always have an even number of cylinders, and a
cylinder on one side of a crankcase "opposes" a
cylinder on the other side.
 While some opposed engines are liquid-cooled,
the majority are air cooled.
Figure 1-6. A horizontally opposed engine
combines a good power-to-weight ratio with
a relatively small frontal area. These
engines power most light aircraft in use
today.
Opposed Engines Continued...
Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight
ratios because they have a comparatively small,
lightweight crankcase.
 an opposed engine's compact cylinder arrangement
reduces the engine's frontal area and allows a
streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic
drag.
 opposed engines typically vibrate less than other
engines because an opposed engine's power impulses
tend to cancel each other.
 Most efficient, dependable, and economical type
available for light aircraft.
Engine Cooling
Effects of Excessive Heat:
 Adversely affects the combustion of fuel and air
charge.
 Weakens and shortens life of engine parts
 Impairs lubrication
Engine Cooling:
 Air Cooling – thin metal fins project from the
outer surface of the walls and heads of the
engine cylinders (cooling fins). Deflector baffles
are also used which are fastened around the
cylinders to direct the flow of air to obtain
maximum cooling.
 Liquid Cooling – consists of liquid passages
around the cylinders and other hot spots of the
engine. The cooling liquid used is ethylene glycol
or mixture of ethylene glycol and water.
Principal advantages of air cooling:
 Less weight than liquid cooled
 Less affected by weather conditions
Components of liquid cooling system:
 Radiator – is the component by which the liquid is
cooled
 Thermostatic element – govern the amount of
cooling applied to the liquid
 Coolant pump – circulates the cooling fluid
 Pipes and Hoses
Engine Components
The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the
crankcase, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, valves,
valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft.
Crankcase
The crankcase is the foundation of a
reciprocating engine. It contains the engine's
internal parts and provides a mounting surface
for the engine cylinders and external
accessories.
The crankcase provides a tight enclosure for the
lubricating oil as well as a means of attaching a
complete engine to an airframe.
 most aircraft crankcases are made of cast
aluminum alloys.
Types of Engine Crankcases:
 Opposed engine crankcase
 Radial engine crankcase
Opposed Engine Crankcase
A typical horizontally opposed engine crankcase
consists of two halves of cast aluminum alloy
that are manufactured either with sand castings
or by using permanent molds
Figure 1-8. In addition to the transverse webs that support the main
bearings, a set of camshaft bosses are typically cast into a crankcase.
These bosses support the camshaft which is part of the valve
operating mechanism.
Radial Engine Crankcase
radial engine crankcases are divided into distinct
sections.
The number of sections can be as few as three or
as many as seven depending on the size and type
of engine.
In general, a typical radial engine crankcase
separates into four main sections: the nose
section, the power section, the supercharger
section, and the accessory section.
Figure 1-9. The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are the
nose section, power section, supercharger section, and accessory
section.
Nose Section
The nose section is mounted at the front of a
radial engine crankcase and bolts directly to the
power section.
 The nose section usually houses and supports a
propeller governor drive shaft, the propeller
shaft, a cam ring, and a propeller reduction gear
assembly if required
 In addition, many nose sections have mounting
points for magnetos and other engine
accessories.
Main or Power Section
represents the section of the crankcase where
the reciprocating motion of the pistons is
converted to the rotary motion of the crank-
