Asm Lab Manual

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS LABORTARY
MANUAL (GE-501)
Session 2017
SUBMITTED TO
Dr. IMTIAZ RASHEED Sb.
SUBMITTED BY:
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
LAHORE, PAKISTAN
JOB # 1
VISUAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
Purpose:
Visually classify the soils.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2488 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils
(Visual - Manual Procedure)
Significance:
The first step in any geotechnical engineering project is to identify and describe the
subsoil condition. For example, as soon as a ground is identified as gravel, engineer can
immediately form some ideas on the nature of problems that might be encountered in a
tunneling project. In contrast, a soft clay ground is expected to lead to other types of design
and construction considerations. Therefore, it is useful to have a systematic procedure for
identification of soils even in the planning stages of a project.
Soils can be classified into two general categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2)
fine grained soils. Examples of coarse-grained soils are gravels and sands. Examples of
fine-grained soils are silts and clays. Procedures for visually identifying these two general
types of soils are described in the following sections.
Equipment:
Magnifying glass (optional)
Identification Procedure:
a. Identify the color (e.g. brown, gray, brownish gray), odor (if any) and texture
(coarse or fine-grained) of soil.
b. Identify the major soil constituent (>50% by weight) using Table 1 as coarse
gravel, fine gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, or fines.
c. Estimate percentages of all other soil constituents using Table 1 and the
following terms:
Trace - 0 to 10% by weight
Little - 10 to 20%
Some - 20 to 30%
And - 30 to 50%
(Examples: trace fine gravel, little silt, some clay)
d. If the major soil constituent is sand or gravel:
Identify particle distribution. Describe as well graded or poorly graded. Well-

graded soil consists of particle sizes over a wide range. Poorly graded soil
consists of particles which are all about the same size.
Identify particle shape (angular, sub angular, rounded, surrounded) using Figure
1 and Table 2.
e. If the major soil constituents are fines, perform the following test:
Dry strength test: Mold a sample into 1/8" size ball and let it dry. Test the strength of the dry
sample by crushing it between the fingers. Describe the strength as none, low, medium, high or
very high depending on the results of the test as shown in Table 3(a).
Dilatancy Test: Make a sample of soft putty consistency in your palm. Then observe the reaction
during shaking, squeezing (by closing hand) and vigorous tapping. The reaction is rapid, slow
or none according to the test results given in Table 3(b).
During Dilatancy test, vibration densifies the silt and water appears on the surface. Now on
squeezing, shear stresses are applied on the densified silt. The dense silt has a tendency for
volume increase or dilatancy due to shear stresses. So the water disappears from the surface.
Moreover, silty soil has a high permeability, so the water moves quickly. In clay, we see no
change, no shiny surface, in other words, no reaction.
Plasticity (or Toughness) Test: Roll the samples into a thread about 1/8" in diameter. Fold the
thread and reroll it repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of 1/8". Note: (a) the
pressure required to roll the thread when it is near crumbling,
(b) Whether it can support its own weight,

(c) Whether it can be molded back into a coherent mass, and
(d) Whether it is tough during kneading. Describe the plasticity and toughness according to the
criteria in Tables 3(c) and 3(d). A low to medium toughness and non-plastic to low plasticity is
the indication that the soil is silty; otherwise the soil is clayey.
Based on dry strength, dilatancy and toughness, determine soil symbol based on Table4.
f. Identify moisture condition (dry, moist, wet or saturated) using table5
g. Record visual classification of the soil in the following order: color, major
constituent, minor constituents, particle distribution and particle shape (if major
constituent is coarse-grained), plasticity (if major constituent is fine-grained),
moisture content, soil symbol (if major constituent is fine-grained).
Examples of coarse-grained soils:

Soil 1: Brown fine gravel, some coarse to fine sand, trace silt, trace clay, well
graded, angular, dry
Soil 2: Gray coarse sand, trace medium to fine sand, some silt, trace clay,
poorly graded, rounded, saturated.
Examples of fine grained soils:
Soil A: Brown lean clay, trace coarse to fine sand, medium plasticity, moist, CL.
Soil B: Gray clayey silt, trace fine sand, non-plastic, saturated, ML.
Table 1. Grain Size Distribution
Soil Constituent Size Limits Familiar Example

Boulder 12 in. (305 mm) or more Larger than basketball
Cobbles 3 in (76 mm) -12 in (305 mm) Grapefruit
Coarse Gravel ¾ in. (19 mm) – 3 in. (76 mm) Orange or Lemon
Fine Gravel 4.75 mm (No.4 Sieve) – ¾ in. (19 mm) Grape or Pea
2 mm (No.10 Sieve) – 4.75 mm
Coarse Sand Rock salt
(No. 4 Sieve)
0.42 mm (No. 40 Sieve) – 2 mm
Medium Sand Sugar, table salt
(No. 10 Sieve)
0.075 mm (No. 200 Sieve) – 0.42 mm
Fine Sand* Powdered Sugar
(No. 40 Sieve)
Fines Less than 0.0075 mm (No. 200 Sieve) -
*Particles finer than fine sand cannot be discerned with the naked eye at a distance of 8 in
(20 cm).
Table 2. Criteria for Describing Shape of Coarse-Grained Soil Particles
Description Criteria
Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished
Angular
surfaces.
Sub angular Particles are similar to angular description, but have rounded edges.
Particles have nearly plane sides, but have well-rounded corners and
Sub rounded
edges.
Rounded Particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges.
Figure 1. Shape of Coarse-Grained Soil Particles
Rounded Sub rounded
Angular Sub angular
Table (3a). Criteria for Describing Dry Strength
The dry specimen ball crumbles into powder with the slightest handling
None
pressure.
Low The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some pressure form fingers.
The dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with moderate finger
Medium
pressure.
The dry specimen cannot be broken with finger pressure. Specimen will
High
break into pieces between thumb and a hard surface.
The dry specimen cannot be broken between the thumb and a hard
Very High
surface.
Table (3b). Criteria for Describing Dilatancy of a Soil Sample
None There is no visible change in the soil samples.
Water slowly appears and remains on the surface during shaking or water
Slow
slowly disappears upon squeezing.
Water quickly appears on the surface during shaking and quickly
Rapid
disappears upon squeezing.
Table (3c). Criteria for Describing Soil Plasticity
Non-plastic A 1/8” (3-mm) thread cannot be rolled at any water content.
The thread is difficult to roll and a cohesive mass cannot be formed when
Low
drier than the plastic limit.
The thread is easy to roll and little time is needed to reach the plastic limit.
Medium
The thread cannot be re-rolled after the plastic limit is reached. The mass
crumbles when it is drier than the plastic limit.
Considerable time is needed, rolling and kneading the sample, to reach
the plastic limit. The thread can be rerolled and reworked several times
High
before reaching the plastic limit. A mass can be formed when the sample
is drier than the plastic limit
Note: The plastic limit is the water content at which the soil begins to break apart
and crumbles when rolled into threads 1/8” in diameter.
Table (3d). Criteria for Describing Soil Toughness
Only slight pressure is needed to roll the thread to the plastic limit. The
Low
thread and mass are weak and soft.
Moderate pressure is needed to roll the thread to near the plastic limit.
Medium
The thread and mass have moderate stiffness.
Substantial pressure is needed to roll the thread to near the plastic limit.
High
The thread and mass are very stiff.
Table 4. Identification of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils
Soil Symbol Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness

ML None or Low Slow to Rapid Low or thread cannot be formed
CL Medium to High None to Slow Medium
MH Low to Medium None to Slow Low to Medium
CH High to Very High None High
Note: ML = Silt; CL = Lean Clay (low plasticity clay); MH = Elastic Soil; CH = Fat Clay
(high plasticity clay). The terms ‘lean’ and ‘fat’ may not be used in certain geographic
regions (Midwest).
Table 5. Criteria for Describing Soil Moisture Conditions
Dry Soil is dry to the touch, dusty, a clear absence of moisture
Moist Soil is damp, slight moisture; soil may begin to retain molded form
Wet Soil is clearly wet; water is visible when sample is squeezed
Saturated Water is easily visible and drains freely from the sample
JOB # 2
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (ASTM D 422)

(SIEVE ANALYSIS)
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a
soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer
particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil.
Equipment:
Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker
Test Procedure:
Sieve Analysis:
(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of
sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200
sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each
sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of
the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
(6) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the
empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the
weight retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be
approximately equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two
percent is unsatisfactory.
(7) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on
each sieve by the original sample mass.
(8) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and
subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
(9) Make a semi logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
(10) Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.
Table:2.1(calculations)
Sieve size in wt Retained % Wt Cumulative.

Sieve # % Passing
mm (gm) Retained % Retained
4.75 4 21.65 10.825 10.825 89.175
2 10 1.56 0.78 11.605 88.395
0.425 40 0.83 0.415 12.02 87.98
0.15 100 58.59 29.295 41.315 58.685
0.075 200 66.07 33.035 74.35 25.65
PAN 49.91 24.955 99.305 -

Gradation curve
100
90
80
70
cum. %age passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 Sieve size (mm) 0.01 0.001
Gradation Curve
Fig: 2.1
Comments:
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within
a soil. The hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil.
Equipment:
Mixer (blender), 152H Hydrometer, Sedimentation cylinder, Control cylinder,
Thermometer, Beaker, Timing device
Test Procedure:
Hydrometer Analysis:
(1) Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add
125 mL of the dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir
the mixture until the soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
(2) While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control
cylinder and fill it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top
of the meniscus formed by the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A
reading less than zero is recorded as a negative (-) correction and a reading
between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+) correction. This reading is
called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the difference between
the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar (Usually
about +1).
Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed thoroughly.
Insert the hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the zero
correction and temperature respectively.
(3) Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary,
until mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two
minutes.
(4) Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder.
Add distilled water up to the mark.
(5) Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm of your
hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period of one minute.
(The cylinder should be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.)
(6) Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the cylinder.
After an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and carefully
insert the hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It should take about ten seconds
to insert or remove the hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release of
the
Hydrometer should be made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid
excessive bobbing).
(7) The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the suspension
and the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into
the control cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any particles
that may have adhered.
(8) Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes and 24
hour.
(9) Plot the grain size versus the adjusted percent finer on the semi logarithmic sheet after
completion of calculation table.
Table 1. Values of Effective Depth Based on Hydrometer and Sedimentation Cylinder of

Specific Sizes
Hydrometer 151H Hydrometer 152H

Actual Effective Actual Effective Actual Effective
Hydromete Depth, L Hydromete Depth, L Hydromete Depth, L
r Reading (cm) r Reading (cm) r Reading (cm)
1.000 16.3 0 16.3 31 11.2
1.001 16.0 1 16.1 32 11.1
1.002 15.8 2 16.0 33 10.9
1.003 15.5 3 15.8 34 10.7
1.004 15.2 4 15.6 35 10.6
1.005 15.0 5 15.5 36 10.4
1.006 14.7 6 15.3 37 10.2
1.007 14.4 7 15.2 38 10.1
1.008 14.2 8 15.0 39 9.9
1.009 13.9 9 14.8 40 9.7
1.010 13.7 10 14.7 41 9.6
1.011 13.4 11 14.5 42 9.4
1.012 13.1 12 14.3 43 9.2
1.013 12.9 13 14.2 44 9.1
1.014 12.6 14 14.0 45 8.9
1.015 12.3 15 13.8 46 8.8
1.016 12.1 16 13.7 47 8.6
1.017 11.8 17 13.5 48 8.4
1.018 11.5 18 13.3 49 8.3
1.019 11.3 19 13.2 50 8.1
1.020 11.0 20 13.0 51 7.9
1.021 10.7 21 12.9 52 7.8
1.022 10.5 22 12.7 53 7.6
1.023 10.2 23 12.5 54 7.4
1.024 10.0 24 12.4 55 7.3
1.025 9.7 25 12.2 56 7.1
1.026 9.4 26 12.0 57 7.0
1.027 9.2 27 11.9 58 6.8
1.028 8.9 28 11.7 59 6.6
1.029 8.6 29 11.5 60 6.5
1.030 8.4 30 11.4
1.031 8.1
1.032 7.8
1.033 7.6
1.034 7.3
1.035 7.0
1.036 6.8
1.037 6.5
1.038 6.2
1.039 5.9
Table 2. Values of k for Use in Equation for Computing Diameter of Particle in Hydrometer
Analysis
Temperature
Specific Gravity of Soil Particles
oC
2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85
16 0.0151 0.0150 0.0148 0.0145 0.0143 0.0141 0.0394 0.0137 0.0135
17 0.0151
0 0.0148
5 0.0146
1 0.0143
7 0.0141
5 0.0139
4 0.0137 0.0135
4 0.0133
6
18 0.0149
1 0.0146
6 0.0144
2 0.0142
9 0.0139
7 0.0137
6 0.0135
6 0.0133
6 0.0132
8
19 0.0147
2 0.0144
7 0.0142
3 0.0140
1 0.0138
9 0.0136
8 0.0134
9 0.0132
9 0.0130
1
20 0.0145
4 0.0143
9 0.0140
5 0.0138
3 0.0136
2 0.0134
1 0.0132
2 0.0130
3 0.0128
5
6 1 8 6 5 4 5 7 9
21 0.0143 0.0141 0.0139 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132 0.0130 0.0129 0.0127
22 0.0142
8 0.0139
4 0.0137
1 0.0135
9 0.0133
8 0.0131
8 0.0129
9 0.0127
1 0.0125
3
23 0.0140
1 0.0138
7 0.0135
4 0.0133
3 0.0131
2 0.0129
2 0.0127
4 0.0126
6 0.0124
8
24 0.0138
4 0.0136
1 0.0134
8 0.0132
7 0.0130
7 0.0128
7 0.0126
9 0.0124
1 0.0122
3
25 0.0137
8 0.0134
5 0.0132
2 0.0130
1 0.0128
1 0.0126
2 0.0124
4 0.0123
6 0.0121
9
2 9 7 6 6 7 9 2 5
0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0121 0.0120
26 0.0134 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0122 0.0120 0.0118
7 4 2 1 2 3 5 8 1
27 0.0132
2 0.0130
9 0.0128
7 0.0126
7 0.0124
8 0.0125
9 0.0120
1 0.0119
4 0.0117
8
28 0.0131 0.0129 0.0126 0.0126 0.0123 0.0121 0.0119 0.0117 0.0116
7 4 3 4 4 5 8 1 5
29 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0121 0.0119 0.0118 0.0116 0.0114
2 0 9 9 0 2 5 8 2
30 8 6 6 6 7 9 2 5 9
Grain Size Analysis (Hydrometer)
Hydrometer No. 152 H Zero Correction 4
Meniscus
2.75
Gs of Solids Correction 1
Dispersing Sodium
0.978
a=(Gs*1.65)/(2.65*(Gs-1)) Agent Metaphosphate
Wt. of Soil , Ws 50 g
Amount of Dispersing
5g
agent.
Corr. Hyd. D=K

