What is Surveying?

Definition | Importance

Surveying, the first step of starting a new civil engineering project, is a very important branch of civil engineering.
To understand the techniques of surveying a student must carefully study the basics of it. To start learning surveying
one must start with the definition of surveying and its importance.

What is Surveying?
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on, above or beneath the surface
of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and finally representing them on a sheet of paper known as
plan or map.
According to the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM),
Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the relative position of points or
physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a usable form, or
to establish the position of points or details.

Surveying also includes the technique of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.
From the plans, sections, and maps prepared by surveying, the area and volume of a particular plot of land can be
calculated. A map represents the horizontal projection of the area surveyed and not the actual area. But the vertical
distance can be represented more correctly by drawing sections.
During a survey, surveyors use various tools to do their job successfully and accurately, such as total stations, GPS
receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radio communicators, digital levels, dumpy level and surveying software etc.

Importance of Surveying
The knowledge of surveying is advantageous in many phases of engineering. Surveying is of vital
importance in any engineering project. Some of the basic importance of Surveying is discussed below.

 The first necessity in surveying is to prepare a plan and a section of an area to be covered by the
project. From these prepared maps and sections the best possible alignment, amount of
earthwork and other necessary details depending upon the nature of the project can be
calculated.
 The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as railways, highways, tunneling,
irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks, sewerage works, airfields, ports, massive buildings, etc.
are based upon surveying measurements.
 During execution of the project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying.
 The measurement of land and the fixation of its boundaries cannot be done without surveying.
 The economic feasibility of the engineering feasibility of a project cannot be properly ascertained
without undertaking a survey work.
 The execution of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping requires.
 Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of the earth.

Types of Surveying
 Saumik Mallik

Surveying is a very crucial branch of civil engineering. Depending on the requirement, various types of surveying
has been evolved. To understand surveying fully one must know details of these surveying types.
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on, above or beneath the surface
of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and finally representing them on a sheet of paper known as
plan or map.
According to the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM),
Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the relative position of points or
physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a usable form, or
to establish the position of points or details.

Types of Surveying
Surveying can mainly be classified into 2 groups-

 Plane Surveying
 Geodetic or Trigonometrical Surveying

Plane Surveying
Plane surveying deals with small areas on the surface of the earth assuming the surface of the land to be plane. So
curvature of the earth is neglected. Plane surveying can further be subdivided in the following ways:

Chain Surveying

 Area to be surveyed is divided into a number of triangles

 The length of the sides are measured and the interior details recorded
 Whole are then plotted on a drawing sheet to a suitable scale to produce the map

Traverse Surveying

 The plot of the plan is enclosed by a series of straight lines making angles with each other.
 The length of the lines and angles are measured and plotted with details on a drawing paper to a
suitable scale to produce the map

Plane Table Surveying

 The observations and plotting are done simultaneously

 An art paper or sheet is fixed on a calibrated plane table
 The field observations are taken and recorded side by side on the paper and eventually the map
is prepared.

Ordinary Leveling

 The elevations of different points on the earth surface are determined.

 Provides all the elevation data needed for construction activities
Geodetic Surveying
Geodetic surveying deals with vast areas, so curvature has to be considered. Geodetic surveying can be
subdivided in the following ways:
Triangulation

 A network of well-defined triangles is formed on the plot of land to be surveyed.

 One of the lines is considered as the baseline, all other lines and angles are then measured
accordingly.

Reciprocal Leveling

 Used in leveling across streams, gullies, and other obstructions to eliminate instrumental errors
 Level readings are taken from two setups at two different points
 The difference in levels between two sites with obstructions is determined through this survey

Tacheometry or Stadia Surveying

 A telescopic sight instrument is used to measure distances

 It incorporates a theodolite controlled by an operator and a level staff held by another surveyor at
a distance.
 Both vertical and horizontal distances are computed through stadia (the two horizontal markings
on a theodolite) readings

Astronomical Surveying

 The meridian, azimuth, latitude, longitude, etc. of the plot to be surveyed is determined with the
help of celestial bodies.

Photographic surveying

 Maps are prepared from photographs taken from suitable camera stations; the stations can be
even airplanes.
 The output is a map, a drawing or a 3D model of some real-world scene or object.

Objectives of Surveying

Surveying is the means of determining the relative position of points and the relative distances. It is very important
in the field of Civil Engineering. We can find uses of surveying in all civil engineering projects. The objectives of
surveying may very depending on the type of project. A surveyor must be clear about the objects of surveying. The
main objectives of surveying are discussed below.

Objectives of Surveying

 To determine the relative position of any objects or points of the earth.

 To determine the distance and angle between different objects.
 To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plan.
  To develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the technology and use them in the
field.
 To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.

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Principles of Surveying

Surveying is the process of finding the relative position of various points on the surface of the earth by measuring
distance among them and setting up a map to any reasonable scale. Various methods of surveying are established on
very simple fundamental principles. The surveying basic principles can be stated under two aspects.

Principles of Surveying

1. To locate the position of a point by measurement from two reference points

2. To work from whole to part

mportance of Surveying
The knowledge of surveying is advantageous in many phases of engineering. Surveying is of vital
importance in any engineering project. Some of the basic importance of Surveying is discussed below.

 The first necessity in surveying is to prepare a plan and a section of an area to be covered by the
project. From these prepared maps and sections the best possible alignment, amount of
earthwork and other necessary details depending upon the nature of the project can be
calculated.
 The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as railways, highways, tunneling,
irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks, sewerage works, airfields, ports, massive buildings, etc.
are based upon surveying measurements.
 During execution of the project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying.
 The measurement of land and the fixation of its boundaries cannot be done without surveying.
 The economic feasibility of the engineering feasibility of a project cannot be properly ascertained
without undertaking a survey work.
 The execution of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping requires.
 Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of the earth.