shaft.
 supports crankshaft bearings, where cylinders
are mounted.
Diffuser/Supercharger Section
located directly behind the power section and is
generally made of cast aluminum alloy or
magnesium.
 As its name implies, this section houses the
supercharger and its related components.
 also called “fuel induction and distribution
section”. Provides housing for attachments of
induction pipes, manifold pressure lines.
Accessory Section
 A typical accessory section houses gear trains
containing both spur- and bevel-type gears that
drive various engine components and accessories.
 Has mounting pads for fuel pump, oil pump,
tachometer generators etc.
The Four Basic Power Delivering Parts:
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Crankshaft
Cylinders
 The cylinder provides a combustion chamber where
the burning and expansion of gases takes place to
produce power.
 Considered as the powerhouse of the engine, where
the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to
mechanical energy.
 A cylinder houses the piston and connecting rod
assembly as well as the valves and spark plugs.
 a cylinder must be strong enough to withstand the
internal pressures developed during engine operation
yet be lightweight to minimize engine weight.
Cylinders Continued...
 Transmits power through pistons, connecting
rods and rotate the crankshaft.
 Dissipates substantial amount of heat produced
by the combustion of fuel.
 The two parts are cylinder head and the cylinder
barrel.
Figure 1-30. The cylinder assembly along with the piston assembly,
connecting rods, crankshaft, and crankcase constitute the power section
of a reciprocating engine.
Cylinder Barrel
The most commonly used material is a high-
strength steel alloy such as chromium-
molybdenum steel (SAE 4130 or 4140), or nickel
chromium molybdenum steel.
 The lower cylinders on radial engines and all the
cylinders on inverted engines typically employ
cylinders with extended cylinder skirts.
The exterior of a cylinder barrel consists of
several thin cooling fins that are machined into
the exterior cylinder wall
Cylinder Heads
 The cylinder head acts as a lid on the cylinder barrel to
provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.
 cylinder heads contain intake and exhaust valve ports,
spark plugs, valve actuating mechanisms, and also serve
to conduct heat away from the cylinder barrels.
 The inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat, semi-
spherical, or peaked, to resemble the shape of a house
roof.
 the semi-spherical type has proved to be the most
satisfactory because it is stronger and provides for more
rapid and thorough scavenging of exhaust gases.
Pistons
The piston in a reciprocating engine is a
cylindrical plunger that moves up and down, back
and forth within a cylinder.
Pistons perform two primary functions; first,
they draw fuel and air into a cylinder, compress
the gases, and purge burned exhaust gases from
the cylinder; second, they transmit the force
produced by combustion to the crankshaft.
 Usually made of aluminum alloy AMS 4140 for
forged pistons Alcoa 132 alloy for cast pistons.
 Piston speed is maximum during the first and
fourth quarters of crankshaft rotation.
 Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F and
pressures may be as high as 500 psi or up.
Parts of a Piston
 Piston Head - The piston's top surface is called the
piston head and is directly exposed to the heat of
combustion.
 Ring Grooves - cut into a piston's outside surface
to hold a set of piston rings. As many as six ring
grooves may be machined around a piston.
 Ring Land - The portion of the piston between the
ring grooves.
 Piston pin boss - is an enlarged area inside the
piston that provides additional bearing area for a
piston pin which passes through the piston pin boss
to attach the piston to a connecting rod.
 Piston skirt - To help align a piston in a cylinder,
the piston base is extended to form the piston
skirt.
Piston Head Designs