Actual Effec. K
Elapsed Hyd. Corr. % Finer (mm)
Temp. Hydro. Depth from
Time Reading Only for = L/t
(˚C) Rdg. L Table
(mint) Rc=Ra- Meniscus Rc*(a)/Ws
Ra (cm) . Corr. %
Z.C+Ct R
finer
√L/t
0 20 26 22 27 43.03 9.2 0 0.0133 0.075 25.65
1 20 25 21 26 41.08 9.6 9.6 0.0133 0.041209 10.537
2 20 24.5 20.5 25.5 40.1 9.7 4.85 0.0133 0.02929 10.2857
3 20 22 18 23 35.21 10.5 3.5 0.0133 0.024882 9.03137
4 20 21.5 17.5 22.5 34.23 10.7 2.675 0.0133 0.021753 8.78
8 20 20 16 21 31.3 11.3 1.4125 0.0133 0.015807 8.02845
15 20 16 12 17 23.47 12.5 0.83333 0.0133 0.012141 6.02006
30 20 11 7 12 13.69 14 0.46667 0.0133 0.009086 3.51149
60 20 7 3 8 5.87 15.4 0.25667 0.0133 0.006738 1.50566
120 20 4 0 5 0 16.3 0.13583 0.0133 0.004902 0
Table 3. Temperature Correction Factors CT

Temperature factor CT
oC
15 1.10
16 -0.90
17 -0.70
18 -0.50
19 -0.30
20 0.00
21 +0.20
22 +0.40
23 +0.70
24 +1.00
25 +1.30
26 +1.65
27 +2.00
28 +2.50
29 +3.05
30 +3.80
Table 4. Correction Factors a for Unit Weight of Solids
Unit Weight Correctio

of Soil n factor
Solids, a
2.853 0.96
g/cm
2.80 0.97
2.75 0.98
2.70 0.99
2.65 1.00
2.60 1.01
2.55 1.02
2.50 1.04
Table: 5. Calculations.
Comments:
Lab # 3
Statement:
To determine the liquid limit of a given sample by using casagrande apparatus.
Scope:
 This section describes the laboratory procedure for determining the liquid limit of soils using
the device specified in Section 3.8, securing the results of at least three trials, and the plotting
of a flow curve. Provision is also made for a one point method requiring the calculation of
the liquid limit value from data obtained from a single trial.
 The method described herein is based upon AASHTO Designation T89 which has been
modified for New York State Department of Transportation use.
Apparatus:
 Casagrande’s liquid limit device.

 Grooving tools of both standard and ASTM types
 Oven
 Evaporating dish
 Spatula
 IS Sieve of size 425µmWeighing balance, with 0.01g accuracy
 Wash bottle
 Air-tight and non-corrodible container for determination of moisture content
Preparation of sample:
 Air-dry the soil sample and break the clods. Remove the organic matter like tree roots, pieces
of bark. etc.
 About 100g of the specimen passing through 425µm IS Sieve is mixed thoroughly with
distilled water.
Procedure:
 About 120 gm. of air dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of material passing 425 micron
IS sieve is obtained.
 Distilled water is mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform paste. The
paste shall have a consistency that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup to cause closer of standard
groove for sufficient length.
 A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of casagrande device and spread into portion with few
strokes of spatula.
 It is trimmed to a depth of 1 cm. at the point of maximum thickness and excess of soil is returned
to the dish.
 The soil in the cup is divided by the firm strokes of the grooving tool along the diameter through
the centre line of the follower so that clean sharp groove of proper dimension is formed.
 Then the cup is dropped by turning crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until two
halves of the soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about 13 mm. by flow
only.
 The number of blows required to cause the groove close for about 13 mm. is recorded.
 A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content determination.
 The test is repeated with different moisture contents at least 4 times for blows between 10 and
50.
Calculation
 A ‘flow curve’ is to be plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph representing water content in

arithmetic scale and the number of drops on logarithmic scale.
 The flow curve is a straight line drawn as nearly as possible through four points
 The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows as read from curve is the liquid limit of that soil
W1 W2 W3
No of Moisture No of Liquid
container Weight of (weight of (weight of content [w]1 Blows Limit
empty container + container =%
container (g) soil) (g) +dry soil) (g) N LL=
(%)
213 4.41 29.5 24.53 24.7 45 26.5
216 4.36 16.77 13.98 28.58 12 26.15
214 4.36 21.55 17.94 26.58 25 26.58
220 4.43 14.44 12.22 27.49 21 26.91

Result:
The liquid limit is to be reported to the nearest whole number.
Related theory:
Liquid limit:
The water content at which the soil has such a small shear strength that it flows to close a groove of
standard width when jarred in a specified manner. The Liquid Limit, also known as the upper plastic
limit, is the water content at which soil changes from the liquid state to a plastic state. OR It is the
minimum moisture content at which a soil flows upon application of very small shear force. Liquid
Limit (LL or wL) - the water content, in percent, of a soil at the arbitrarily defined boundary between
the semi-liquid and plastic states.
Liquid limit is defined as “the moisture content at which soil changes from liquid state to plastic
state”
Or
According to Casagrande Liquid Limit Test it is also defined as “the moisture content at which two
sides of a groove come close together for a distance of 12.7 mm under the impact of 25 numbers of
blows”
Or
According to fall cone test method Liquid Limit is also defined as “the moisture content at which the
cone (fall cone test) penetrates with in the soil for 1 cm when falls freely for 5 seconds
Applications:
 The value of liquid limit helps in classification of fine grain soil.

 The values of liquid limit are required to calculate flow index, toughness index etc
Comments:
Lab#4
Statement:
To determine the plastic limit of given soil sample
Scope:
Equipment & Apparatus
 Surface for rolling.

 Oven.
 Balance (0.01 g accuracy).
 Sieve [425 micron].
 Flat glass.
Preparation sample
After receiving the soil sample it is dried in air or in oven (maintained at a temperature of 60 0C). If
clods are there in soil sample then it is broken with the help of wooden mallet. The soil passing 425
micron sieve is used in this test.
Procedure
 A soil sample of 20 gm. passing 425 micron IS sieve is to be taken.

 It is to be mixed with distilled water thoroughly in the evaporating dish till the soil mass
becomes plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.
 It is to be allowed to season for sufficient time, to allow water to permeate throughout the
soil mass.
 10 grams of the above plastic mass is to be taken and is to be rolled between fingers and glass
plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout
its length. The rate of rolling shall be between 60 and 90 stokes per minute.
 The rolling is to be continued till the thread becomes 3 mm. in diameter.
 The soil is then kneaded together to a uniform mass and rolled again.
 The process is to be continued until the thread crumbled with the diameter of 3 mm.
 The pieces of the crumbled thread are to be collected in air tight container for moisture
content determination.
PLASTICITY INDEX CALCULATION:

No of W1 W2 W3 Moisture
container
Weight of empty (weight of (weight of Content
container (g) container + container +dry
soil)(g) soil)(g) W= PL =
(%)
219 4.69 16.79 14.37 20.86
222 4.42 9.59 8.751 19.37
215 4.4 17.6 15.58 21.645
Report:
The Plastic limit is to be determined for at least three portions of soil passing 425 micron IS sieve.
The plastic limit should be determined for at least three portions of the soil passing through 425µm
IS Sieve. The average water content to the nearest whole number should be reported.
Related theory:
Plastic limit:
The water content at which the soil begins to crumble when rolled into threads of specified size. The
Plastic Limit, also known as the lower plastic limit, is the water content at which a soil changes from
the plastic state to a semisolid state. Plastic Limit (PL or wP) - the water content, in percent, of a soil
at the boundary between the plastic and semi-solid states.
It is defined as “The moisture content at which the soil behaves like a plastic material is called plastic
limit”
Or
It may also be defined as “The moisture content at which the soil changes from plastic state to semi
solid state"
Or
“The moisture content at which the soil begins to crumble when rolled up into a thread of 3 mm in
diameter”,
Plasticity Index (PI) - the range of water content over which a soil behaves plastically. It is defined
as “the range of consistency with in which the soil exhibit plastic properties”.
Or
It is also defined as “the numerical difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit”.
Mathematically, Plasticity index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

It is denoted by Ip and
Ip = LL – PL.
Comments:
Lab#5
PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST
Purpose:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content
and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort.
The compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several
different methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping,
kneading, vibration, and static load compaction. The test is also known as the Proctor test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The Standard Proctor Test, and
(2) The Modified Proctor Test. Each of these tests can be performed in three different methods as
outlined in the attached Table 1. In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil is compacted by a 5.5 lb
hammer falling a d i s t a n c e of one foot into a soil filled mold. The mold is filled with three equal
layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops of the hammer. The Modified Proctor Test
is identical to the Standard Proctor Test except it employs, a 10 lb hammer falling a distance of 18
inches, and uses five equal layers of soil instead of three. There are two types of compaction molds
used for testing. The smaller type is 4 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/30 ft3 (944
cm3), and the larger type is 6 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/13.333 ft3 (2123 cm3).
If the larger mold is used each soil layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See Table 1).
Table 1 Alternative Proctor Test Methods
Standard Modified
Proctor Proctor
ASTM 698 ASTM 1557
Method A Method B Method C Method A Method B Method C
>20% >20% >20% >20%
20% Retained Retained 20% Retained Retained
Material Retained on No.4 on Retained on No.4 on
on No.4 20% No.3/8” on No.4 20% No.3/8”
Sieve Retained <30% Sieve Retained <30%
on 3/8” Retained on 3/8” Retained
For test Sieve Sieve
on 3/4” on 3/4”
sample, Sieve No.4 3/8” Sieve ¾” Sieve Sieve No.4 3/8” Sieve ¾” Sieve
useMoldsoil Sieve Sieve
4” DIA 4” DIA 6” DIA 4” DIA 4” DIA 6” DIA
passing
No.
of 3 3 3 5 5 5
Laye
No. of
rs
blows/lay 25 25 56 25 25 56
er
Note: Volume of 4” diameter mold = 944 cm3 , Volume of 6” diameter mold
= 2123 cm3 (verify these values prior to testing)
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil
Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3 (600 KN-m/m3))

ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of
Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3 (2,700 KN-m/m3))
Significance:
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing
soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis of
field control tests to assure that compacted f i l l s are meeting the prescribed design
specifications.
Design specification usually state the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum”
density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In general, most
engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage, and imperviousness
of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a
specified compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum
water content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is
weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to
swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted lower
than (dry of) the optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random
particle orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the
optimum water content to the same density.
Equipment:
Molds, Manual rammer, Extruder, Balance, Drying oven, Mixing pan, Trowel, #4 sieve,
Moisture cans, Graduated cylinder, Straight Edge.
Test Procedure:
(1) Depending on the type of mold you are using obtain a sufficient quantity of air-
dried soil in large mixing pan. For the 4-inch mold take approximately 10 lbs,
and for the 6-inch mold take roughly 15 lbs. pulverize the soil and run it through
the # 4 sieve.
(2) Determine the weight of the soil sample as well as the weight of the compaction
mold with its base (without the collar) by using the balance and record the weights.
(3) Compute the amount of initial water to add by the following method:
(a) Assume water content for the first test to be 8 percent.
(b) Compute water to add from the following equation:
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑑𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑙) (𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠)