Uses of Surveying

Surveying is the scientific technique to determine the position of points and angles & distances between them. The
process of surveying is used to fulfill various purposes. It is necessary for making map, planning a project etc. To
accomplish all civil engineering works or projects successfully, surveying is used.
Uses of Surveying
Some of the numerous functions of surveying are given below.

 Topographical maps showing hills, rivers, towns, villages, forests etc. are prepared by surveying.
 For planning and estimating new engineering projects like water supply and irrigation schemes, mines,
railroads, bridges, transmission lines, buildings etc. surveying is required.
 Cadastral Map showing the boundaries a field houses and other properties are prepared by surveying.
 Engineering map showing the position of engineering works like roads, railways, buildings, dams, canals
etc. are prepared through surveying.
 To set out a work and transfer details from map to ground knowledge of surveying is used.
 For planning navigation routes and harbors, marine and hydro-graphic surveying are used.
 To help military strategic planning, military maps are prepared by surveying.
 For exploring mineral wealth, mine survey is necessary
 To determining different strata in the earth crust, geological surveys are required
 Archaeological surveys are used to unearth relics of antiquity.

Whole Circle Bearing - Surveying

In civil engineering surveying, bearing is very important to get the direction of a survey line. The whole circle
bearing (W.C.B) is a common notation system of bearings. The definition of the whole circle bearing along with the
measuring formula and example is discussed below.

What is Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B)?

The horizontal angle made by a line with the magnetic north in the clockwise direction is the whole circle
bearing of the line. This system is also known as the azimuthal system. In this system, only the north direction
is used as reference meridian.

Whole Circle Bearing Formula

In whole circle bearing, the value of the bearing varies from 0° to 360°. Just measure the angle between true
north line to the survey line to find the WCB. Don't forget to measure the clockwise angle in determining the
whole circle bearing.
If a survey line falls in the first quadrant, its WCB varies from 0° to 90°. Similarly, in the second quadrant,
WCB value varies from 90° to 180°; in the third quadrant, WCB value varies from 180° to 270°; in the fourth
quadrant, WCB value varies from 270° to 360°.

Whole Circle Bearing Example

To understand the whole circle bearing measurement clearly, please carefully observe the following image
illustrations.

Fig 1: whole circle bearing in the first quadrant

Fig 2: whole circle bearing in the third quadrant

 In the above images, the vertical line N is indicating the north line. In Fig 1, line X is in the first quadrant. It is
at an angle of 46° with the north line in the clockwise direction. Therefore, whole circle bearing (W.C.B) of
line X is 46°.
On the other hand, the line Y in Fig 2, is making 226° angle with the north line in the clockwise direction.
So, whole circle bearing (W.C.B) of line Y is 226°.

Bearing in Surveying Article List

 What is Whole Circle Bearing? Definition | Formula | Example

 What is Quadrantal Bearing (or Reduced Bearing)?
 Difference Between Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing

Quadrantal Bearing (Reduced Bearing) - Surveying

In civil engineeringsurveying, bearing is the process to get the direction of a survey line. The quadrantal bearing is
a common notation system of bearings. it is also known as the reduced bearing. As the name indicates, quadrantal
bearing depends upon the quadratic position of a line.

What is Quadrantal Bearing or Reduced Bearing?

The horizontal angle made by a line with the magnetic north or south (whichever is closer from the line) in the
eastward or westward direction is theQuadrantal Bearing or Reduced Bearingof the line.
In quadrantal bearing or reduced bearing, both north and south are considered as reference meridians.
Depending upon the position of a survey line, the direction of the reference meridian to the line can be either
clockwise or anticlockwise. In the expression of the reduced bearing value of a line, quadrant has to be
mentioned in which the line lies.

Keywords: quadrant bearing, what is a quadrant, magnetic meridian, reduced bearing

Bearing in Surveying Article List

 What is Whole Circle Bearing? Definition | Formula | Example

 What is Quadrantal Bearing (or Reduced Bearing)?
 Difference Between Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing

Difference Between Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing

Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing (Reduced Bearing) are two different types of bearing
measurement used in surveying. To choose between these two types of bearing measurement a surveyor must know
the differences between them. The main differences between Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing
(Reduced Bearing) are given below.

Whole Circle Bearing Quadrantal Bearing/Reduced Bearing

1 The horizontal angle made by
a line with the magnetic north
in the clockwise direction is
the whole circle bearing of
the line.
The horizontal angle made by a line with the
magnetic north or south (whichever is closer
from the line) in the eastward or westward
direction is the Quadrantal Bearing or Reduced
Bearing of the line

2 Only the magnetic north line Both magnetic north and south lines are
is considered as reference considered as reference line in quadrantal
line in whole circle bearing bearing system.
system.

3 The cloclwise angle from the Both cloclwise and anticloclwise angle from
reference line is Only taken the reference line is Only taken

4 The value of the whole circle The value of the reduced bearing varies from
bearing varies from 0° to 0° to 90°
360°

5 Example: 26°, 121°, 245°, Example: N26°E, S59°E, S65°W, N10°W etc.
350° etc.

Bearing in Surveying Article List

 What is Whole Circle Bearing? Definition | Formula | Example

 What is Quadrantal Bearing (or Reduced Bearing)?
 Difference Between Whole Circle Bearing and Quadrantal Bearing

Chain Surveying | Definition, Details, Procedure

Chain survey/surveying is a very old method of Surveying. This article includes the definition of chain survey along
with all detailed information with necessary images about various aspects of chain surveying.
Chain survey is the simplest method of surveying. In chain survey, only measurements are taken in the field, and the
rest work, such as plotting calculation etc. are done in the office. Here only linear measurements are made i.e. no
angular measurements are made. This is most suitably adapted to small plane areas with very few details. If carefully
done, it gives quite accurate results.
The necessary requirements for field work are

 Chain
 Tape
 Ranging-Rod
 Arrows
 Cross staff

Suitability of Chain Survey

Chain survey is suitable in the following cases:

1. The area to be surveyed is comparatively small

2. The ground is fairly level
3. The area is open and
4. Details to be filled up are simple and less.

Survey Station
Survey stations are of two kinds

1. Main Stations
2. Subsidiary or tie

Main Stations
Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the survey, and the lines joining the main
stations recalled the main survey line or the chain lines.
Subsidiary or the tie stations
Subsidiary or the tie stations are the points selected on the main survey lines, where it is necessary to locate the
interior detail such as fences, hedges, building etc.