Figure 1-24. Most modern aircraft engines use flat-head pistons.

However, as an aviation technician, you should be familiar with all
piston head designs.
Cam-Ground Piston
 All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to
the added mass at the piston boss, most pistons
expand more along the piston boss than
perpendicular to the piston boss.
 This uneven expansion can cause a piston to take on
an oblong, or oval shape, at normal engine operating
temperatures, resulting in uneven piston and cylinder
wear.
 One way to compensate for this is with a cam ground
piston. A cam ground piston is machined with a
slightly oval shape. That is, the diameter of the
piston parallel to the piston boss is slightly less
than the diameter per-pendicular to the piston boss.
Figure 1-25. Several engines now use cam ground pistons to
compensate for the greater expansion parallel to the piston boss
during engine operation. The diameter of a cam ground piston
measures several thousandths of an inch larger perpendicular to
the piston boss than parallel to the piston boss.
Piston Rings
Piston rings perform three functions in aircraft
reciprocating engines:
 They prevent leakage of gas pressure from the
combustion chamber,
 reduce oil seepage into the combustion chamber,
 transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder
walls.
Piston Ring Joints:
 Butt
 Step
 Angle

Figure 1-26. Of the three types of joints used in

piston ring gaps, the butt joint is the most
common in aircraft engines.
Types of Piston Rings:
 Compression rings
 Oil rings
Compression Rings
 Compression rings prevent gas from escaping
past the piston during engine operation and are
placed in the ring grooves immediately below the
piston head.
 most aircraft engines typically use two or three
compression rings on each piston.
 The cross section of a compression ring can be
rec-tangular, wedge shaped, or tapered.
Figure 1-27. Compression rings are
Figure 1-28. Of the three different
installed in the upper ring grooves
ring cross sections, the tapered
and help prevent the combustion
face presents the narrowest
gases from escaping by a piston. Oil
bearing edge to the cylinder wall to
rings, on the other hand, are
help reduce friction and hasten ring
installed near the middle and
seating.
bottom of a piston and con-trol the
amount of oil applied to the
cylinder wall.
Oil Rings
 Oil rings control the amount of oil that is applied
to the cylinder walls as well as prevent oil from
entering the combustion chamber.
 The two types of oil rings that are found on
most engines are oil control rings and oil scraper
rings.
Oil Control Rings
Oil control rings are placed in the grooves
immediately below the compression rings.
 The primary purpose of oil control rings is to
regulate the thickness of the oil film on the
cylinder wall.
 To allow an oil control ring to remove excess oil
and return it to the crankcase, small holes are
drilled in the piston ring grooves, or ring lands.
Oil Scraper Rings
used to regulate the amount of oil that passes
between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall.
 sometimes called an oil wiper ring, usually has a
beveled face and is installed in a ring groove at
the bottom of the piston skirt.
Figure 1-29. An oil scraper ring installed with its beveled edge away from
the cylinder head forces oil upward along the cylinder wall when the piston
moves upward. However, if the beveled edge is facing the cylinder head, the
ring scrapes oil downward to the crankcase when the piston moves down.
Piston Pin
A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting
rod.
 Piston pins are sometimes called wrist pins
Piston Pin Classifications:
 Stationary - are held tightly in place by a
setscrew that prevents movement.
 Semi-floating - retained stationary in the
connecting rod by a set clamp that engages a slot
in the pin. Allows little movement.
 Full-floating - free to rotate in both the
connecting rod and the piston, and are used in
most modern aircraft engines.
Connecting Rods
 The connecting rod is the link which transmits
the force exerted on a piston to a crankshaft.
 Most connecting rods are made of a durable
steel alloy; however, aluminum can be used with
low horsepower engines.
 One end of a connecting rod connects to the
crankshaft and is called the crankpin end
 the other end connects to the piston and is
called the piston end.
Types of Connecting Rods:
 Plain Type
 Master and Articulated
 Fork and Blade
Plain type
Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and in-
line engines.
Master and Articulated
The master-and-articulated rod assembly is
commonly used in radial engines.
 With this type of assembly, one piston in each row
of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a
master rod.
 The remaining pistons are connected to the master
rod by articulated rods.
Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one
master rod and eight articulating rods, while a double
row 18 cylinder engine has two master rods and 16
articulating rods.
Figure 1-20. Articulated rods are attached to the master rod
by knuckle pins, that are pressed into holes in the master rod
flanges during assembly. A knuckle pin lock plate is then
installed to retain the pins.
Fork and Blade
The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used
primarily in V-type engines and consists of a fork
connecting rod and a blade connecting rod.
Figure 1-22. A fork-and-blade rod assembly used in a V-type engine
consists of a blade connecting rod whose crankpin end fits between
the prongs of the fork connecting rod.
Valves
 Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and
out of a cylinder by opening and closing at
predetermined times in the combustion process.
 Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and one
exhaust valve.
 The intake valve controls the amount of fuel/air
mixture that enters a cylinder through the intake
port,
 while the exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to
exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.
intake valves operate at lower temperatures
than exhaust valves
Figure 1-37. Aircraft engine valves are classified according to
their head profile.
To help dissipate heat better, some exhaust
valve stems are hollowed out and then partially
filled with metallic sodium. When installed in an
operating engine, the sodium melts when the
valve stem reaches approximately 208 degrees
Fahrenheit. The melted sodium circulates
naturally due to the up and down motion of the
valve and helps carry heat from the valve head
into the stem where it is dissipated through the
cylinder head.
Figure 1-39. Some valves are filled with metallic sodium to reduce
their operating temperatures. During operation, the sodium melts
and transfers heat to the valve stem where the heat is conducted
away by the cylinder head.
Valve Seating Components