∗8
100
=
Where “water to add” and the “soil mass” are in grams. Remember that a gram
of water is equal to approximately one milliliter of water.
(4) Measure out the water, add it to the soil, and then mix it thoroughly into the soil
using the trowel until the soil gets a uniform color.
(5) Assemble the compaction mold to the base, place some soil in the mold and compact
the soil in the number of equal layers specified by the type of compaction method
employed.
The number of drops of the rammer per layer is also dependent upon the type of
mold used (See Table 1). The drops should be applied at a uniform rate not
exceeding around 1.5 seconds per drop, and the rammer should provide uniform
coverage of the specimen surface. Try to avoid rebound of the rammer from the
top of the guide sleeve.
(6) The soil should completely fill the cylinder and the last compacted layer must
extend slightly above the collar joint. If the soil is below the collar joint at the
completion of the drops, the test point must be repeated. (Note: For the last layer,
watch carefully, and add more soil after about 10 drops if it appears that the soil
will be compacted below the collar joint.)
(7) Carefully remove the collar and trim off the compacted soil so that it is completely
even with the top of the mold using the trowel. Replace small bits of soil that may
fall out during the trimming process.
(8) Weigh the compacted soil while it’s in the mold and to the base, and record the
mass. Determine the wet mass of the soil by subtracting the weight of the mold
and base.
(9) Remove the soil from the mold using a mechanical extruder and take soil
moisture content samples from the top and bottom of the specimen. Fill the
moisture cans with soil and determine the water content.
(10) Place the soil specimen in the large tray and break up the soil until it appears
visually as if it will pass through the # 4 sieve, add 2 percent more water based on
the original sample mass, and re-mix as in step 4. Repeat steps 5 through 9 until,
based on wet mass, a peak value is reached followed by two slightly lesser
compacted soil masses.
Analysis:
(1) Calculate the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen by using the
average of the two water contents.
(2) Compute the wet density in grams per cm3 of the compacted soil sample by
dividing the wet mass by the volume of the mold used.
(3) Compute the dry density using the wet density and the water content
Determined in step 1. Use the following formula:
𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑤
Where: w = moisture content in percent divided by 100, and ρ = wet density in
grams per cm3.

(4) Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the x-axis.
Draw a smooth curve connecting the plotted points.
(5) On the same graph draw a curve of complete saturation or “zero air voids curve”.
The values of dry density and corresponding moisture contents for plotting the
curve can be computed from the following equation:
Where:
ρd = dry density of soil grams per cm3

Gs = specific gravity of the soil being tested (assume 2.70 if not given)
ρw = density of water in grams per cm3 (approximately1 g/cm3)
wsat = moisture content in percent for complete saturation.
Example
Calculations:
Gs=2.7
(assumed)
𝜌𝑤 = 1.0g/cm
Assumed wsat% Calculated ρd (g/cm3)
8 2.22
10 2.13
12 2.04
14 1.96
16 1.89
18 1.82
(6) Identify and report the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry
density.
Standard Procter Test:
Mould wt. (gm) 2582
Dia. (cm) 10.16
Ht. (cm) 11.43
Volume (cm3) 926.67
Wet Dry Wt. of Bulk

Mould Wt. of Wt. of Dry
Sr. No. Wt. Wt. Dry M.C.
+soil Can Moisture Density
+ Can + Can Soil Density
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (%) (g/cc) (g/cc) (KN/m3)
1 4293 16 44.1 41.8 25.8 2.30 8.91 1.94 1.78 17.5
2 4387 14 57.9 53.35 39.35 4.55 11.56 2.04 1.83 18.0
3 4471 16 68.85 61.63 45.63 7.22 15.82 2.13 1.84 18.1
4 4380 14 63.11 55.21 41.21 7.90 19.17 2.04 1.71 16.8
5 4310 14 63.93 55.11 41.11 8.82 21.45 1.96 1.61 15.8
Table: 5
Graph; 5.
Standard Procter
2.30
2.20
2.10
Dry Density , g/cc
2.00
1.90
1.80 Dry density = 1.85 g/cc

1.70
1.60
1.50
0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00
M.C (%)
Optimum Moisture Content = %

Maximum Dry Density = _____________________
g/cm3.
Modified Procter Test:
Mould wt. (gm) 2494
Dia. (cm) 10.16
Ht. (cm) 11.43
Volume (cm3) 926.67
Wet Dry Wt. of Bulk

Sr. Mould Wt. of Wt. of Dry
Wt. Wt. Dry M.C.
No. +soil Can Moisture Density
+ Can + Can Soil Density
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (%) (g/cc) (g/cc) (KN/m3)
1 4349 14.87 35.67 34.66 19.79 1.01 5.10 2.00 1.90 18.7
2 4460 16.67 43.68 41.5 24.83 2.18 8.78 2.12 1.95 19.1
3 4573 13.71 30.91 29.12 15.41 1.79 11.62 2.24 2.01 19.7
4 4540 12.74 45.31 41.21 28.47 4.10 14.40 2.21 1.93 18.9
5 4494 17.54 45.53 41.45 23.91 4.08 17.06 2.16 1.84 18.1
Table: 5.1
Modified Procter
2.30
2.20
Dry Density , g/cc
2.10
Dry density= 2.01 g/cc
2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.60
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00
M.C (%)
Graph: 5.1
Optimum Moisture Content = %

Maximum Dry Density =
g/cm
3
Comparison:
20.0 Comparison chart

19.5 Dry density= 19.75 KN/m3
19.0 Modified Procter Test
18.5
Dry Density , KN/m3
18.0 Dry density= 18.2 KN/m3

17.5
Standard Procter Test
17.0
16.5
16.0
15.5
OMC= 12 %
15.0
0.00 5.00 10.00 M.C (%) 15.00 20.00 25.00
Comments:
LAB# 6
FIELD DENSITY OF SOIL BY CORE CUTTER METHOD
Statement:
To determine the field density of soil by core cutter method
Scope:
 This test method covers the determination of in-place density of soil by the drive-cylinder
method. The test method involves obtaining a relatively intact soil sample by driving a thin-
walled cylinder and the subsequent activities for the determination of in-place density. When
sampling or in-place density is required at depth, Test Method D1587 should be used.
 This test method is not appropriate for sampling organic soils which can compress upon
sampling, very hard natural soils and heavily compacted soils which cannot be easily
penetrated by the drive sampler, soils of low plasticity which will not be readily retained in
the cylinder, or soils which contain appreciable amounts of gravel (particles coarser than 4.75
mm (3/16 in.)). The presence of particles coarser than 4.75 mm (3/16 in.) may introduce
significant errors in density measurements by causing voids along the wall of the cylinder
during driving, and when coarse materials have to be dislodged by the trimming of the sample
obtained by the cylinder.
 This test method is limited to the procedures necessary for obtaining specimens suitable for
determining the in-place density and water content of certain soils. The procedures and
precautions necessary for selecting locations and obtaining intact samples suitable for
laboratory testing or otherwise determining engineering properties is beyond the scope of this
test method.
 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The inch-pound units given in
parentheses are mathematical conversions, which are provided for information purposes only
and are not considered standard.
Apparatus:
 Cylindrical core cutter

 Steel rammer
 Steel dolly
 Balance
 Steel rule
 Spade or pickaxe
 Straight edge
 Knife
Procedure:
 Measure the height (h) and internal diameter (d) of the core cutter and apply grease to the
inside of the core cutter
 Weigh the empty core cutter (W1)
 Clean and level the place where density is to be determined.
 Drive the core cutter, with a steel dolly on its top, into the soil
to its full depth with the help of a steel rammer.
 Excavate the soil around the cutter with a crow bar and gently
lift the cutter without disturbing the soil in it.
 Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample and clean the
outside surface of the cutter.
 Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2)
 Remove the soil from the core cutter, using a sample ejector
and take representative soil sample from it to determine the
moisture content.
Observations and Calculations:
Calculate wet unit weight (γwet) of the soil using the following relationship
γwet = (W2-W1)/V
Where,
W1 = Empty weight of core cutter
W2 = Weight of core cutter + soil
V = Volume of core cutter (πd2h/4)
D = Inner diameter of core cutter
H = Height of core cutter
Diameter of core cutter= 4 inches
Length of core cutter =5 inches

CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the relationship between compaction effort and the density of soil are the compaction
is a process of increasing soil density and removing air. The size of the individual soil particles does
not change, neither is water removed. There is usually no change in water content.
The degree of compaction is measured by dry unit weight and depends on the water content and
compactive effort. The factors will effect the compaction and density are nature and type of soil such
as sand, clay, grading or plasticity; water content at the time of compaction, site conditions include
with weather, type of site, layer thickness; and compactive effort. The other two methods that can be
used are sand replacement method and water displacement method. Each method is selected based on
the type of soil to be tested, as well as the limitation or restriction that may be present in the soil
sample to be tested.
Related theory:
Introduction:
In-situ density of soil is an important parameter for soil engineers. This is needed for determination
of bearing capacity of soils, stability analysis, and natural slopes and for determining degree of
compaction of fills. Density is used in calculating the stress in the stress in the soil due to its
overburden pressure. It is needed in estimating the bearing capacity of soil foundation system,
settlement of footings, earth pressures behind the retaining walls, dams, embankments. Stability of
natural slopes, dams, embankments and cutis checked with the help of deity of these soils. It is the
density of controls the field of soils. Permeability of soils depends upon its density. Relative density
of cohesion less soils is determined by knowing by knowing the dry density of that soil in natural,
loosest and densest states. Void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation need the help of density of
soils.
A cylindrical core cutter is a seamless steel tube. For determination of the dry density of the soil, the
cutter is pressed into the soil mass so that it is filled with the soil. The cutter filled with the soil is
lifted up. The mass of the soil in the cutter is determined. The dry density is obtained as
Where M = mass of the wet soil in the cutter V = internal volume of the cutter
w= water content.
Core cutter method in particular, is suitable for soft to medium cohesive soils, in which the cutter can
be driven. It is not possible to drive the cutter into hard, boulder or marrowy soils. In such case other
methods are adopted.
Bulk density:
Bulk density is a property of powders, granules, and other "divided" solids, especially used in
reference to mineral components (soil, gravel), chemical substances,
(pharmaceutical) ingredients, foodstuff, or any other masses of corpuscular or particulate matter. It is
defined as the mass of many particles of the material divided by the totalvolume they occupy. The
total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void volume, and internal pore volume.
Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a material; it can change depending on how the material is
handled. For example, a powder poured into a cylinder will have a particular bulk density; if the
cylinder is disturbed, the powder particles will move and usually settle closer together, resulting in a
higher bulk density. For this reason, the bulk density of powders is usually reported both as "freely
settled" (or "poured" density) and "tapped" density (where the tapped density refers to the bulk density
of the powder after a specified compaction process, usually involving vibration of the container.)
This method consists of driving a core cutter of known volume into the soil after placingit on a cleaned
surface. The cutter filled with soil is removed and excess soil trimmed off. Thecutter with soil is
weighed which is divided by volume of cutter and hence the in-situ unit weightis determined. The
core cutter is dug out, trimmed and the soil inside, weighed and dried for moisture and density
determination
Bulk density of soil:
The bulk density of soil depends greatly on the mineral make up of soil and the degree of compaction.
The density of quartz is around 2.65 g/cm³ but the (dry) bulk density of a mineral soil is normally
about half that density, between 1.0 and 1.6 g/cm³. Soils high in organics and some friable clay may
have a bulk density well below 1 g/cm³.
Bulk density of soil is usually determined from a core sample which is taken by driving a metal corer
into the soil at the desired depth and horizon.[2] This gives a soil sample of known total volume, .
From this sample the wet bulk density and the dry bulk density can be determined.[3]
For the wet bulk density (total bulk density) this sample is weighed, giving the mass . For the dry
bulk density, the sample is oven dried and weighed, giving the mass of soil solids, . The
relationship between these two masses is , where is the mass of substances
lost on oven drying (often, mostly water). The dry and wet bulk densities are calculated as
Dry bulk density = mass of soil/ volume as a whole
Wet bulk density = mass of soil plus liquids/ volume as a whole
The dry bulk density of a soil is inversely related to the porosity of the same soil: the more pore space
in a soil the lower the value for bulk density. Bulk density of a region in the interior of the earth is
also related to the seismic velocity of waves travelling through it: for P-waves, this has been
quantified with Gardner's relation. The higher the density, the faster the velocity
Precautions:
 Core cutter method of determining the field density of soil is only suitable for fine grained soil
(Silts and clay). This is because collection of undisturbed soil sample from a coarse grained
soil is difficult and hence the field properties, including unit weight, cannot be maintained in
a core sample
 Core cutter should be driven into the ground till the steel dolly penetrates into the ground half
way only so as to avoid compaction of the soil in the core.
 Before lifting the core cutter, soil around the cutter should be removed to minimize the
disturbances.
Reference
 IS-2720-Part-29-Determination of dry density of soil in place by the core-cutter method