Tie or subsidiary lines

A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to check the accuracy of surveying and to locate
the interior details. The position of each tie line should be close to some features, such as paths, building etc.

Base Lines
It is the main and longest line, which passes approximately through the center of the field. All the other measurements
to show the details of the work are taken with respect to this line.

Check Line
A check-line also termed as a proof-line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to some fixed points on any two sides
of a triangle. A check-line is measured to check the accuracy of the framework. The length of a checking line, as
measured on the ground should agree with its length on the plan.

Offsets
Offsets are the lateral measurements from the baseline to fix the positions of the different objects of the work with
respect to the baseline. These are generally set at right angle offsets. It can also be drawn with the help of a tape.
There are two kinds of offsets:

1. Perpendicular offsets
2. Oblique offsets.

The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called perpendicular or right-angled offsets. For setting
perpendicular offsets any one of the following methods is used:

 Swinging
 Using cross staffs
 Using optical or prism square

Perpendicular Offset by Swinging:

The chain is stretched along the survey line. An assistant holds the end of the tape on the object. Surveyor swings
the tape on chain line and selects the point on the chain where offset distance is the least (Fig. 12.13) and notes chain
reading as well as offset reading in a field book on a neat sketch of the object. Perpendicular Offsets Using Cross
Staffs.
Figure 12.14 shows three different types of cross staffs used for setting perpendicular offsets. All cross staffs are
having two perpendicular lines of sights. The cross staffs are mounted on a stand. The first line of sight is set along
the chain line and without disturbing setting right angle line of sight is checked to locate the object. With open cross
staff (Fig. 12.14 (a)) it is possible to set perpendicular only, while with french cross staff (Fig. 12.14 (b)), an even
45º angle can be set. Adjustable cross staff can be used to set any angle also since there are graduations and
upperdrum can be rotated over a lower drum.
Field Book
All observations and measurements taken during chain surveying are to be recorded in a standard field book. It is an
oblong book of size 200 mm × 120 mm, which can be carried in the pocket. There are two forms of the book (i)
single line and (ii) double line. The pages of a single book are having a red line along the length of the paper in the
middle of the width. It indicates the chain line. All chain-ages are written across it. The space on either side of the
line is used for sketching the object and for noting offset distances. In double line book, there are two blue lines with
a space of 15 to 20 mm in the middle of each book. The space between the two lines is utilized for noting the chain-
ages. Figure 12.17 shows typical pages of field books.

Procedure in chain survey

1. Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called reconnaissance. The
surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, surveyor prepares index sketch or key plan.
2. Marking Station: Surveyor fixes up the required no stations at places from where maximum possible
stations are possible.

Some of the methods used for marking are:

o Fixing ranging poles

o Driving pegs
o Marking a cross if the ground is hard
o Digging and fixing a stone.
3. Then he selects the way for passing the main line, which should be horizontal and clean as possible and
should pass approximately through the center of work.
4. Then ranging roads are fixed on the stations.
5. After fixing the stations, chaining could be started.
6. Make ranging wherever necessary.
7. Measure the change and offset.
8. Enter in the field the book.

Difference between Chain and Traverse Surveying

Traverse survey differs from chain surveying in the arrangement of the survey lines is not limited to any particular
geometric figure as in chain surveying, where a system of connected triangles forms the fundamental basis of the
skeleton. Also, check lines etc. are not necessary for traverse as the traverse lines may be arranged near the details.
The details etc. are directly located with respect to the survey lines either by offsetting or by any other method.

Traverse Surveying - Definition, Types, Methods, Checks

Traverse Surveying is a popular method of surveying. This article includes the definition of traverse surveying along
with its classification, errors in traversing, checks, the completed method of traversing and plotting of traverse
survey.
 Definition
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the framework and
the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an angle measuring
instrument and tape or chain respectively.

Types of Surveying
There are two types of traverse surveying. They are:

1. Closed traverse: When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is known as a closed
traverse.
2. Open traverse: When the lines form a circuit ends elsewhere except starting point, it is said to be an open
traverse.

Suitability
The closed traverse is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, woods, etc and for a survey of large areas. the
open traverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for a road of the canal or the coastline.

Methods of Traversing
There are several methods of traversing, depending on the instruments used in determining the relative directions of
the traverse lines. The following are the principal methods:

1. Chain traversing
2. Chain and compass traversing
3. Transit type traversing a)By fast needle method b)By measurement of angles between the lines
4. Plane table traversing

Brief descriptions of these traverse surveying methods are given below.

Chain Traversing
The method in which the whole work is done with chain and tape is called chain traversing. No angle measurement
is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by linear measurements Angles fixed by linear or tie
measurements are known as chain angles. The method is unsuitable for accurate work and is generally used if an
angle measuring instruments such as a compass, sextant or theodolite is available.

Chain and Compass Traversing

In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are measured by a compass and the
lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with a tape. The direction of the magnetic meridian is
established at each traverse station independently. The method is also known as a tree or loose needle method.
Traversing by Fast Needle Method
The method in which the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a theodolite fitted with s compass is
called traversing by fast needle method. The direction of the magnetic meridian is not established at each station but
instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured with a reference so that direction of the magnetic meridian
established at the first station. There are three methods of observing the bearings of lines by fast needle method.