Valve spring retainers

 Valve Face - portion of the valve that creates a seal at
the intake and exhaust ports.
 Valve Seat - a circular ring of hardened metal that
provides a uniform sealing surface for the valve face.
 Valve Guide - is a cylindrical sleeve that provides
support to the valve stem and keeps the valve face
aligned with the valve seat.
 Valve Springs - are helical-coiled springs that are
installed in the cylinder head and provide the force that
holds the valve face firmly against the valve seat.
 Valve Spring Retainer – holds the valve springs in place
Valve Operating Mechanisms:
open each valve at the correct time, hold it open
for a certain period, and then close the valve.
 Consists of Camshaft, valve lifter or tappet,
push rod, and rocker arm
Figure 1-41. The components in a typical valve operating
mechanism, include a camshaft or cam ring, a tappet or lifter, a
push rod, and a rocker arm.
 Camshaft – a device for actuating the valve lifting mechanism.
Typically used in opposed engines, camshaft consists of a round
shaft with a series of cams, or lobes, that transform the circular
motion of the crankshaft to the linear motion needed to actuate a
valve.
 Cam ring - in place of a camshaft, a radial engine uses one or two
cam rings, depending on the number of cylinder rows. A circular piece
of steel with a series of raised cam lobes on its outer edge.
 Valve lifter or tappet – a mechanism to transmit the force of the
cam to the push rod
 Push Rod – a steel or aluminum alloy rod or tube situated between
the valve lifter and the rocker arm to transmit the motion of the
valve lifter.
 Rocker Arm – a pivoted arm mounted on the bearings of the cylinder
head to open and close the valves.
Figure 1-42. The raised lobe on a camshaft transforms the rotary motion of
the camshaft to linear motion.
Figure 1-43. In a typical opposed engine, the camshaft timing
gear has twice as many teeth as the gear on the crank-shaft.
In this configuration, the camshaft is driven at one-half the
crankshaft's rotational speed.
Figure 1-49. A radial
engine valve operating
mechanism performs the
same functions as the
mechanism used in an
opposed engine.
To determine a given cam ring's rotation speed,
you must know the number of lobes on the cam
ring, the cam ring's direction of rotation relative
to the crankshaft, and the number of cylinders
on the engine.
Crankshafts
The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating
engine.
 Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating
motion of the pistons and connecting rods into rotary
motion to turn a propeller.
 A typical crankshaft has one or more cranks, or
throws, located at specified points along its length.
 Since crankshafts must withstand high stress, they
are generally forged from a strong alloy such as
chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.
Parts of a Crankshaft
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal
 Crankpin
 Crank cheek or crank arm
 Counterweights and dampers
Figure 1-10. All crankshafts consist of a main bearing journal,
one or more crankpins, and several crank cheeks.
Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal - represent the
centreline of a crankshaft and support the
crankshaft as it rotates in the main bearings. Center
of rotation of the crankshaft.
Crankpin - or connecting-rod bearing journals or
throws, serve as attachment points for the
connecting rods. To reduce total crankshaft weight,
crankpins are usually hollow. This hollow
construction also provides a passage for lubricating
oil. In addition, a hollow crankpin serves as a
collection chamber for sludge, dirt, carbon deposits,
and other foreign material. This is called sludge
chamber
Crankcheek or crankarm - required to connect
the crankpin to the crankshaft.
 Counterweights and dampers - helps balance the
crankshaft. Its function is to relieve the whip and
vibration caused by rotation of the crankshaft.
Crankshaft Balance
 Statically Balance
 Dynamically Balance
Statically Balanced
 when the weight of an entire crankshaft
assembly is balanced around its axis of rotation.
 Once a crankshaft is statically balanced it must
be dynamically balanced.
Dynamic Balance
 refers to balancing the centrifugal forces
created by a rotating crankshaft and the impact
forces created by an engine's power impulses.
 The most common means of dynamically balancing
a crankshaft is through the use of dynamic
dampers.
 A dynamic damper is a weight which is fastened
to a crankshaft's crank cheek assembly in such a
way that it is free to move back and forth in a
small arc.
Each time a cylinder fires, a
pulse is transmitted into the
crankshaft that causes it to
flex. When the engine is
running, the crankshaft
receives hundreds of these
pulses each minute and flexes,
or vibrates, constantly. To help
minimize these vibrations, the
dynamic damper oscillates, or
swings, each time the
crankshaft receives a pulse
from a firing cylinder. These
oscillations are opposite the
crankshaft vibra-tions and,
therefore, absorb some of the
force pro-duced by the power
impulse.
Figure 1-13. Think of the crankshaft
as a pendulum that swings at its
natural frequency once a force is
applied. The greater the force, the
greater the distance the pendulum
swings. However, if a second
pendulum is suspended from the
first and a force is applied, the
second pendulum begins to oscillate
opposite the applied force. This
opposite oscillation dampens the
oscillation of the first pendulum
leaving it nearly stationary. You can
think of a dynamic damper as a
short pendulum hung from a
crankshaft that is tuned to the
frequency of the power impulses.
Crankshaft Types
• The type of crankshaft used on a particular
engine depends on the number and arrangement
of an engine's cylinders.
 Single Throw
 Two Throw
 Four Throw
 Six Throw
Single Throw or 360 degree
 used on single-row radial engines.
 As its name implies, a single-throw crankshaft
consists of a single crankpin with two main
journals that support the crankshaft in the
crankcase.
 A single-throw crankshaft may be constructed
out of either one or two pieces.
Figure 1-14. With a one-piece,
single-throw crankshaft, the
entire crankshaft is cast as
one solid piece. However, with
a clamp type two-piece
crankshaft, the two pieces are
held together by a bolt that
passes through the crankpin.
Two Throw
 Used on Twin-row radial engines, one throw for
each bank of cylinders.
 The throws on a two-throw crankshaft are
typically set 180 degrees from each other and
may consist of either one or three pieces.
Four Throw
 used on four cylinder opposed engines and four
cylinder in-line engines.