 http://civilblog.org/2014/03/31/determination-of-filed-density-of-soil-by-core-cutter-
method-is-27270-part-29/
Comments:
LAB#7
FIELD DENSITY OF SOIL BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
Statement:
To determine the field density of soil at a given location by sand replacement method
Scope:
 These test methods cover the determination of the in-place density and unit weight of soil and
rock using a pouring device and calibrated sand to determine the volume of a test pit. The
word “rock'' in these test methods is used to imply that the material being tested will typically
contain particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm).
 These test methods are best suited for test pits with a volume from 0.03 to 0.17 m3 (1 to 6 ft3).
In general, the materials tested would have a maximum particle size of 75 to 125 mm (3 to 5
in.).
 These test methods may be used for larger sized excavations if desirable. However, for larger
sized excavations, Test Method D 5030 is preferred.
 Test Method D 1556 or D 2167 are usually used to determine the volume of test holes smaller
than 0.03 m3 (1 ft3). While the equipment illustrated in these test methods is used for volumes
less than 0.03 m3 (1 ft3), the test methods allow larger versions of the equipment to be used
when necessary.
 Normally, the control fraction is the minus No. 4 sieve size material for cohesive or nonfree
draining materials and the minus 3-in. sieve size material for cohesionless, free-draining
materials. While other sizes are used for the control fraction (3/8,¾-in.), these test methods
have been prepared using only the No. 4 and the 3-in. sieve sizes for clarity.
 These test methods are generally limited to material in an unsaturated condition and are not
recommended for materials that are soft or friable (crumble easily) or in a moisture condition
such that water seeps into the hand-excavated hole. The accuracy of the test methods may be
affected for materials that deform easily or that may undergo volume change in the excavated
hole from standing or walking near the hole during the test.
 These test methods use SI units with converted inch-pounds in parentheses.
 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and
rounding established in Practice D 6026 unless superseded by this standard.
Apparatus:
 Sand pouring cylinder
 Calibrating can
 Metal tray with a central hole
 Dry sand (passing through 600 micron
sieve)
 Balance
 Moisture content bins
 Glass plate
 Metal tray
 Scraper tool
Procedure
Stage-1 (Calibration of Sand Density)
 Measure the internal dimensions (diameter, d and height, h) of the calibrating can and compute
its internal volume, Vc = πd2h/4.
 Fill the sand pouring cylinder (SPC) with sand with 1 cm top clearance (to avoid any spillover
during operation) and find its weight (W1)
 Place the SPC on a glass plate, open the slit above the cone by operating the valve and allow the
sand to run down. The sand will freely run down till
it fills the conical portion. When there is no further
downward movement of sand in the SPC, close the
slit.
 Find the weight of the SPC along with the sand
remaining after filling the cone (W2)
 Place the SPC concentrically on top of the calibrating
can. Open the slit to allow the sand to run down until
the sand flow stops by itself. This operation will fill
the calibrating can and the conical portion of the SPC.
Now close the slit and find the weight of the SPC
with the remaining sand (W3)
Stage-2 (Measurement of Soil Density)
 Clean and level the ground surface where the field density is to be determined
 Place the tray with a central hole over the portion of the soil to be tested.
 Excavate a pit into the ground, through the hole in the plate, approximately 12 cm deep (same as
the height of the calibrating can). The hole in the tray will guide the diameter of the pit to be made
in the ground.
 Collect the excavated soil into the tray and weigh the soil (W)
 Determine the moisture content of the excavated soil.
 Place the SPC, with sand having the latest weight of W3, over the pit so that the base of the cylinder
covers the pit concentrically.
 Open the slit of the SPC and allow the sand to run into the pit freely, till there is no downward
movement of sand level in the SPC and then close the slit.
 Find the weight of the SPC with the remaining sand (W4)
Observations and Calculations:
 Volume of the calibrating container, V (cm3)

 Weight of SPC + sand, W1 (g)
 Weight of SPC + sand, W2 (g)(after filling conical portion on a flat surface)
 Weight of sand in cone W3 (g)(after filling calibrating can)
 Weight of sand in calibrating cone W3= W2-W1 (g)
 Unit weight of sand, γsand = (W2-W1)/V (g/cm3)
Data (Determination of Density of Soil)
Weight of calibrating cone W4 (g)
Weight of calibrating container+sand (gm) W5
weight of sand (gm) W6 = W5- W4
Weight of the excavated from the pit (W) (g)
Weight of appratus+soil(before pouring in the hole) gm W7
Weight of appratus+soil(after pouring in the hole) gm W8
weight of soil in the hole (gm) W9= W7-W8- W3
Wet unit weight of te soil γwet=W/Vp (g/cm3)
Dry unit weight of the soil γdry=γwet/(1+m) (g/cm3)(where m is the moisture content of soil)
Diameter of calibrating cylinder= 10.16 cm
Height of calibrating cylinder = 12.45 cm
CALCULATION OF BULK DENSITY OF SAND

CALCULATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT
CALCULATION OF BULK DENSITY AND DRY DENSITY OF SOIL

Related Theory:
Sometimes it is important to know the density of in-situ for design purpose. This can be done by mean
of sand replacement method. Determining the in situ density of natural or compacted soils using sand
pouring cylinders requires simple method of analysis. The in situ density of natural soil is needed for
the determination of bearing capacity of soils, for the purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the
determination of pressures on underlying strata for the calculation of settlement and the design of
underground structures. This along with the Core Cutter is one of the older, more labor intensive
methods of determining density. It is used on boulder clays and granular fills
Determination of field density of cohesion less soil is not possible by core cutter method, because it
is not possible to obtain a core sample. In such situation, the sand replacement method is employed
to determine the unit weight. In sand replacement method, a small cylindrical pit is excavated and the
weight of the soil excavated from the pit is measured. Sand whose density is known is filled into the
pit. By measuring the weight of sand required to fill the pit and knowing its density the volume of pit
is calculated. Knowing the weight of soil excavated from the pit and the volume of pit, the density of
soil is calculated. Therefore, in this experiment there are two stages, namely
 Calibration of sand density

 Measurement of soil density
 Bulk density:
Bulk density is a property of powders, granules, and other "divided" solids, especially used in
reference to mineral components (soil, gravel), chemical substances,
(pharmaceutical) ingredients, foodstuff, or any other masses of corpuscular or particulate matter. It is
defined as the mass of many particles of the material divided by the totalvolume they occupy. The
total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void volume, and internal pore volume.
Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a material; it can change depending on how the material is
handled. For example, a powder poured into a cylinder will have a particular bulk density; if the
cylinder is disturbed, the powder particles will move and usually settle closer together, resulting in a
higher bulk density. For this reason, the bulk density of powders is usually reported both as "freely
settled" (or "poured" density) and "tapped" density (where the tapped density refers to the bulk density
of the powder after a specified compaction process, usually involving vibration of the container.)
This method consists of driving a core cutter of known volume into the soil after placingit on a cleaned
surface. The cutter filled with soil is removed and excess soil trimmed off. Thecutter with soil is
weighed which is divided by volume of cutter and hence the in-situ unit weightis determined. The
core cutter is dug out, trimmed and the soil inside, weighed and dried for moisture and density
determination
Bulk density of soil:
The bulk density of soil depends greatly on the mineral make up of soil and the degree of compaction.
The density of quartz is around 2.65 g/cm³ but the (dry) bulk density of a mineral soil is normally
about half that density, between 1.0 and 1.6 g/cm³. Soils high in organics and some friable clay may
have a bulk density well below 1 g/cm³.
Bulk density of soil is usually determined from a core sample which is taken by driving a metal corer
into the soil at the desired depth and horizon.[2] This gives a soil sample of known total volume, .
From this sample the wet bulk density and the dry bulk density can be determined.[3]
For the wet bulk density (total bulk density) this sample is weighed, giving the mass . For the dry
bulk density, the sample is oven dried and weighed, giving the mass of soil solids, . The
relationship between these two masses is , where is the mass of substances
lost on oven drying (often, mostly water). The dry and wet bulk densities are calculated as
Dry bulk density = mass of soil/ volume as a whole
Wet bulk density = mass of soil plus liquids/ volume as a whole
The dry bulk density of a soil is inversely related to the porosity of the same soil: the more pore space
in a soil the lower the value for bulk density. Bulk density of a region in the interior of the earth is
also related to the seismic velocity of waves travelling through it: for P-waves, this has been
quantified with Gardner's relation. The higher the density, the faster the velocity
Precautions:
 If for any reason it is necessary to excavate the pit to a depth other than 12 cm, the standard
calibrating can should be replaced by one with an internal height same as the depth of pit to be
made in the ground.
 Care should be taken in excavating the pit, so that it is not enlarged by levering, as this will result
in lower density being recorded.
 No loose material should be left in the pit.
 There should be no vibrations during this test.
 It should not be forgotten to remove the tray, before placing the SPC over the pit.
Reference:
IS-2720-Part-28-Determination of dry density of soils in place, by the sand replacement method
http://civilblog.org/2014/04/02/determination-of-field-density-of-soil-by-sand-replacement-method-
is-2720-part-28/
Comments:
LAB # 08
Unconfined compression test
Purpose:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which
is then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under conditions.
According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength qu is defined as the
compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple
compression test. In addition, in this test ethod the unconfined compressive strength is taken as the
maximum load attained per united area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever
occurs first during the performance of a test.
Standard reference:
ASTM D 2166- standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil.
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength is necessary for the determination of the bearing
capacity of foundations, dams, etc. the undrained shear strength (Su) of clays is commonly
determined from an unconfined compression test (qu). The undrained shear strength of a cohesive
soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength when the soil is under the angle of
internal friction is zero. The most critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after
construction, which represent undrained conditions, when the undreamed shear strength is basically
equal to the cohesion.
Equipment:
Compression device, load and deformation dial gauges, sample trimming equipment,
balance, moisture can.
Test procedure:
1. Extrude the soil sample from the Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the L/d
ratio is approximately 2 and 2.5.
2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations and then make the
same measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Average the measurement and record
the average as the diameter on the data sheet.
3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations and then average the
measurement and record the average as the length on the data sheet.
4. Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
5. Calculate the deformation corresponding to 15% strain.
∆𝐿
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) =
𝐿𝑜
6. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom plate.
Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen and the load
and deformation dials to zero.
7. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2% per minute,
and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20 to 50
divisions on deformation the dial.
8. Keep applying the load until:
a. The load decrease on the specimen significantly
b. The load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings.
c. The deformation is significantly past the 15% stain that was determined in step 5.
d. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water content
determination. Determine the water content.
UNDER NORMAL LOAD OF 18 lb= 8.16466Kg
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
DRY WEIGHT OF
=
SAMPLE 160 gm
WET WEIGHT OF
=
SAMPLE 167.75 gm
DIAMETER = 1.5 in 38.1mm
HEIGHT = 3.0 in 76.2mm
PROVING RING
=
CONSTANT 0.82lb/div 0.371945/div
LEAST COUNT OF
=
STRAIN GAUGE 0.0005in 0.00127mm
INITIAL AREA = 11.4091cm2
Table: 08
LOAD
DIAL SAMPLE CORRECTED
DEFORMATION READING DEFROMATION STRAIN % STRAIN AREA LOAD (N) STRESS
0 0 0 0 0 11.4091 0 0
20 30 0.0254 0.00033333 0.033333333 11.41290303 11.15835 0.977696
40 43 0.0508 0.00066667 0.066666667 11.41670607 15.993635 1.4008975
60 46.5 0.0762 0.001 0.1 11.4205091 17.2954425 1.5144196
80 44 0.1016 0.00133333 0.133333333 11.42431213 16.36558 1.4325221
100 38.5 0.127 0.00166667 0.166666667 11.42811517 14.3198825 1.2530397
120 30 0.1524 0.002 0.2 11.4319182 11.15835 0.9760698
Table: 8.1
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST ASTM D 2166

1.6
COMPRESSION LOAD kg/cm2
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
% STRAIN
FIG: 8
Comments:
LAB # 09
Direct shear test
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of a sandy to

silty soil. The shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil, because it
is required whenever a structure is dependent on the soils shearing resistance. The shear strength is
needed for engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts, finding the
bearing capacity for foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.
Standard reference:
ASTM D 3080- standard test method for direct shear test of soils under consolidated
drained conditions.
Significance:
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength test for soils. In this laboratory, a direct
shear device will be used to determine the shear strength of a cohesion-less soil (i.e angle of internal
friction) from the plot of the shear stress versus the horizontal displacement, the maximum shear
stress is obtained for a specific vertical confining stress. After the experiment is rum several times
for various vertical-confining stresses, a plot of the maximum shear stresses versus the vertical
(normal) confining stresses for each of the test is produced.
Equipment:
Direct shear device, load and deformation dial gauges, balance.
Test procedure:
1. Weigh the initial mass of soil in the pan