1. Direct method with transiting,

2. Direct method without transiting,
3. Back bearing method.

Traversing By Direct Observation Of Angles

In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite and the magnetic bearing of other
lines can be calculated in this method. The angles measured at different stations may be either

1. Included Angles and

2. Deflection Angles

Traversing by Included Angle

An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed n\by two survey lines meeting there and these angles
should be measured clockwise. The method consists simply in measuring each angle directly from a back sight on
the preceding station. The angled may also be measured by repetition. The angles measured from the back station
may be interior or exterior depending on the direction of progress.

In Fig(a) the direction of progress is counter-clockwise and so the angles

measured clockwise are the interior angle. In Fig(a) the direction of progress
is clockwise and so the angles measured clockwise are the exterior angle.

Traverse by Deflection Angles

A deflection angle is an angle in which a survey line makes with the prolongation of the preceding line. It is
designated as right (R) or left (L) as it is measured clockwise or anti-clockwise from the prolongation of the previous
line. This type of traversing is more suitable for the survey of roads, railways, pipe-lines, etc where the survey lines
make small deflection angles.

Errors in Traversing
The errors involved in closed traversing are two kinds:

1. Linear Error and

2. Angular Error

The most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements consists in chaining each survey line a second
time, preferably in the reverse direction on different dates and by different parties. The following are checks for
the angular work:
A. Travers by included angles:

o The sum of measured interior angles should be equal to (2N-4), where N=number of sides of the
traverse.
o If the exterior angles are measured, their sum should be equal to (2N=4)p/2
 B. Travers by deflection angles: The algebraic sum of the deflection angles
should be equal to 360°, taking the right hand and deflection angles as a positive
and left-hand angle as negative.
C. Traversing by direct observation of bearings: The force bearing of the last
line should be equal to its back bearing ±180° measured from the initial station.

Checks in Open Traverse

No direct checks of angular measurement are available. So indirect checks can be made. As illustrated in Fig(a) the
addition to the observation of bearing of AB at station A, bearing of AD can also be measured., if possible. Similarly,
at D, the bearing of DA can be measured and check applied. If the two bearings differ by 180°, the work may be
accepted as correct.

Another method, which furnishes a check when work is plotted is shown as in Fig (b) and consists of reading the
bearing to any prominent point P from each of the consecutive stations. The check-in plotting consists in laying off
the lines AP, BP, CP, etc and noting whether the lines pass through one point.

Plotting a Traverse Survey

There are two principal methods of traverse survey:

1. Angles and distance method: This method is of three types.

a. By protractor
b. By the tangent of the angle
c. By the chord of the angle.
2. Co-ordinate method.

Traverse Computations

In the figure, the latitude and the departure of the line AB of length l and reduced bearing q are given by

L= + l cosq and D=+ l sinq

 To calculate the latitude and departure of the traverse
lines, it is first essential to reduce the bearing in the quadrant system. The signs of latitude and
departures will depend upon the reduced bearing of the line. The following table gives signs of latitudes
and departures.

Table-1

W.C.B R.B and quadrant Sign of

Latitude Departure

0° to 90° NqE; I + +

90° to 180° SqE;II - +

180° to 270° SqW;III - -

270° to 360° NqW;IV + -

Thus, latitude and departure co-ordinate of any point with reference to the preceding point are equal to
the latitude and departure of the line joining the preceding point to the point under consideration. Such
coordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordinates or dependent coordinates.

What is Plane Table Surveying? Setup & Methods

Saidis Salekin Aninda

The plane table surveying is one of the fastest and easiest methods of surveying. Plotting of plans and field
observations can be done at the same time in plane table surveying. It is useful for the following cases:

1. It is best fitted for small-scale surveying i.e. any types of fields

2. It is also used in surveying industrial areas where compass survey fails to perform
3. It is often used to fill in details between stations fixed by triangulation method or theodolite traversing
method.
Temporary Adjustments of The Plane Table

1. Centering
This process is to ascertain that the point on the ground is represented accurately on the paper. It is carried out with
the help of plumbing fork and plumbing bob.The pointed end (at the upper hand) of the plumbing fork is kept on
paper and at the other end, a plumb bob is fixed. The board is shifted manually until the bob hangs exactly over the
peg of the station. This work can be tiresome but a prerequisite for any further activities.

2. Leveling
Leveling is done so that the drawing board remains parallel to the ground. It is done in the following three methods:

i. ordinary tilting the board

ii. by ball and socket arrangement or
iii. by adjusting the legs of the tripod.

3. Orientation
The process by which the position occupied by the board at various survey stations are kept parallel is known as the
orientation. In the plane table surveying, the whole table needs to be moved at several stations to complete a survey.
Every time the table is moved one has to make sure that the new station is parallel to the previous one otherwise the
lines drawn on paper will not represent the same lines on the field. Methods of orientation are:-

i. Orientation by Magnetic Needle:

This method is used when it is not possible to bisect the previous station from the new station. This
method is not much reliable and prone to errors due to variations of the magnetic field.
ii. Orientation by Back Sighting:
This is a more reliable method. In this method, a particular line drawn from the previous station is drawn
again from the new station. This process is called back-sighting. One does not necessarily have to draw
the line the second time rather check if the new line superposes over the previous one or not.

Methods of Plane Table Surveying

Radiation
Method It is the simplest method of plane table surveying. This method is only effective if the whole surveying is to
be done from one single station i.e. the table will be in such a position from where all the other points of the field
are easily visible. The procedure is as follows:

i. A point P is to be selected in such a fashion that all the other points ( A B C D E) are seen easily from P.
 ii. Centering, leveling, and orientation must be done prior to surveying.
iii. At first, by putting the alidade on point P a line of sight for station A is to be drawn.
iv. After measuring the distance of PA on field, the measurement needs to be put on paper to a suitable
scale.
v. Similarly, points b, c, d, and e are obtained on paper by drawing lines of sight for stations B, C and D and
measuring the distances PB, PC, PD and PE on ground respectively.
vi. Points a, b, c, d, and e are joined on paper, as shown in the figure.