Figure 1-15. A typical four-throw crankshaft

used in a horizontally opposed engine is
machined as one piece with throws that are 180
degrees apart.
Four Throw Crankshaft
Six Throw
 Used on six cylinder opposed and in-line engines
and 12 cylinder V-type engines.

Figure 1-16. With a typical six-throw crankshaft, the

throws are 60 degrees apart. On the six throw crankshaft
pictured above, the crank journals are numbered from the
flanged end. If you were to number each throw in 60•
increments from the flanged end, the order would be
1,4,5, 2,3,6.
Six throw crankshaft
Bearings
 A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces
friction between two moving parts.
 A part in which a journal, pivot, shaft turns or
revolves.
 Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft
engine include the main journals, crankpins,
connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts.
 There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move
in relation to each other. One is by the sliding
movement of one metal against another, and the
second is for one surface to roll over another.
Types of Bearings
 Plain Bearing
 Ball Bearing
 Roller Bearing
Figure 1-17. Of the three most common types of bearings used in reciprocating
engines, the plain bearing relies on the sliding movement of one metal against
another, while both roller and ball bearings have one surface roll over
another.
Plain Bearings
 Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft
main bearings, cam ring and camshaft bearings,
connecting rod end bearings, and accessory drive
shaft bearings.

 These bearings are typically subject to radial

loads only
Ball Bearings
 A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner
and outer races, one or more sets of polished steel
balls, and a bearing retainer.
 The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept
evenly spaced by the bearing retainer, while the inner
and outer bearing races provide a smooth surface for
the balls to roll over.
 ball bearings have the least amount of rolling
friction.
 ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust
loads
Roller Bearings
 Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball
bearings except that polished steel rollers are used
instead of balls
 The rollers provide a greater contact area and a
corresponding increase in rolling friction over that of
a ball bearing.
 Has two types namely: straight roller bearings which
suitable when the bearing is subjected to radial loads
only such as crankshafts main bearings, and tapered
roller bearings that allow the bearing to withstand
both radial and thrust loads.
Straight Roller Bearings
Tapered Roller Bearings
Engine Controls
 Throttle – controls the engine power
 Propeller Control – for constant speed and
controllable pitch propeller
 Mixture Control – used to adjust fuel air mixture
with settings, full rich, lean, idle cut off
 Carburator air heater – operate the gate valve in
the air induction system to provide either cold air or
hot air for carburator. Heated air is required when in
danger of icing.
 Miscellaneous Engine Controls – includes cowl flaps,
oil coolers, superchargers etc.
 Throttle Propeller Control