2. Measure the diameter and height of the shear box. Compute 15% of the diameter in
millimeters.
3. Carefully assemble the shear box and place it in the direct shear device. Then place a porous
stone and a filter paper in the shear box.
4. Place the sand into the shear box and level off the top. Place a filter paper, a porous stone,
and a top plate (with ball) on top of the sand.
5. Remove the large alignment screws form the shear box. Open the gap between the shear box
halves to approximately 0.025 in using the gap screws and then back out the gap screws.
6. Weight the pan of soil again and compute the mass of soil used.
7. Complete the assembly of the direct shear device and initialize the three gauges (horizontal
displacement gauge, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage) to zero.
8. Set the vertical load to a predetermined value, and then close bleeder valve and apply the
load to the soil specimen by raising the toggle switch.
9. Start the motor with selected speed so that the rate of shearing is at a selected constant rate,
and take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical gauge displacement and shear load gage
readings. Record the readings on the data sheet.
10. Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls, or the
horizontal displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
WEIGHT OF SAMPLE = 115.2 gm

WET WEIGHT OF
=
SAMPLE 167.75 gm
INITIAL AREA = 36cm2
PROVING RING
=
CONSTANT 0.82lb/div 0.371945/div
LEAST COUNT OF
DEFORMATION DIAL 0.01mm
GUAGE =

Hz DIAL Hz LOAD Hz SHEAR
READIN DISPLACEMEN DIAL SHEARFORC STRESS(Kg/cm CORRECTE
G T (mm) READING E 2) D AREA
0 0 0 0 0 36
20 0.2 5.5 2.0456975 0.058784411 34.8
40 0.4 8 2.97556 0.088558333 33.6
60 0.6 9.5 3.5334775 0.109057948 32.4
80 0.8 10 3.71945 0.119213141 31.2
100 1 11 4.091395 0.136379833 30
120 1.2 11.5 4.2773675 0.148519705 28.8
0 0 0 0 0 36
20 0.2 11 4.091395 0.117568822 34.8
40 0.4 14 5.20723 0.154977083 33.6
60 0.6 16 5.95112 0.183676543 32.4
80 0.8 17 6.323065 0.20266234 31.2
100 1 17.5 6.5090375 0.216967917 30
120 1.2 18 6.69501 0.232465625 28.8

0 0 0 0 0 36
20 0.2 17 6.323065 0.18169727 34.8
40 0.4 20 7.4389 0.221395833 33.6
60 0.6 21.5 7.9968175 0.246815355 32.4
80 0.8 22.5 8.3687625 0.268229567 31.2
100 1 23 8.554735 0.285157833 30
120 1.2 23.5 8.7407075 0.303496788 28.8
140 1.4 24 8.92668 0.323430435 27.6
160 1.6 24 8.92668 0.338131818 26.4
180 1.8 24.5 9.1126525 0.361613194 25.2
DIRECT SHEAR TEST: SHEARSTRES Vs HORIZONTAL DIPLACEMENT
0.4
0.35
SHEAR STRESS (Kg/cm2)

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Horizontal Displacement (mm)
SHEAR Vs NORMAL STRESS

0.4
0.35
SHEAR STRESS (Kg/cm2)
y = 0.1065x + 0.0344
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
NORMAL STRESS (Kg/cm2 )
Comments:
LAB # 10
Wet sieve analysis
Scope:
These test methods cover the determination of the amount of material finer than a 75-μm (no.
200) sieve by washing of material with a maximum particle size of 75 mm (3 in.).
The methods used in this standard rely on the use of water or a dispersant to separate and
remove materials finer than a 75-μm (no. 200) sieve. During these processes soluble substances,
such as salts and other minerals, may also be removed. It is not within the scope of this standard
to differentiate between the removal of fine particles and soluble substances. It is recommended
that materials containing significant amounts of soluble substances be tested using other
methods of separation.
Standard reference:
Astm d1140 standard test methods for determining the amount of material finer than 75-μm
(no. 200) sieve in soils by washing
Significant:
Material finer than the 75-μm (no. 200) sieve can be separated from larger particles much
more efficiently and completely by wet sieving than with dry sieving. Therefore, when accurate
determinations of material finer than 75-μm sieve in soil are desired, this test method is used on
the test specimen prior to dry sieving. Usually the additional amount of material finer than 75-
μm sieve obtained in the dry sieving process is a small amount. If it is large, the efficiency of the
washing operation should be checked, as it could be an indication of degradation of the soil.
With some soils, particularly clayey soils, in order to keep the finer material from adhering to
the larger particles, it will be necessary to soak the soil prior to washing it through the sieve. A
deflocculating agent (dispersing agent) should be added to the soil when it is soaked.
Apparatus:
Balance or scale conforming to the requirements of specification d 4753, readable (with no

estimation) to 0.1 % of the test mass, or better. To determine the balance needed, multiply your
test mass by 0.001 and check table 1 of specification d 4753 for the class of balance readable to
the number observed.
Sieves—a minimum nest of two sieves is recommended, the lower must be a 75-μm (no. 200)
sieve and the upper may be a 425-μm (no. 40) or larger sieve. Chose a sieve with a diameter
sufficient to handle the size of specimen required by 6.2. The 75-μm sieve should have a
backing to prevent damage. The sieves shall conform to the requirements of specification e 11.
Stainless sieve mesh is preferred, as it is less prone to damage or wear.
Oven—an oven of sufficient size, capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of 100 6 5°c
(230 6 9°f) and which meets the criteria of specification e 145.
Deflocculating agent—a solution of sodium hexametaphosphate of any concentration sufficient

to cause particle separation can be used. Common amount is 40 g per 1000 ml of water.
Procedure:
Record your measurements and calculations on the wet sieve analysis data sheet using the
following procedure:
Weigh approximately 500g (b) of oven dried soil.
Combine the soil in a large bowl and enough of the sodium hexametaphosphate solution to
cover the soil. Allow the mixture to soak for at least 2 hours ( a 30 minute sitting period may be
used for educational purpose).
Wash all of the soil solids through the deep #200 sieve under a running tap until the effluent is
clear (fig. 1). Rub the screen with your fingers to keep the mixture flowing. Do not use any
brushes, knives, spatulas, or other tools that may damage the screen. Do not allow the mixture to
overflow out the top of the sieve.
figure 4.1 washing the
soil through a #200
sieve.
Wash all of the solids retained in the sieve back into the mixing bowl using tap water and a
squeeze bottle. It is alright to have a large amount of water in the bowl, provide it is not spilling
over the side of the bowl.
Place the bowl in a large drying oven and let dry overnight.
Calculate the net dry mass of the soil retained by #200 sieve. C
Calculate the percent fines in the soil. A
𝑨−𝑪
a= × 100%.
𝑩
Analysis:
Calculate the amount of material passing the 75-μm (no. 200) sieve by washing using the
following formula:
𝑨−𝑪
a= × 100%.
𝑩
Where:
A = percentage of material finer than the 75-μm sieve by washing, nearest 0.1 %
B = original dry mass of sample, g, and

C = dry mass of specimen retained on the 75-μm sieve including the amount retained on an
upper sieve after washing, g.
LAB # 11
Organic matter determination
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the organic content of soils. The organic content is the
ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the
mass of the dry soil solids.
Standard reference:
Astm d 2974- standard test methods for moisture, ash and organic matter of peat and organic
soils
Significance:
Organic matter influences many of the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils.
Some of the properties influenced by organic matter include soil structure, soil compressibility
and shear strength. In addition, it also affects the water holding capacity, nutrient contributions,
biological activity and water and air infiltration rates.
Equipment:
Muffle furnace, balance, porcelain dish, spatula, and tongs
Test procedure:
Determine and record the mass of an empty, clean, and dry porcelain dish (mp)
Place a part of or the entire oven-dried test specimen from the moisture content experiment
(expt.1) in the porcelain dish and determine and record the mass of the dish and soil specimen
(mpds).
Place the dish in a muffle furnace. Gradually increase the temperature in the furnace to 4400c.
Leave the specimen in the furnace overnight.
Remove carefully the porcelain dish using the tongs (the dish is very hot), and allow it to cool to
room temperature. Determine and record the mass of the dish containing the ash (burned soil)
(mpa)
Empty the dish and clean it.
Data analysis:
Determine the mass if the dry soil.

Md=mpds-mp
Determine the mass of the ashed (burned) soil.

Ma=mpa-mp
Determine the mass of organic matter

mo=md-ma
Determine the organic matter (content).

om= (mo/md)x 100
_____________________________________________________________________________
LAB # 12
Soil consistency (plasticity)
Consistency:
Consistency is a term used to describe the degree of firmness of fine-grained soils (silt and clay).
The consistency of fine grained soils is expressed qualitatively by such terms as very soft, soft,
stiff, very stiff and hard.
Water content significantly affects properties of silty and clayey soils (unlike sand and gravel).
It has been found that at the same water content, two samples of clay of different origins may
possess different consistency.
From the figure above, at a very low moisture content, soil behves more like a solid. When the
moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid.
Also, soil strength decreases as water content increases.
Therefore, the soil behavior is divided into four states based on moisture content: solid, semi-
solid, and plastic, liquid.
Atterberg limits:
Atterberg limits are water contents at certain limiting or critical stages in soil behavior.
These limits are:
Liquid limit (ll):
The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from plastic to liquid state. Or. The
moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a liquid material and begins to flow.
Plastic limit (pl):
The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from semisolid to plastic state. Or, the
moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a plastic material.
Shrinkage limit (sl):
The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from solid to semisolid state. Or the
moisture content at which no further volume change occurs with further reduction in moisture
content.
Figure. 6.1 Atterberg limits
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑾𝒘
Moisture content= water content= w = = . 100%
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑾𝒔
Figure 6.2 Definition of shrinkage limit
As the water content is reduced, the volume of the soil decreases and the soils become plastic.
If the water content is further reduced, the soil becomes semi-solid and the volume does not
change at sl.
Importance of Atterberg limits:
If we know the water contents of our sample relative to the Atterberg limits, then we already
know a great deal about the engineering response of our sample.
To obtain general information about a soil and its strength, compressibility, and permeability
properties.
Empirical correlations for some engineering properties.
Soil classification
Liquid limit (ll) determination:
The water content required to close a distance of ½ inch (12.7 mm) along the bottom of the
groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit.
Multi-point method (astm d-4318)
Figure 6.3 casagrande apparatus
It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in soil to meet the required ½ inch closure of the
groove at 25 blows. Hence, at least 4 tests for the same soil are made at varying w%, and then
w% values are plotted against the logarithm of the number of blows, n.
Figure 6.5 Flow curve for liquid limit determination of clayey silt
One-point method (ASTM d-4318)

Proposed by the usace in 1949 based on the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests.
l.l = 𝝎n (n/25)0.121
𝝎n = moisture content of the soil which closed in n blows (n should be between 10 and 40).
n = number of blows required to close the standard groove for a distance of ½ inch (12.7mm).
This formula generally yields good results for the number of blows between 20 and 30.
Fall-cone method (british standard – bs1377)
The cone is released for 5 seconds so that it may penetrate the soil.
The liquid limit is defined as the water content of the soil which allows the cone to penetrate
exactly 20 mm during that period of time.
Figure 6.7 Plot of moisture content vs. Cone penetration for determination of liquid
Limit
Plastic limit (Pl) determination:
Rolling into thread method (ASTM d-4318)

The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil crumbles,
when rolled into threads of 3.18 mm (1/8 in.) In diameter.
Figure 6.8
Rolling of soil mass on ground glass plate to determine plastic limit
Fall-cone method
Similar to liquid limit test only the weight of the cone is 2.35n instead of 0.78n.
Figure 6.9 Liquid and plastic limits for Cambridge gault clay determined by fall cone test
Shrinkage limit (Sl) (Astm d-427, Astm d-4943):

The shrinkage limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the
soil mass ceases to change.
Figure 6.10
shrinkage limit test: (a) soil pat before drying; (b) soil pat after drying
sl = 𝝎𝒊(%) - ∆𝝎(%)
𝑴𝟏 −𝑴𝟐 𝑽𝒊 −𝑽𝒇
sl = ( ) (100) - ( )𝝆𝒘 (100)
𝑴𝟐 𝑴𝟐
Figure 6.11 definition of shrinkage limit
Typical values of shrinkage limit for some clay minerals are as follows (mitchell, 1976).
Table 6.1 typical value of shrinkage limit
Indices of soil consistency