Intersection
Method In previous method it was possible to measure every distance on the field manually. In case of a mountainous
terrain or rough surface where distances cannot be taken physically, it is best to use intersection method. The
procedure is:

i. Two stations O1 and O2 are selected so that the points to be located on paper are easily seen from them.
ii. The baseline (o1o2) is plotted on the paper. This is done in the way below: The table can be centered and
leveled at station O1 and then after orienting at station O2, the distance O1 O2 can be accurately
measured and put up to some scale on the paper. The line o1o2 can be drawn to some scale on the paper
and then the board can be adjusted from station O1 by back sighting at station O2.
iii. From station O1, rays for stations A, B are drawn etc.
iv. Now moving the table to the new station and orienting it again the rays of stations A, B are drawn etc.,
v. The intersection of rays from stations O1 and O2 will give points a, b etc. on paper, as shown in the figure.
Traversing Method
This is more or less like the compass survey. It is used for running survey lines between stations, which have been
previously fixed by other methods of survey, to locate the topographic details.

i. The plane table is fixed at a location (say A)

ii. From that point, a sight is taken toward B and the distance AB is measured.
iii. The plane table is shifted to station B and sighted toward A (this is called back sighting). Distance BA was
measured.
iv. The average distance between AB and BA are plotted to suitable scale on the drawing paper.
v. Then the point C is sighted from B and the distance was measured. This process is repeated for all the
stations.
vi. Conduct some check at uniform intervals. Finally, plot the traverse lines on the drawing sheet. Notice that
back sighting was done only for the first two stations.

Resection Method
This method is suitable for establishing new stations at a place in order to locate missing details. It is the process of
determining the previously plotted position of any peg station, by means of sight taken towards known points, the
location of which has been plotted.
Resection method involves two different procedures as follows:

1. The three-point problem

2. The two-point problem

Two Point Problem

In this problem, two distinct points are selected whose location is known and plotted on the drawing paper. The two
points are joined and bisected neatly. The bisecting point will be the new station.
Plane Table Article List

 Plane Table Surveying - Definition | Adjustments | Methods

  Plane Table Survey Instruments - Functions & Details
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey
 Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Plane Table Survey Instruments - Functions & Details

Plane table surveying is a type of surveying which can be done very fast. The necessary equipment of the plane table
survey is mentioned below. Also, brief discussion and photographs of major instruments are given below.

General Plane Table Survey Equipment

Some basic surveying instruments are required for plane table surveying. Followings are the general plane table
survey equipment.

1. Plane table
2. Alidade for sighting (telescopic or simple)
3. Plumb bob and plumb fork
4. Compass
5. Spirit level
6. Chain
7. Ranging rods
8. Tripod
9. Drawing sheet and drawing tools
10. Paper clips or screws

Details of Major Plane Table Survey Equipment

Simple Alidade
Alidade compass has two edges. One straight and other one is beveled. The straight edge is made of brass or gunmetal
and works as a ruler. The beveled edge is called the fiducial edge. It consists of two vanes at the ends. The vanes are
hinged and can be folded when the alidade is not in use.
One of the vanes is the sight vane or the eye vane. It has three equidistant narrow silts. The surveyor looks through
these silts towards the object or station. The other vane which is known as object vane is open and a fine thread is
stretched between the top and bottom silt.This thread is used to establish a horizontal line of sight parallel to the
ruler. The problem with simple alidade compass is that it can be used only when the elevations of the objects are
low.
 Figure: Surveyor is using Simple Alidade

Telescopic Alidade
While the plane alidade only took horizontal sights, this telescopic alidade is used to take inclined sights. It is used
to increase the accuracy of the sight taken. A small spirit level tube is provided with the telescope so that the alidade
can be leveled with the working station. A scale is mounted on the horizontal axis. Lines are drawn along the straight
ruler. It is also mounted with a vertical circle that gives us the angle of the object with the horizontal axis.

Plumbing Fork and Plumb Bob

Plumbing fork is a U-shaped metal frame that has two different types of arms. One is horizontal (upper hand) and
the other is inclined at a certain angle(lower hand).The upper arm has a pointer at the end while the lower arm has a
hook from which plumb bob is suspended.
When the plumbing fork is kept on the table it has to pass through a particular point (the pointer in the other hand).
The plumb bob helps in centering.

Compass
Compass is of two types-

a. Prismatic Compass
b. Surveyor’s Compass

Both the compasses are used to navigate the surveying terrain. These are strictly used to determine the bearing of
the land that has been traversed.
Both prismatic and surveyor’s compass has following parts:-

i. Magnetic needle,
ii. Graduated circle,
iii. Vanes for line of sight, and
iv. A box to keep them in place

Spirit Level
When plane table surveying is carried out it is really essential to know whether the working station (surface) is
horizontal or vertical. Spirit level is used for this purpose. A bubble (mercury is usually used) is put inside the tube.
The tube has an upward curvature which makes the bubble remain in center unless the surface is inclined.
Ranging Rod
A ranging rod is an instrument extensively used for marking the position of different surveying stations/pegs and for
taking sights of those stations. It is also used for ranging for straight lines.

Plane Table Article List

 Plane Table Surveying - Definition | Adjustments | Methods

 Plane Table Survey Instruments - Functions & Details
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey
 Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Advantages & Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey

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Advantages of Plane Table Survey

Followings are the advantages of plane table surveying

 Plane Table Surveying is most suitable for preparing small‐scale maps.

 Plane Table Survey is a very swift method of surveying.
 The field book is not necessary as plotting is done in the field simultaneously with the field work. So the
possible errors of the field book can be avoided.
 The surveyor can compare the plotted work with the actual features of the area surveyed and thus can
ascertain if it represents temporarily.
 It is particularly advantageous in magnetic areas where compass survey is not reliable.
 Plane table survey is less costly than most of the surveying technique.
 It does not require skilled hands.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Surveying

Followings are the disadvantages of plane table surveying

 Plane table survey cannot be used in rainy season.