Mixture Control
Part II:
Engine Characteristics, Definition and
Principles
 Cycle – series of events returning to its original
state.
Engine Cycle – series of events that an internal
combustion engine undergoes while it is operating
and delivering power. There are two revolutions
of the crankshaft for each cycle of the engine.
Thermodynamic Cycles of Heat engine:
 Carnot cycle
 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Brayton Cycle
Engine Geometry:
 Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position of the
piston inside the cylinder when it reaches the top
most of its travel.
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the position of the
piston inside the cylinder when it reaches the
bottom most of its travel.
 Stroke (S) – the distance that the piston travels
from the top dead center to the bottom dead
center
Engine Geometry continued...
 Bore – the inside diameter of the cylinder
 Piston displacement or volume displacement (VD)
– the volume being travelled by the piston as it
moves from the TDC to the BDC. The product of
the area of the piston, length of the stroke, and
the number of cylinders.
 Clearance volume (Vc) – the volume within the
cylinder when the piston is at the TDC.
 Total volume (VT) – the over all or total volume
within the cylinder.
Figure 1-57. One stroke is equivalent to the distance a
piston head travels between bottom dead center and top
dead center. In all reciprocating engines, one complete
stroke occurs with each 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
The Four Stroke Engine
The Four Stroke Engine
The four stroke engine was first demonstrated
by Nikolaus Otto in 1876, hence it is also known
as the Otto cycle. The technically correct term is
actually four stroke cycle. The four stroke
engine is probably the most common engine type
nowadays. It powers almost all cars and trucks.
The Four Stroke Five Event engine Cycle:
Strokes: Events:
Intake Intake
Compression Compression
Power Ignition
Exhaust Power or Expansion
Exhaust or Scavenging
Intake. During the intake stroke, the
piston moves downward, drawing a fresh
charge of vaporized fuel/air mixture. The
illustrated engine features a 'poppet' intake
valve which is drawn open by the vacuum
produced by the intake stroke. Some early
engines worked this way, however most
modern engines incorporate an extra
cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the
exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held
shut by a spring (not illustrated here).
Compression. As the piston rises the poppet
valve is forced shut by the increased
cylinder pressure. Flywheel momentum
drives the piston upward, compressing the
fuel/air mixture.
Power. At the top of the compression
stroke the spark plug fires, igniting the
compressed fuel. As the fuel burns it
expands, driving the piston downward.
Exhaust. At the bottom of the power
stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by the
cam/lifter mechanism. The upward stroke
of the piston drives the exhausted fuel out
of the cylinder.
Firing Order
 An engine's firing order represents the
sequence in which the ignition event occurs in
different cylinders.
 Each engine is designed with a specific firing
order to maintain balance and reduce vibration.
The Two Stroke Cycle
Two Stroke Cycle
 The two-stroke cycle is similar to the four-
stroke cycle in that the same five events occur in
each operating cycle.
 However, the five events occur in two piston
strokes rather than four strokes. This means
that one cycle is completed in one crankshaft
revolution.
Two Stroke, Three events cycle:
Stroke:
Compression
Power, Intake, exhaust stroke

Events:
Compression
Ignition and Power
Exhaust and Intake
Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into
and out of the cylinder through the intake and exhaust ports. This eliminates
the need for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating
mechanisms. This sim-plifies a two-stroke engine's construction and minimizes
weight.
Two Stroke Cycle Operation:
• YouTube - Two stroke engine working.flv
• YouTube - 2- stroke engine.flv
Two Stroke Cycle Operation:
As a two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves
up and two events occur simultaneously.
 The piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the
cylinder and creates an area of low pressure
within the crankcase. This low pressure pulls fuel
and air into the crankcase through a check valve.
 Once the piston is a few degrees before top
dead center, ignition occurs and the fuel/air
mixture begins to burn.
As the piston passes top dead center the pressure from
the expanding gases begin to force the piston downward
on the power stroke.
 This downward stroke also compresses the fuel/air
charge in the crankcase. As the piston approaches the
bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust port is
uncovered and spent gases are purged from the cylinder.
 A split second later, the piston uncovers the intake port
and allows the pressurized fuel/air charge in the
crankcase to enter the cylinder.
 The cycle then repeats itself as the piston compresses
the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and draws a fresh
fuel/air charge into the crankcase.
The Diesel Engine
The Diesel Engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine
which operates using the diesel cycle named after
Dr. Rudolph Diesel
Diesel engines have the highest rate of energy to
fuel (kwh/lbs) compared to any internal or
external combustion engine
The defining feature of the diesel engine is the
use of compression ignition to burn the fuel,
which is injected into the combustion chamber
during the final stage of compression
 The four stroke of diesel engine
1. Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in
by the piston sliding downward.
2. Compression stroke: The piston
compresses the air above and uses
thereby work, performed by the
crankshaft.
3. Power stroke: In the upper dead- Fuel nozzle
center, the air is max. compressed:
Pressure and Temperature are very
high. Now the black injection pump
injects heavy fuel in the hot air. By the
high temperature the fuel gets ignited
immediately (auto ignition). The piston
gets pressed downward and performs
work to the crankshaft.
4. Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust
gases are ejected out of the cylinder
through a second valve by the piston
sliding upward again.
Diesel vs. Gasoline
Diesel vs. Gasoline
Gasoline does not  Diesel on the other hand,
does not require a spark
self-ignite when plug to ignite it because it
generates enough heat when
compressed, because it is completely compressed
it does not generate to ignite itself and cause
explosion
enough heat  Diesel engines have a much
 It needs activation higher compression pressure
than gasoline engines
energy to explode,  The reason for this higher
and this energy is pressure is that in a diesel
engine, only air is
generated by a spark compressed
plug at the top of the  The fuel is then directly
injected into the cylinder,
cylinder
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