Various indices have been developed using Atterberg limits.
Plasticity index (PI):
Pi = ll - Pl
This index provides a measure of a soil plasticity, which is the amount of water that must be
added to change a soil from its plastic limit to its liquid limit. Pi is useful in engineering
classification of fine grained soils, and many engineering properties have been found to
correlate with the pi. The plasticity index, in conjunction with the mechanical analysis, provides
the basis for several of the engineering classification of soils.
Table 6.2 typical values of liquid limit, plastic limit, and activity of some clay minerals
Burmister (1949) classified the plasticity index in a qualitative manner

as follows:
Table 6.3 plastic index description
Liquidity index (li)

the relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state can be defined by a ratio called the
liquidity index, which is given by
This index provides a clue as the

condition of the in-situ soil. This index helps us to know if our sample was likely to behave as a
brittle, a plastic, or a liquid.
If li< 0 brittle behavior (desiccated (dried) hard soil)
If 0<li<1 the soil behaves like a plastic
If li>1 the soil is like a viscous liquid.
Consistency index:
If w is equal to the liquid limit, the consistency index is zero. Again, if w = pi, then ci = 1.
Group index
It is used to evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material. This index is
written in parentheses after the group or subgroup designation [e.g., a-4(3)].
Gi = (f200 - 35) [0.2 + 0.005(ll - 40)] + 0.01(f200 - 15) (pi -10)
f200 = percentage passing through the no.200 sieve
The rating for a pavement subgrade is inversely proportional to the group index, gi.
Activity
The presence of even small amounts of certain clay minerals in a soil mass can have a
significant effect on the properties of the soil. Identifying the type and amount of clay minerals
may be necessary in order to predict the soil’s behavior or to develop methods for minimizing
detrimental effects. An indirect method of obtaining information on the type and effect of clay
minerals in a soil is to relate plasticity to the quantity of clay–sized particles. It is known that for
a given amount of clay mineral, the plasticity resulting in a soil will vary for the different types
of clays.
The plasticity index (pi) of a soil increases linearly with the percentage of clay-size fraction
(%finer than 2 micrometer by weight present).it can be seen form the plot below that different
clays have different correlation of pi with clay-size fraction. This is because that different clay
minerals have different plasticity characteristics.
Figure 6.12 activity (based on Skempton, 1953)

Activity is defined as the slope of the line correlating pi and %finer than 2 micrometer and
expressed as:
𝐏𝐈
a = (% 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐲−𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧,𝐧𝐲 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭)
Table 6.4 typical values of liquid limit, plastic limit, and activity of some clay minerals
The activity factor gives information on the type and effect of clay mineral in a soil. Clay
minerals with kaolinite have low activity, whereas those soils with montmorillonite will have a
high activity value. Activity is used as an index for identifying the swelling potential of clay
soils.
Plasticity chart:
Casagrande (1932) studied the relationship of the plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide
variety natural soils. On the basis of the test results, he proposed a plasticity chart as shown
below. This chart was developed by plotting the results of several hundred tests.
Figure: 6.13 Plasticity chart
Figure 6.14 Plasticity chart
Above A-line clays. Below A-line silts and organic soils (silt and clays) .left of b-line --low
plasticity. Right of b-line-- high plasticity. U-line is approximately the upper limit of the
relationship of pi and the ll for any soil found so far. The data plotting above or to the left of u-
line should be considered as likely in error and should be rechecked. All the lines (a, u, and b)
are empirical. The plasticity chart is the basis for the classification of the fine-grained soils
according to USCS.
Estimation of shrinkage limit from plasticity chart

Knowing the plasticity index (pi) and liquid limit (ll) shrinkage limit can be determined from
the plasticity chart as shown below
Figure 6.15 estimation of shrinkage from plasticity chart (adapted from holtz and kovacs,
1981)
Plot the plasticity index against the liquid limit of a given soil such as point an in Figure 4.20.
Project the A-line and the U-line downward to meet at point B. Point B will have the
coordinates of ll=43.5 and pi=46.4.
Join points B and A with a straight line. This will intersect the liquid limit axis at point C. The
abscissa of point C is the estimated shrinkage limit.
__________________________________________________________
LAB # 13
Determination of shrinkage limit of soils
Scope:
This test method covers the procedure for determining the shrinkage limit of soils.
The data obtained using this test method may also be used to calculate shrinkage ratio,
volumetric shrinkage, and linear shrinkage.
This test method is applicable only for cohesive soils.
Since this test method is performed only on that portion of a soil which passes the no. 40 (425-
μm) sieve, the relative consistency of this portion of the soil to the properties of the sample as a
whole must be considered when using these procedures to evaluate the properties of a soil.
The shrinkage limit along with the liquid limit and plastic limit of soils are often collectively
referred to as the Atterberg limits in recognition of their formation by Swedish soil scientist, a.
Atterberg. These limits distinguish the boundaries of the several consistency states of cohesive
soils.
Standard reference:
ASTM d 4953-02, standard test method for shrinkage factors of soils by the wax method.
Significant and use:

The term shrinkage limit, expressed as a moisture content in percent to the nearest whole
number, represents the amount of water required just to fill all of the voids of a given cohesive
soil at its minimum void ratio obtained by oven drying. The shrinkage limit can be used to
evaluate the shrinkage potential, crack development potential, and swell potential of earthwork
involving cohesive soils.
Apparatus:
Evaporating dish. Porcelain, about 12cm diameter with flat bottom.

Spatula
Shrinkage dish. Circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish having a flat bottom and 45
mm in diameter and 15 mm in height internally.
Straight edge. Steel, 15 cm in length.
Glass cup. 50 to 55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height, the top rim of which is ground
smooth and level.
Glass plates. Two, each 75  75 mm one plate shall be of plain glass and the other shall have
prongs.
Sieves. 2mm and 425- micron is sieves.
Oven-thermostatically controlled.
Graduate-glass, having a capacity of 25 ml and graduated to 0.2 ml and 100 cc one flask.
Balance-sensitive to 0.01 g minimum.
Mercury. Clean, sufficient to fill the glass cup to over flowing.
Wash bottle containing distilled water.
Figure 7.1 shrinkage limit set

Procedure:
Preparation of soil paste
Take about 100 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing
through 425-micron i.s. sieve.
Place about 30 gm the above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with
distilled water and make a creamy paste.
Use water content somewhere around the liquid limit.
Filling the shrinkage dish:
Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil sticking
to the dish.
Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3rd of the amount of wet soil with
the help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the edges and no
apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is
completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the top of the dish
smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of the dish.
Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8hrs, until the color of the pat turns from dark to light. Then
oven-dry those to constant weight at 1050c to 1100c say about 12 to 16 hrs.
Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the weight
of the dish with dry sample.
Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil
as follows. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with mercury till it
overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess mercury.
Pour the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and find the volume of the
shrinkage dish directly. Record this volume as the volume of the wet soil pat.
Volume of the dry soil pat
Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.
Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury. Remove
the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and pressing it. See that no
air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to remove the adhering mercury.
Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean and empty carefully.
Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. It floats submerge it with the pronged glass plate which is
again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury spills over into the larger plate. Pour the
mercury that is displayed by the soil pat into the measuring jar and find the volume of the soil
pat directly.
Analysis:
Calculate the mass of the dry soil pat as follows:

ms = m d - m
Where:
Ms = mass of the dry soil pat, g,
Md = mass of the dry soil pat and shrinkage dish, g, and
M = mass of the shrinkage dish, g.
Calculate the moisture content of the soil at the time it was placed in the dish as follows:
Where:
W = moisture content of the soil at the time it was placed in the dish, %, and
Mw = mass of the wet soil and shrinkage dish, g.
Volume of the dry soil pat:
Calculate the volume of the dry soil pat and wax as follows:
Where:
Vdx = volume of dry soil pat and wax, cm3,
Msxa = mass of dry soil pat and wax in air, g,
Msxw = indicated mass of dry soil pat and wax in water, g,
And
Ρw = density of water, g/cm3.

Note: assume density of water equal to 1.0 g/cm3. Corrections for temperature may be used, if
desired.
Calculate the mass of wax as follows:

Mx = msxa - ms
Where:
Mx = mass of wax, g.
Calculate the volume of wax as follows:
Where:
Vx = volume of wax, cm3,
Gx = specific gravity of wax, and
Ρx = density of wax, g/cm3.
Calculate the volume of dry soil pat as follows:
Vd = vdx - vx
Where:
Vd = volume of dry soil pat, cm3.
Calculate the shrinkage limit as follows:
Where:
Sl = shrinkage limit, and
V = volume of wet soil pat (= volume of the shrinkage dish), cm3.
If desired, calculate the shrinkage ratio as follows:
Where:
r = shrinkage ratio.
If desired, calculate the volumetric shrinkage as follows:
Vs = r (w1 – sl)
Where:
Vs = volumetric shrinkage, and
W1 = some given moisture content, %.
If desired, calculate the linear shrinkage as follows:
Where:
Ls = linear shrinkage.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_
LAB # 14
Determination of Relative Density.
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the relative density of cohesion less, free-draining soils
using a vibrating table. The relative density of a soil is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of
the difference between the maximum index void ratio and the field void ratio of a cohesion less,
free-draining soil; to the difference between its maximum and minimum index void ratios.
Standard references:
1. ASTM d 4254 – standard test methods for minimum index density and unit weight of soils and
calculation of relative density.
2. ASTM d 4253 – standard test methods for maximum index density and unit weight of soils using
a vibratory table.
Significance:
Relative density and percent compaction are commonly used for evaluating the state of
compactness of a given soil mass. The engineering properties, such as shear strength,
compressibility, and permeability, of a given soil depend on the level of compaction.
Equipment:
Vibrating table, mold assembly consisting of standard mold, guide sleeves, surcharge base-plate,
surcharge weights, surcharge base-plate handle, and dial-indicator gage, balance, scoop,
straightedge.
Test procedure:
1. Fill the mold with the soil (approximately 0.5 inch to 1 inch above the top of the mold) as loosely
as possible by pouring the soil using a scoop or pouring device (funnel). Spiraling motion should
be just sufficient to minimize particle segregation.
2. Trim off the excess soil level with the top by carefully trimming the soil surface with a
straightedge.
3. Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil. Then empty the mold (m1). See photograph
on page 35.
4. Again fill the mold with soil (do not use the same soil used in step (1) and level the surface of the
soil by using a scoop or pouring device (funnel) in order to minimize the soil segregation. The
sides of the mold may be struck a few times using a metal bar or rubber hammer to settle the soil
so that the surcharge base-plate can be easily placed into position and there is no surge of air
from the mold when vibration is initiated.
5. Place the surcharge base plate on the surface of the soil and twist it slightly several times so that
it is placed firmly and uniformly in contact with the surface of the soil. Remove the surcharge
base-plate handle.
6. Attach the mold to the vibrating table.
7. Determine the initial dial reading by inserting the dial indicator gauge holder in each of the guide
brackets with the dial gage stem in contact with the rim of the mold (at its center) on the both
sides of the guide brackets. Obtain six sets of dial indicator readings, three on each side of each
guide bracket. The average of these twelve readings is the initial dial gage reading, Record to the
nearest 0.001 in. (0.025mm).
8. Firmly attach the guide sleeve to the mold and lower the appropriate surcharge weight onto the
surcharge base-plate.
9. Vibrate the mold assembly and soil specimen for 8 min.
10. Determine and record the dial indicator gage readings as in step (7). The average of these
readings is the final dial gage reading.
11. Remove the surcharge base-plate from the mold and detach the mold from the vibrating table.
12. Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil (m2)
13. Empty the mold and determine the weight of the mold.
14. Determine and record the dimensions of the mold (i.e., diameter and height) in order to calculate
the calibrated volume of the mold, vc. Also, determine the thickness of the surcharge base-plate,
tp.
Analysis:
Calculate the minimum index density (ρdmin) as follows:

ρ dmin = ms1/vc
Where
Ms1 = mass of tested-dry soil
= mass of mold with soil placed loose – mass of mold
Vc = calibrated volume of the mold
Calculate the maximum index density (ρdmax) as follows:

Ρdmax = ms2/v
Where:
Ms2 = mass of tested-dry soil
= mass of mold with soil after vibration – mass of mold
v = volume of tested-dry soil = vc – (ac*h)
Where:
ac = the calibrated cross sectional area of the mold
h = |rf –ri|+ tp
Calculate the maximum and the minimum-index void ratios as follows (use gs value
determined from specific gravity experiment, ρw=1 g/cm3):
𝑮𝒔 𝚸𝒘
e min = -1
𝚸𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑮𝒔 𝚸𝒘
e max = -1
𝚸𝒎𝒊𝒏
Calculate the relative density as follows:
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 −𝒆
dd =
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏
[Calculate the void ratio of the natural state of the soil based on ρd and ρs=gs*ρw as follows: e =
𝚸𝒔
-1 ]
𝚸𝒅
Calculation and observation:
Date tested:
Tested by:
Sample number:
Sample description:
Mass of empty mold:
Diameter of empty mold:

Height of empty mold:
Mass of mold and soil (m1):
Average initial dial gauge reading (ri): -
Average final dial gauge reading (rf): -
Thickness of surcharge base plate (tp):
Mass of mold and soil (m2):
Comments:
LAB # 15
Expansion Index Test
Scope:
This test method provides an index to the expansion potential of
compacted soils when inundated with distilled water.
Standard reference:
ASTM designation: d 4829, “standard test method for expansion index of soils”
Test method:
Mould, containing an inner ring that is used for the compaction of the specimen for the
expansion index test.
Figure 9.1 Expansion index test apparatus
The specimen is compacted into a metal ring so that the degree of saturation is between 49 and
51% and the specimen and the ring are placed in a consolidometer. A vertical confining pressure
of 1 psi is applied to the specimen and then the specimen is inundated with distilled water. The
deformation of the specimen is recorded for 24 hours or until the rate of deformation becomes
less than 0.005 mm/hour.
Figure 9.2 Time vs percent swell

Ei = 1000(h2-h1)/h1 = 10(max. % swell in ei test)
Where:
H2 = height of the soil specimen at the end of swell (in or mm)
H1 = initial height of the specimen (1in or 25.4mm)
Ei = expansion index
Specimen preparation:
1. Adjust water content:
2. Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with sufficient distilled water to bring the soil
to approximately optimum water content as determined in accordance with test method d 698.
The actual test method need not be run, but experience and judgement should be used to estimate
that water content.
3. After mixing, take a representative sample of the material for moisture determination and seal
the remainder of the soil in a close-fitting airtight container for a period of at least 16 h (or
overnight). Weigh the moisture sample immediately, and dry in an oven at 110 + 5°c (230 + 9°f)
for at least 12 h, or in accordance with test method d 2216, to a constant mass to determine water
content. The moisture sample shall have a mass of at least 100 g conforming to test method d
2216.
Specimen molding:
Form a specimen by compacting the cured soil in the 101.9 mm (4.01 in.) Diameter mold in
two equal layers to give a total compacted depth of approximately 50.8 mm (2 in.). Compact
each layer by 15 uniformly distributed blows of the rammer dropping free from a height of 305
mm (12 in.) Above the top of the soil when a sleeve type rammer is used, or from 305 mm
above the approximate elevation of each finally compacted layer when a stationary mounted
type of rammer is used. Scarify the first compacted layer before adding material for the second
layer using a knife or other suitable object. During compaction rest the mold on a uniform rigid
foundation, such as provided by a cube of concrete with a mass not less than 90 kg (200 lb).
Trim specimen:
Following compaction, remove the upper and lower portions of the mold from the inner ring and
carefully trim the specimen flush with the top and bottom of the ring with a straight edge.
Determine initial height:
Determine initial height of the specimen h1 to within 0.03 mm (0.01 in.) Or assume equal to the
height of the specimen ring.
Saturation:
Calculate the water content and dry unit weight in accordance with the test method d 698.
Weigh the compacted specimen and determine the percent saturation. The percent saturation, s,
may be determined as follows:
𝒘𝑮𝒔 𝚪𝒅
s= 𝐆𝒔 𝚪𝒘 − 𝚪𝒅
Where:
S = degree of saturation, %
W = water content, %
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids, use 2.7 unless the specific gravity is known to be less
than 2.6 or more than 2.8.
ɤw = unit weight of water, 9.81 kn/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3)
ɤd = dry unit weight, kn/m3 (lb/ft3)
Adjust water content:
Adjust the water content to achieve a degree of saturation of 50 + 1 %. If the degree of
saturation is not between 49 and 51 %, then remove the soil from the mold and adjust the water
content by adding water or air drying. Repeat the steps until the degree of saturation of the
compacted specimen is between 49 and 51 %.
Procedure:
Place the soil specimen, which has been compacted in the 101.9 mm (4.01 in.) Diameter
ring, in a consolidometer or equivalent loading device with air dried porous disks at the top and
bottom. Place on the specimen a total pressure of 6.9 kpa (1 lbf/in2), including the weight of the
upper porous disk and any unbalanced weight of the loading machine. Allow the specimen to
consolidate under this pressure for a period of 10 min, after which time make the initial reading
(d1) on the consolidometer dial indicator to an accuracy of at least 0.03 mm (0.001 in.).
Inundate the specimen in distilled water, making periodic readings on the dial indicator for a
period of 24 h or until the rate of expansion becomes less than 0.005 mm/h (0.0002 in./h).
However, in no case shall the sample be inundated and readings taken for less than 3 h.
Remove the specimen from the loading machine after the final reading (d2) and determine the
change in height as the difference between the initial and final reading of the dial indicator using
least count of the dial gauge. Determine the specimen mass to the nearest 0.1 g.
Calculate the expansion index, ei or ei meas as follows:
Report ei to the nearest whole number. If the initial specimen height is greater than the final
specimen height, report the expansion index as zero. The molding water content, the final water
content, and initial dry density of the specimen shall accompany the expansion index in the
complete presentation of results.
If the degree of saturation’s’ is within the range from 40 to 60 %, the expansion index at 50 %
saturation is calculated from:
𝟔𝟓 + 𝑬𝑰
ei50 = eimeas – (50 - smeas) 𝟐𝟐𝟎 − 𝑺𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔
Where:
ei meas = measured expansion index corresponding to a degree of saturation
smeas = degree of saturation determined by the test
ei50 = estimate of the expansion index (ei)
The classification of a potentially expansive soil is based on the following table:
Table 9.1 Classification of a potentially expansive
Expansion index, Potential
ei expansion
0-20 Very low
21-50 Low
51-90 Medium
91-130 High
>130 Very high
LAB # 16
Swell Test.
Expansive/swelling soils:
Expansive soils exhibit significant volume changes with soil moisture variation. Such soils
swell and stick when moisture increases and shrink when moisture decreases developing wide
cracks or a puffy appearance.
Field observations:
1. Black or blackish gray or grayish brown color
2. Soil is hard when dry, but soft and sticky when wet
3. Wide surface cracks
4. Basic laboratory data (high swell potential)
5. Liquid limit > 50%
6. Plasticity index > 25%
7. Shrinkage limit <10%
8. Swell potential >6%
Figure 11.1 wide surface cracks
Identification through swell tests:
There are the two important parameters which are determined through swell tests.
 Swell potential
 Swell pressure
Swell potential
When an expansive soil imbibes water from outside, pressure builds up inside the soil. If
free swelling of the soil is restrained by the placement of a structure over the soil, this pressure,
called the swelling pressure, is exerted by the soil on the overlying structure.
The force required to prevent expansion in the soil is a function of time, but a maximum value is
reached after a certain period of time. Swelling pressure can be defined as the maximum force
per unit area that needs to be placed over a swelling soil to prevent volume increase (when soil
specimen is subjected to moisture increase). The swell pressure can also be defined as the
applied pressure at which the void ratio is equal to the initial void ratio.
Swell pressure:
Swelling pressure is a very useful index of the trouble potential of an expansive soil. A
swelling pressure less than about 20 kn/m2 may not be regarded as of much consequence (erzin
and Errol, 2004).
The rate of swelling is important because it governs how fast water will enter the soil and
cause foundation heave. Permeability is an important factor because the higher the permeability,
the greater the probability of differential movement of foundation. This is because the water
could quickly penetrate underneath one portion of structure resulting in damaging differential
movement. Slower moisture mitigation into the soil could result in a more gradual and uniform
foundation heave (duty., et. Al, 1999).
The use of the odometer has distinct advantages due to familiarity amongst geotechnical
engineers.
Tests can be conducted as free swell tests where swelling is allowed to occur at a
predetermined pressure after water is added. The swell pressure is then defined as the pressure
required to re-compress the swollen sample to its pre-swelling volume. Typical graphical
illustration of this test is shown in figure 2.10.
Figure 11.2 An illustration of a free swell test
An alternative approach is known as constant volume swell test which involves inundating a
sample placed in the odometer and preventing it from swelling during the test. In this test, the
swell pressure is then the maximum applied pressure required to achieve a constant volume
(Sridhar an et. Al., 1986). Typical graphical illustration of this test is shown in figure 2.11 (after
getting swell pressure, this test may be continued to conduct consolidation test by applying
further loading). The constant volume test is more vulnerable to sample disturbance. In this way
free swell test is better because it simulates to the actual undisturbed sample condition (Sridhar
an et. Al., 1986).
Figure 11.3 An illustration of constant volume swell test
Swell tests:
Both swell potential and swell pressure tests come under this heading because these are the
two parameters which are used to evaluate the swelling of the soils.
Swell potential test:
For this purpose methodology of ASTM d 4546 is adopted. Percent swell of the soil sample
is determined through this test under a standard surcharge pressure of 6.9 kpa (1 psi).
The soil swell potential is defined as the percentage escalation in the original height of soil
sample upon imbibing moisture. Figure 3.6 represents the procedure which is adopted in order
to evaluate the soil swell potential.
Figure 11.4 Schematic diagram of swell potential evaluation in laboratory
The percentage swell can be calculated by dividing amount of swell to the original thickness
of the sample expressed as a percentage.
Mathematically
% swell = [δh/h] 100
Where:
H = original height of soil sample
Δh = change in height of soil sample upon imbibing moisture
Procedure:
The procedure of the test is as follows; first the specimen is placed in the odometer ring
which was positioned in consolidometer under seating load of 6.9 kpa after placing dry filter
papers on upper and lower side of soil sample. When odometer is fixed on the loading platform,
the deformation dial gauge is set. The sample is inundated with water by directly adding
moisture from oedometer top. The sample starts swelling from this instant and regular
observations are noted generally at 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 60, 120, 240, 480, 960 minutes and so on till
dial gauge shows constant value over a significant period of time. Then the test is deemed
complete and the final reading is noted. This value is used to determine the swell potential.
Figure 11.5 Schematic diagram of swell potential evaluation in laboratory
Swell pressure test:

Swelling pressure is defined as the pressure required to prevent the swelling of the soil. It
may also be defined as the pressure required to bring the swollen soil sample back to its original
height or void ratio.
There are two different methods which are generally used to determine swell pressure.
In method 1(free swell test: refer to figures 2.10 and 3.7), the sample is allowed to swell under a
surcharge pressure of 6.9 kpa on addition of water and then loaded to its original height. The
load added to bring the specimen to its original height divided by area of cross-section of the
specimen is called as swelling pressure.
In method 2 (constant volume test: refer to figure 2.11), upon addition of water to the odometer
ring, the sample receives water and begins to swell. Then sample is loaded continuously to
maintain its original height. This process is maintained till there is no need to put more load to
maintain the height of specimen.
Method 1, has the advantage of getting the percent swell (swell potential) under nominal
surcharge pressure and the swelling pressure too. This test also accommodates the effect of
sample disturbance and thus has an additional advantage on the method ii (Sridhar an, 2004).
Figure 11.6 Swell versus time curves for sample # 22 with 𝜸 d = 16 kn/m3
Figure 11.7 Swell versus time curves for sample # 22 with 10% moisture content
Figure 11.8 effect of initial moisture content and dry unit weight on swell potential for sample # 22
Figure 11.9 effect of initial moisture content and dry unit weight on swell pressure for sample # 22
Figure 11.10 Favorable compaction zone for swelling soil in field
Criteria for classification of expansive soils
(International building code 2006: section 1802.3.2)
Table 11.1 criteria for classification of expansive soils
•pi = plasticity index = ll-pl

•ei= 1000(hp-ho)/ho = 10 (% primary swell)
•ơv= surcharge pressure
____________________________________________________________________
LAB # 17
Collapsible And Sensitive Soils.
Collapsible soils:
These are unsaturated soils that can withstand relatively large imposed stresses with small
settlement at low in situ moisture content but will exhibit a decrease in volume and associated
settlement (which could be of large magnitude) with no increase in applied stress if wetting
occurs.
Figure 12.1 soil structure
Occurrence in the world:

1. Extensive deposits occur world wide
2. Sensitive clays of Scandinavia and eastern Canada.
3. Loess formations of china, Russia and eastern Berea.
4. Red sands of the southern African east coast.
5. Residual soils such as the Highveld granites of South Africa.
6. Kalahari sands.
7. The black cotton soils of northeastern Nigeria, Cameroon and chad.
Characteristics:
 Open structure
 High void ratio
 Low dry density
 High porosity
 Geologically young or recently altered deposits
 High sensitivity
 Low inter-particle bond strength
The behavior of collapse is illustrated below:

f
Figure 12.2 Behavior of collapse
According to Dudley (1970) and harden et al., (1973), four factors are needed to produce
collapse in a soil structure:
1. An open, partially unstable, unsaturated fabric
2. A high enough net total stress that will cause the structure to be metastable
3. A bonding or cementing agent that stabilizes the soil in the unsaturated condition
4. The addition of water to the soil which causes the bonding or cementing agent to be
reduced, and the inter-aggregate or inter-granular contacts to fail in shear, resulting in a
reduction in total volume of the soil mass.
Collapsible behavior of compacted and cohesive soils depends on the percentage of fines,
the initial water content, the initial dry density and the energy and the process used in
compaction.
Why do we have problems with collapsible soils?
Either one or all of the following problems may allow collapse to be evident in construction
Construction was carried out before collapse phenomenon was identified
No geotechnical assessment was carried out
In case the geotechnical assessment was done, it did not evaluate correctly or identify potential
collapsible soils within the profile
Recommendations given by the geotechnical engineer was ignored by the parties involved in
the design.
Evaluation and prediction:
Field identification
1. Observational method
2. Look for cracking and building distortion
3. Soil profiling
4. Recognize a loose or open fabric
5. Use a hand lens to look for colloidal coatings and clay bridges
6. Sausage test: carve out two cylindrical sample of undisturbed material to nearly as
possible to same diameter and height. Wet and knead one sample and remould it to the
same dimensions you had. A decrease in height when compared with the undisturbed
material is indicative of collapsible material.
7. Laboratory testing
8. Particle size distribution
9. Atterberg limits
10. Dry density
11. Consolidation tests
12. Consolidometer tests
13. Double odometer tests

14. Plot the e-log p graphs for both specimens (unsaturated and saturated)
15. Evaluate the in situ effective pressure, po. Draw a vertical line corresponding to the
pressure po.
16. From the e-log p curve of the soaked specimen, determine the pre-consolidation
pressure, pc.
17. Determine eo, corresponding to po from the e-log p curve of the soaked specimen.
18. Through point (po, eo) draw a curve that is comparable to the e-log p curve obtained
from the specimen tested at natural moisture content.
19. Determine the incremental pressure, δp, on the soil caused by the construction of the
foundation. Draw a vertical line corresponding to the pressure of po + δp in the e-log p
curve.
20. Now, determine δ es and δ ec
21. The settlement of soil without change in the natural moisture content is
s1 = δes/ (1 + eo) x h
Also, the settlement caused by the collapse of the soil structure is
s1 = δ ec/ (1 + eo) x h
Where h = thickness of soil vulnerable to collapse
Figure 12.3 The double odometer method (Jennings and knight 1957)
Single consolidometer test:

This is a simpler test to perform since the interpretations of double odometer test is
cumbersome
Only one undisturbed sample (which has in-situ characteristics) is tested
The sample in the consolidometer is loaded to the expected stress from the structure and then
soaked
Consolidation from natural moisture content and the additional obtained from soaking is
calculated
This method is advantageous because one can monitor the loading and moisture content paths to
which the soil will be subjected in the field.
Disadvantage:
This method over predicts settlement.
Collapse potential test:
The collapse potential test is a special case of the single consolidometer test
Sample is saturated at a load of 200 kpa (Schwartz, 1985).
According to Jennings and knight (1975) the collapse potential is not a design parameter, but is
an index figure providing the engineer with a guide to the collapse situation and whether there is
good reason for further investigation.
Table 12.1 guidance to the severity of the collapse.

Figure 12.4 Void ratio versus pressure (log scale) graph
Engineering solutions:
1. Precluding the triggering mechanism:
2. Ensure that the water does not reach the collapsing soil horizons.
3. Chemical stabilization:
4. Stabilizing agent may increase the strength of colloidal bridges. Research on this area is limited.
Use of sodium silicate and injection of carbon dioxide have been suggested (semkin et al., 1986).
Piled and pier foundations:
Structural loads may be transferred through the collapsible soils by means of

piled or pier foundations.
This method is suitable for soils whose origin is transported. Then in that case the transported
soil which is collapsible is shallow and underlined by stable soils or rock.
Design for the collapse as quantified:
i. Increasing structural flexibility by the provision of joints or reducing the bearing

pressures to restrict collapse settlement.
2. Raft foundations are suitable for this case.
3. Make sure there is no increase in moisture in the underlying soil with time.
4. Densification:
5. The soil should be compacted to sufficient density such that the cp < 1% down to the accepted
depth of influence.
6. For road works compact to 90% modified aashto for 0-0.5 m and 85% aashto for 0.5-1m. (this
could be combined with removal and compaction)
7. Vibroflotation
8. Dynamic compaction
9. In situ densification by surface rolling. Use impact and vibratory rollers
10. Unconfined compressive strength & sensitivity of clays:
11. The unconfined compressive strength, qu is defined as the ultimate load per unit cross sectional
area that a standard cylindrical specimen of soil can take under compression without any lateral
pressure.
12. Cohesive soils upon remoulding, lose a part of shear strength. The loss of strength of clay soils
from remoulding is caused primarily by the destruction of the clay particle structure that was
developed during the original process of sedimentation and also disturbance to water molecules
in adsorbed layer.
13. Sensitivity is the measure of loss of strength with remoulding. Sensitivity, st is defined as the
ratio of unconfined compressive strength of clay in undisturbed state to unconfined compressive
strength of a same clay in remoulded state at unaltered water content.
14. Clays are classified according to their sensitivity values as shown in table.2
Table 12.2 classification base on sensitivity of clays
Sensitivity Classification
<1 Insensitive
1-2 Slightly sensitive
2-4 Medium sensitive
4-8 Very sensitive
8-16 Slightly quick
16-32 Medium quick
32-64 Very quick
>64 Extra quick

Highly over consolidated clays are classified as insensitive. St is mostly 1 or >1,

but for fissured clays st <1 because drawback in undisturbed soil is rectified in remolded state.
The sensitivity of most clays ranges from about 1 to 8; however, highly flocculent marine clay
deposits may have sensitivity ratios ranging from about 10 to 80. Some clay turn to viscous
liquids upon remolding, and these clays are referred to as “quick clays”.
Thixotropy of clays:
When clays with flocculent structure lose strength due to disturbance or

remolding. Loss of strength is partly due to permanent destruction of structure and reorientation
of molecules in adsorbed layer. Strength loss with destruction of structure can’t recovered with
time. However, remolded soil left undisturbed at same water content, regain part of strength due
to gradual reorientation of adsorbed molecules of water. This phenomenon of strength loss-
strength gain, with no change in volume or water content, is called ‘Thixotropy’ (from the Greek
thix, meaning ‘touch’ and troponin, meaning ‘to change’).
This may also be said to be “a process of softening caused by remolding,

followed by a time-dependent return to the original harder state”. Higher the sensitivity, larger
thixotropic hardening. Extent of strength gain depends on type of the clay mineral. Mineral that
absorb large quantity of water in lattice structure, such as montmorillonite has greater
thixotropic gain compared to other stable clay minerals.
Figure 12.5 shows the gain in strength of soil due to thixotropic effect.
Thixotropy has important applications in connection with pile-driving operations. The
immediate frictional strength of thixotropic clay in driven piles is less compared to frictional
strength after one month, because strength gains with passage of time.
Figure 12.5 Thixotropy of clays

Figure 12.6 (a) Thixotropy material; (b) partially Thixotropy material
Activity of clays:
Skempton (1953) considered that significant volume change during swelling and
shrinkage of clay is a function of plasticity index and colloidal clay present in the soil. Activity
‘a’ is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to the percentage of clay-size fraction: where ‘c’ is
the percentage of clay-size fraction, i.e., of particles of size less than 0.002 mm. Activity is
derived conveniently from slope of straight line (graph between pi and c). A steeper slope
represents greater activity. The figure 2 gives plot for clay soil containing different clay minerals
(kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite).
Table 12.3 typical values of liquid limit, plastic limit & activity of some mineral
Mineral Liquid limit, ll Plastic limit, pl Activity, a
Kaolinite 35-100 20-40 0.3-0.5
Illite 60-120 35-60 0.5-1.2
Montmorillonite 100-900 50-100 1.5-7.0

Figure 12.7 Activity of clay mineral
Soil classification based on activity value is given in table 3.

Table.12.4 activity of clays
Activity Classification
<0.75 Inactive
0.75-1.25 Normal
>1.25 Active
Clay minerals with kaolinite, a stable clay mineral, will have low activity, whereas those
soils with montmorillonite, known to be a type subject to large volume changes depending on
available water, will have a high activity value. Activity has been used as an index property to
determine the swelling potential of expansive clays.
Figure 12.8 sensitivity, Thixotropy & activity of clays

_____________________________________________________________________________
LAB # 17
Density determination by using thin walled tube or cylinder
Purpose:
This lab is performed to determine the in-place density of undisturbed soil
obtained by pushing or drilling a thin-walled cylinder. The bulk density is the ratio of mass of
moist soil to the volume of the soil sample, and the dry density is the ratio of the mass of the dry
soil to the volume the soil sample.
Standard reference:
ASTM d 2937-00 standard test for density of soil in place by the drive cylinder method.
Significance:
This test is used to determine the in-place density of soils. This test can also be
used to determine density of compacted soils used in the construction of structural files,
highway embankments, or earth dams. This method is not recommended for organic or fabric
soils.
Equipment:
Straightedge, balance, moisture can, drying oven, Vernier caliper
Figure 16.1 Equipment for density determination by thin wall cylinder

Test procedure:
1. Extrude the soil sample from the cylinder using the extruder.
2. Cut a representative soil specimen from the extruded sample.
3. Determine and record the length (l), diameter (d) and mass (m1) of the soil specimen.
4. Determine and record the moisture content of soil (w).
5. Note:
6. If the soil is sandy or loose, weigh the cylinder and soil sample together. Measure dimensions of
the soil sample within the cylinder. Extrude and weigh the soil sample and determine moisture
content.
Data analysis:
1. Determine the moisture content
2. Determine the volume of the soil sample
3. Calculate bulk density of soil
4. Calculate dry density of soil
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_

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ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS LABORTARY

Dr. IMTIAZ RASHEED Sb.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Trace - 0 to 10% by weight

d. If the major soil constituent is sand or gravel:

Identify particle distribution. Describe as well graded or poorly graded. Well-

(b) Whether it can support its own weight,

f. Identify moisture condition (dry, moist, wet or saturated) using table5

Examples of coarse-grained soils:

Examples of fine grained soils:

Soil Constituent Size Limits Familiar Example

Table 2. Criteria for Describing Shape of Coarse-Grained Soil Particles

Rounded Sub rounded

Angular Sub angular

Table (3a). Criteria for Describing Dry Strength

Table (3c). Criteria for Describing Soil Plasticity

Table (3d). Criteria for Describing Soil Toughness

Soil Symbol Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness

Table 5. Criteria for Describing Soil Moisture Conditions

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (ASTM D 422)

(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.

Sieve size in wt Retained % Wt Cumulative.

4.75 4 21.65 10.825 10.825 89.175

2 10 1.56 0.78 11.605 88.395

0.425 40 0.83 0.415 12.02 87.98

0.15 100 58.59 29.295 41.315 58.685

0.075 200 66.07 33.035 74.35 25.65

PAN 49.91 24.955 99.305 -

cum. %age passing

Table 1. Values of Effective Depth Based on Hydrometer and Sedimentation Cylinder of

Hydrometer 151H Hydrometer 152H

Hydrometer No. 152 H Zero Correction 4

Corr. Hyd. D=K

1 20 25 21 26 41.08 9.6 9.6 0.0133 0.041209 10.537

2 20 24.5 20.5 25.5 40.1 9.7 4.85 0.0133 0.02929 10.2857

3 20 22 18 23 35.21 10.5 3.5 0.0133 0.024882 9.03137

4 20 21.5 17.5 22.5 34.23 10.7 2.675 0.0133 0.021753 8.78

8 20 20 16 21 31.3 11.3 1.4125 0.0133 0.015807 8.02845

15 20 16 12 17 23.47 12.5 0.83333 0.0133 0.012141 6.02006

30 20 11 7 12 13.69 14 0.46667 0.0133 0.009086 3.51149

60 20 7 3 8 5.87 15.4 0.25667 0.0133 0.006738 1.50566

120 20 4 0 5 0 16.3 0.13583 0.0133 0.004902 0

Table 3. Temperature Correction Factors CT

Table 4. Correction Factors a for Unit Weight of Solids

Unit Weight Correctio

To determine the liquid limit of a given sample by using casagrande apparatus.

 Casagrande’s liquid limit device.

 A ‘flow curve’ is to be plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph representing water content in

213 4.41 29.5 24.53 24.7 45 26.5

216 4.36 16.77 13.98 28.58 12 26.15

214 4.36 21.55 17.94 26.58 25 26.58

220 4.43 14.44 12.22 27.49 21 26.91

The liquid limit is to be reported to the nearest whole number.

 The value of liquid limit helps in classification of fine grain soil.

To determine the plastic limit of given soil sample

Equipment & Apparatus

 Surface for rolling.

 A soil sample of 20 gm. passing 425 micron IS sieve is to be taken.

PLASTICITY INDEX CALCULATION:

Mathematically, Plasticity index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

Note: Volume of 4” diameter mold = 944 cm3 , Volume of 6” diameter mold

= 2123 cm3 (verify these values prior to testing)

Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3 (600 KN-m/m3))