 Plane Table Survey instruments are heavy, cumbersome to carry.
 The table has to be centered and oriented at every station which is really tiresome.
 It never produces accurate results.
 If the survey is to be re‐plotted to a different scale or quantities are to be computed, it is a great
inconvenience in absence of the field notes.

Plane Table Article List

 Plane Table Surveying - Definition | Adjustments | Methods

  Plane Table Survey Instruments - Functions & Details
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey
 Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Errors in Plane Table Surveying

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Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Followings are the common errors occur in plane table surveying

1. The table must be accurately oriented once the table is shifted otherwise the lines drawn from the new
stations will not correspond with the previous ones.
2. The alidade should be properly centered on the station point on paper.
3. Papers often get contracted or expanded so it is best to use paper clips.
4. The table should be accurately centered with plumb bob and fork.
5. The rays should be drawn using the straight ruler only.
6. It is better to check the distances manually from time to time for better efficiency.

Plane Table Article List

 Plane Table Surveying - Definition | Adjustments | Methods

 Plane Table Survey Instruments - Functions & Details
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey
 Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Tacheometric Surveying- Methods, Detail Procedures

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Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances are obtained by optical
means as opposed to the ordinary process of chain and tape. This is done with the help of two special type of
instruments- transit theodolite and stadia rod. On the other hand, other conventional surveying methods like chain
surveying or traverse surveying need the surveyor to take a linear measurement on the field by a tape or a chain.
These are relatively slower processes and also tiresome.

Tacheometric Surveying Instruments

Tacheometric Surveying is done with the help of Tacheometer and Stadia Rod. To read details of the tacheometric
surveying instruments click the following link:

1. Tacheometer
2. Stadia Rod
3. Anallatic lens
Different Methods of Tacheometric Measurements
The various methods of the tacheometric survey may be classified as follows:

1. The Stadia System

i. Fixed Hair Method
ii. Movable Hair Method, or Subtense Method
2. The Tangential System
3. Measurements by means of Special Instruments

A brief description of these methods is given below.

Fixed Hair Method

 In this method, the angle at the instrument at A subtended by a known short distance along a staff kept at
B is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart.
 The readings are on the staff corresponding to all the three wires taken.
 The staff intercept which means the difference of the readings corresponding to the top and bottom
stadia wires will, therefore, depend on the distance of the stadia/level staff from the tacheometer
 When the staff intercept is more than the length of the staff, the only half intercept is read.
 This is the most common method is tacheometry and the same ‘stadia method’ generally bears reference
to this method.

Subtense Method

 This method is almost same as the stadia method except that the stadia interval is variable.
 A suitable arrangement is made to vary the distance between the stadia hair as to set them against the
two targets on the staff kept at the point under observation.
 Thus, in this case, the staff intercept, i.e., the distance between the two targets is kept fixed while the
stadia interval, i.e., the distance between the stadia hair is variable.
 As in the case of fixed hair method, inclined sights may also be taken.

Stadia Method
As in the field of tacheometric surveying ‘Stadia Method’ is the most widely used procedure so we will discuss the
principle behind it. The stadia method follows the principle that in similar isosceles triangles the ratio of the
perpendicular to the base is constant.
In fig. let two rays be equally inclined to the central ray. Here central ray is shown as OC. A2B2, A1B1, and AB are
staff intercepts i.e difference between upper and lower stadia reading.
Evidently, OC2/A2B2= OC1/A1B1= OC/AB= constant K= 0.5cot (β/2)
This constant depends entirely on the angle β. Let, the constant is found to be 100. It means the distance between
the staff and the point O will be 100 times the staff intercept.

The Distance-Elevation Formulae For Horizontal Sight

Suppose,
the interval between stadia hairs is given by i=ab,
staff intercept is s,
f is the focal length of the objective,
D is the horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instruments.
The horizontal distance between the axis and the staff is given by the following equation
D = f1 + d= f1= (s/i)*f+(f+d)
This is the distance equation. Staff intercept is found by subtracting the reading of the upper and lower stadia reading.
The constant k = f/i is called the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the constant (f + d) =C is known
as the additive constant of the tacheometer but the latter one is made zero by using an anallatic lens in the instrument.

Determination of Tacheometric Constants on Field

In most cases, we do not really know the value of f (focal length of the objective) so we have to determine the
constant k and C on the field with a different approach as below:

1. Measure a line (about 100m long) on the fairly level ground and drive pegs at some interval, say 50
meters.
2. Keep the staff on the previously determined station and observe the corresponding staff intercepts
(upper and lower stadia reading) with horizontal sight.
 3. Knowing the values of D and s for different points, a number of simultaneous equations can be formed by
substituting the values of D and s in equation D = k.s + C. The simultaneous solution of successive pairs
will give the values of k and C, and the average of these can be found.

Uses of Tacheometric Surveying

Followings are the uses of tacheometric surveying

1. The primary objective of this tacheometric surveying is to prepare contoured maps or plans requiring both
the horizontal as well as vertical control.
2. On surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape.
3. Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations and horizontal distances.
4. Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are inconvenient.
5. Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.
6. Checking of already measured distances.
7. Hydrographic surveys.

Advantages of Tacheometric Surveying

Followings are the advantages of tacheometric surveying

1. It is one of the fastest methods of surveying.

2. The accuracy of tacheometric surveying in uneven or difficult terrain is quite satisfactory.
3. Does not require any tedious jobs with tapes and chains.
4. Cost efficient with relative to time.
5. Useful where chain survey or plane table survey cannot be conducted (hilly areas, hydrographic sites).
6. It can be used to gain a better check for previously done chain surveying results.

