Earth Subsystems

The distance between the surface of the Earth and its center is approximately 3,900 km.

Four Subsystems of Earth

1.Lithosphere
2. Atmosphere
3.Hydrosphere
4. Biosphere

*Lithosphere
The largest of the four spheres, it comprises the solid portion of the earth. More than its surface
manifestations of mountains and other land masses, it extends 6,400 kilometers from the surface down to
the core. Lithosphere includes the entire Earth’s crust and the upper mantle. It is the most rigid of Earth’s
layers. It is also the coolest.

The most well-known feature associated with earth’s lithosphere is tectonic activity. It is believed that at
the beginning, the continents are all locked up into a huge land mass called Pangaea proposed by Alfred
Wegener. Lithosphere is divided into 15 major tectonic plates: North America, Caribbean, South
America, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasia, Arabia, Africa, Indian, Philippines, Australia, Pacific, Juan de Fuca,
Cocos, Nazca. However, experts today count more than 50 plates. Movement of tectonic plates is made
possible by thermal energy from the mantle. Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth’s dramatic
geologic events such as earthquakes, volcanoes, orogeny, and deep ocean trenches.

2 Divisions of Earth
1. Chemical –the more popular of the two
2. Mechanical- the study of liquid states

Layers of the Earth

1. Crust
The Earth’s thin and rocky outer skin. It is the outermost layer of the planet, the cooled and
hardened part of the Earth. This layer makes up only 1 % of the entire volume of the Earth. It is 5-70 km
deep. The crust is generally divided into two types based on composition and physical properties (Oceanic
and Continental, not to be confused with oceans and continents). Oceanic crust, although usually found
beneath oceans and large bodies of water, is made up of basaltic rocks rich in ferromagnesian minerals
(minerals rich in iron and magnesium). In terms of thickness, the oceanic crust is thinner (7 km)
compared to continental crust. Continental crust in the other hand, is thicker (may exceed 70 km)
especially in mountainous regions. Composition of continental crust is different as it is dominated by
granitic rocks. Earth’s crust is covered with soil.

2. Mantle
Extending deeper than the crust, the mantle comprises more than 82 % of the earth’s total volume
(compositionally speaking, the rocks found in this layer are more related to denser elements such as iron
and magnesium (similar to oceanic crust material). It is the layer that lies directly under the crust. It is the
thickest layer, made up mostly of hot, molten rocks. Due to pressure differences between mantle near the
surface and mantle at deeper depths, this layer is further subdivided into an upper mantle and a lower
mantle. The temperature in upper mantle is 500-900° C. The temperature in lower mantle is 4000°C
The upper mantle extends from the bottom of the crust to a depth of about 660 km. Because of
pressure and compositional differences, the upper mantle is further divided into “stiff lithosphere” and a
“plastic asthenosphere”. The lithosphere is actually the stiff portion of the upper mantle and the whole
crust above it. The asthenosphere, on the other hand, is like a weaker layer beneath the lithosphere.
Deeper than the upper mantle and extends 2,900 km to the top of the core, the lower mantle is the
more rigid portion of the mantle.

3. Core
Considered to be the sink o dense elements (iron and nickel) from the differentiation process, the
core represents the deepest portion of the earth with a radius of approximately 3,400 km. It is further
divided into two regions using their physical properties. The outer core represents the liquid portion of the
core where the movement of iron is believed to be generating the earth’s magnetic field. The solid inner
core, o the other hand, remains in such phase due to immense pressures.

3 Types of Plate Movements

1. Transform Plate Movement- are locations where two plates slide past one another. The fracture zone
that forms a transform plate boundary is known as a transform fault. Most transform faults are found in
the ocean basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean ridges. A smaller number connect mid-ocean ridges
and subduction zones.
2. Convergent plate boundaries are locations where lithospheric plates are moving towards one another.
The plate collisions that occur in these areas can produce earthquakes, volcanic activity, and crustal
deformation.
3. Divergent plate boundaries are locations where plates are moving away from one another. This
occurs above rising convection currents. The rising current pushes up on the bottom of the lithosphere,
lifting it and flowing laterally beneath it. This lateral flow causes the plate material above to be dragged
along in the direction of flow. At the crest of the uplift, the overlying plate is stretched thin, breaks and
pulls apart.
*Atmosphere
The layer of gaseous envelope that surrounds the planet on the surface and extends thinly unto
space. Most of the gases are found near the surface and decreases away from the planet with increasing
altitude. The set of processes occurring within the atmosphere includes weather and climate. The
atmosphere provides the exchange of gases we need for respiration and also protects us from too much
ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun. It act as a gigantic filter, keeping out most ultra violet radiation
letting in the sun’s warming rays.

Layers of the Atmosphere

1. Troposphere
It is the lowest atmospheric layer. It extend from the ground to about 12 km high ranging from
about 9 km at the poles to more than 17 km at the equator. Almost all weather develops here, because it
contains almost all of the atmosphere’s water vapor. This layer also absorbs heat that is reflected back
from the ground in a process called greenhouse effect.

2. Stratosphere
It extends from the tropopause, the upper boundary of the troposphere to about 50 km above the
Earth’s surface. Strong horizontal wind blows in here, but with little turbulence. This layer is very dry and
clouds are rare. It has thin and wispy clouds that are called as nacreous clouds. Stratosphere is crucial to
life on earth because it contains small amount of ozone.
*Ozone
*Ozone layer

3. Mesosphere
Extends from the stratopause (the upper boundary of the stratosphere) to about 80 km above the
surface of the Earth. It has the coldest temperature in the atmosphere. It also has the atmosphere’s highest
clouds. It is the least understood part of earth’s atmosphere.
 2 meteorological mysteries
1.Sprites
2. Elves

4. Ionosphere
Extends from the top half of the mesosphere all the way to the exosphere. This atmospheric layer
conducts electricity. Ionosphere also reflects particles from solar wind, stream of highly charged particles
ejected by the sun. These electrical displays create auroras. It is a layer of free electrons. It has layers. It is
called as the D, E, F1, and F2

5. Thermosphere
Extends from the mesopause (upper boundary of the mesosphere) to 700 km above the surface of
the Earth. The thickest layer in the atmosphere. It is the thickest layer in the atmosphere. It is also the
second highest layer of the earth’s atmosphere. The Hubble space telescope and the ISS orbit the earth in
the thermosphere, only the lightest gases are found here (Oxygen, Helium, and Hydrogen)

6. Exosphere
It extends about 700 km to about 1000 km to about 1000 km above sea level. It is the
uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually fades into the vacuum of space. Air in the exosphere is
extremely thin - in many ways it is almost the same as the airless void of outer space.

*Hydrosphere
Accounting for more than seventy percent of the Earth’s surface area, water is what makes our
planet unique in the solar system. Within the solar system’s habitable zone, the existence of surface water
provided the medium for different life processes to occur.
The hydrosphere is not limited to the water we see on the surface as oceans, rivers, lakes, and
seas. Underground and hidden from our sight, groundwater is part of the hydrosphere cycle that keeps all
the water continuously transported and transformed from one form to another.