What is Tacheometer? Features of Tacheometer

A transit theodolite fitted with special stadia diaphragm is known as tacheometer. It is the main instrument of
tacheometric surveying. Its telescope contains two horizontal hairs called stadia hairs in addition to the regular
crosshairs. The stadia hairs are equidistant from the central cross-hairs and they are specially termed as stadia lines
or stadia webs. The common types of stadia diaphragms are shown below:

In general, the telescopes used in stadia surveying are of three kinds:

1. The simple external-focusing telescope which is also known as the stadia theodolite
 2. The external-focusing anallatic telescope (Porro’s telescope). This is usually known as the tacheometer
3. The internal-focusing telescope

The second type has advantages over first and third kind because of zero additive constants of the instrument (more
of constants will be discussed in the latter sections)

Major Features of Techeometer

A tacheometer must essentially incorporate the following features:

1. The multiplying constant should have a nominal value of 100 and the error contained in this value should
not exceed 1 in 1000.
2. The axial horizontal line should be equidistant from the upper and lower stadia hairs.
3. The telescope should be anallactic which means the additive constant should be zero.
4. The telescope should be powerful magnification property.

Stadia Rod

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For small distances ( up to 100 meters) a level staff may be used for tacheometric surveying. But for greater distances
stadia rod is needed. Stadia rod is of one piece having 3 to 5 meters length. The smallest subdivision is usually 5
mm.

Anallatic Lens

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Anallatic lens is an additional lens used in the instrument. It is a special lens which is placed between the object
glass and the eyepiece of the telescope in order to eliminate the additive constant (f+d). This is done to make the
expression for the distance between instrument station and staff position more simplified. The lens in only provided
in an external focusing telescope but not in the internal focusing.
Dumpy Level Survey–What, Where, How, Parts

Surveying is a very important part of civil engineering. Knowledge of surveying is incomplete without the
knowledge of leveling. The dumpy level is a commonly used leveling instrument. To be acquainted with this leveling
instrument and learn how to operate it one should read the following article carefully.
What is Dumpy Level?
The dumpy level is an optical surveying leveling instrument consisting a telescope tube firmly secured in two collars
fixed by adjusting screws to the stage by the vertical spindle.
The telescope of dumpy level can rotate only in a horizontal plane. Relative elevation of different points of a
surveying land is determined with dumpy level.
English civil engineer William Gravatt is considered as the inventor of the dumpy level. He invented dumpy level
in 1832 while using the conventional Y level.
A dumpy level is also called a builder's level, an automatic level.

Use of Dumpy Levels in Surveying

The dumpy level is mainly used in surveying for the following purposes:

 To determine relative height and distance among different locations of a surveying land.
 To determine relative distance among different locations of a surveying land.

Advantages of Dumpy Level Survey

The dumpy level is a widely used surveying instrument in surveying. The advantages which have made the dumpy
level so popular is given below.

 Simple construction with fewer movable parts.

 Fewer adjustments to be made.
 Due to the rigidity of dumpy levels, it retains its two adjustment for a long time.
 High optical power.

Disadvantages of Dumpy Level Survey

There are few limitation or disadvantages of dumpy level. These limitations are given below.

 Civil Engineers may find it difficult in making accurate measurements.

 Difficulty in using.
Parts of Dumpy Levels

Following are the main parts of dumpy level instrument.

1. Telescope 7. Foot Screws

2. Eye-Piece 8. Upper parallel Plate
3. Ray Shade 9. Diaphragm Adjusting Screws
4. Objective End 10. Bubble Tube Adjusting Screws
5. Longitudinal Bubble 11. Transverse Bubble Tube
6. Focusing Screws 12. Foot Plate

How to Use a Dumpy Level for Surveying

To conduct dumpy level survey the following instruments is required.

 Dumpy Level
 Tripod
 E meter staff or English staffs

Also, an assistant will be required for a dumpy level survey. Once everything is ready, the following steps should
be followed for a successful dumpy level survey.

 At first, the tripod is configured properly to hold the dumpy level. The tripod height should be adjusted
until it is on the eye level. Then, legs of the tripod should be moved to a balanced position to hold the
instrument properly. Finally, tripod legs should be fixed by pressing them to the ground.
 The dumpy level instrument is set up on the top of the tripod. Foot screw is used to screw the device
tightly on the tripod. As the level head is very sensitive, special care is required in this step.
 To work properly, it is very important to make the dumpy level completely horizontal. Using foot-screws
(leveling screws) the dumpy level is set to a leveled condition. Leveling screws should be adjusted until
the alignment bubble is in the center of the marker.
 The operator looks through the eyepiece of the telescope.
  An assistant holds an E meter or staff vertical at the point under measurement. Usually, this staff has both
imperial and metric measurements. The 'E' on the staff is equivalent to five centimeters.
 The elevations (levels) of different points is gathered with the help of the instrument and staff.
 Measurement generally starts from a benchmark with the known height determined by a previous survey,
or an arbitrary point with an assumed height.

Tag: dumpy level procedure, dumpy leveling, dumpie level, dumpy level parts description,
dumpy level surveying
Related Articles:

 Dumpy Level Set-up and Use Tutorial

 Dumpy Level Survey Tutorial- Staff Reading
 How to Use Dumpy Level- Tutorial With Example

How to Use Dumpy Level- Tutorial With Example

Dumpy level is an optical surveying leveling instrument consisting a telescope tube firmly secured in two collars
fixed by adjusting screws to the stage by the vertical spindle. The telescope can rotate only in a horizontal plane.
Relative elevation of different points of a surveying land is determined with dumpy level.
Dumpy level is a very popular survey instrument. As a civil engineer, if you in need to learn to use dumpy level, its
the right article for you. Here in the following slide, the full process of using dumpy level is discussed with the help
of six examples. At the end of this slide tutorial one would definitely learn to use dumpy level accurately.
This valuable slide is created by "VIGYAN ASHRAM".

Related Articles

 Dumpy Level
 Dumpy Level Set-up and Use Tutorial
 Dumpy Level Survey Tutorial- Staff Reading

Advantages and Disadvantages of Auto Level

Auto level is a leveling instrument used in surveying. The ease of use of Auto level has made it popular among
surveyors. the major advantages and disadvantages of the auto level are provided below.
Advantages of Auto Level

 Auto level is very easy to use.

 No adjustment for staff reading is required in auto level as the actual reading is seen from the eyepiece.
 The bubble can be adjusted from any side and any angle with any 3 screws available.
 The auto level has an internal compensator mechanism which automatically adjusts the line of sight.
 The measurement accuracy of the auto level is higher.
 Auto level results are very reliable.
 Ease of use of auto level saves time and money.
 The price of the auto level is low and affordable.

Disadvantages of Auto Level

 Vertical angles cannot be measured.

 Horizontal angle is measured in the auto level is not very accurate.

What is Theodolite? Uses of Theodolite in Surveying

Raqifa Rahman Chowdhury

To measure something from closely we might need a theodolite. This instrument really needed for building
constructional work. In the field of civil engineering, workers need this to measure each and all works can be done
in proper ways. So, now you have questions on your mind –what is this and why the workers need to use in building
constructional works?

What is Theodolite?
Theodolite is a measurement instrument utilized in surveying to determine horizontal and vertical angles with the
tiny low telescope that may move within the horizontal and vertical planes.
It is an electronic machine which looks sort of a tiny telescope. It is extensively used for the measurement of vertical
and horizontal angles for scaling functions and within the housing industry. The accuracy with that these angles may
be measured ranges from 5mins to 0.1 secs. It is utilized in triangulation networks.
Theodolites are employed everyplace from construction sites to main road points. It measures angles using age-old
principles of pure mathematics and assists surveyors in establishing precise locations.

Uses of Theodolite in Surveying

Theodolite uses for many purposes, but mainly it is used for measuring angles, scaling points of constructional
works. For example, to determine highway points, huge buildings’ escalating edges theodolites are used. Depending
on the job nature and the accuracy required, theodolite produces more curved of readings, using paradoxical faces
and swings or different positions for perfect measuring survey. Followings are the major uses of theodolite:

 Measuring horizontal and vertical angles

 Locating points on a line
 Finding the difference in the level
 Prolonging survey lines
 Ranging curves
  Setting out grades
 Tachometric surveying

The theodolite helps us a good within the engineering field. This instrument plays a major role in measurement
horizontal angles, vertical angles, bearing, etc. To use theodolite, it is necessary to know about theodolite parts, types
of theodolite and for what it is used wisely in the field.
List of Our Theodolite Articles

 What is Theodolite? Uses of Theodolite

 Parts of a Theodolite with Functions
 Types of Theodolite

Important Parts of a Theodolite with Functions

Raqifa Rahman Chowdhury

Theodolite is popular surveying instrument. It is a measurement tool with which we can find horizontal and vertical
angles. It is an electronic device and has sophisticated parts. To learn theodolite surveying a surveyor must know
the all the parts of theodolite machine. In the following article, major parts of a theodolite are discussed to make the
device well familiar for the surveyor.

List of Our Theodolite Articles

 What is Theodolite? Uses of Theodolite

 Parts of a Theodolite with Functions
 Types of Theodolite

Parts of a Theodolite
Knowing the parts of a theodolite is important. The parts should be accustomed to each other. Without regulate of
the parts cannot be worked accurately. Whenever theodolite uses in sites, each part takes seriously. Depends on
placing the parts, measuring result could be changed or stabled. Theodolite consists of some main parts, such as:

 Telescope  Plate level

 Horizontal plate (Circle)  The leveling head
 Vertical Circle  The shifting head
 Index frame  Magnetic compass
 The standards  Tripod
 The upper plate  Plumb bob
 The lower pale

These theodolite parts are discussed briefly below.

 Telescope- It is used to see the object. It rotates about a horizontal axis in the vertical plane. It can be up
to an accuracy of 20 degrees.

 Horizontal plate (Circle)- It is used for measuring the horizontal angle.

 Vertical Circle- It is used for measuring the vertical angle.

 Index frame- The frame consists of horizontal and vertical wings. This frame is additionally called t-frame
or vernier frame. The horizontal wing helps to require the measurement of vertical angles and vertical
wing helps to grip the telescope at the wanted level.

 The standards- Standards look like 'A' shaped and for that, it is known as A-frame. The standards’ frames
support the telescope and allow it to spin about the vertical axis.

 The upper plate- It is the bottom on that standard and vertical settled. It also helps to rotate the
standards and telescope in a regular manner for correct measurement. it is necessary that the upper plate
should be horizontal to the alidade axis and coordinate to the trunnion axis. The instrument must be
leveled and this leveled is achieved by adjustment of three-foot screws and perceptive an explicit tube
bubble. The bubble is understood as plate bubble and located within the upper plate.

 The lower pale- The lower plate is that the base of the entire instrument. It homes the foot screws and
the carrying for the vertical axis. it is strictly connected to the tripod-escalating assembly and does not
modification or shift. Horizontal angles are measured with this plate.

 Plate level- Plate levels are lifting by the upper plate that is the proper angles to every different with one
they are coordinate to trunnion axis. Plate levels facilitate the telescope to mend incorrect vertical point.

 The leveling head- The leveling head consists of two parallel triangular plates called tribrach plates. The
upper one is called as upper tribrach plate and is used to level the upper plate and telescope with the
help of equalizing screws provided at its three ends. The lower one is called a lower tribrach plate and is
connected to the tripod stand.

 The shifting head-Shifting head conjointly consists of two parallel plates that are modified one over the
opposite among a limited range. Shifting head lies below the lower plate. It is helpful to centralize the
complete instrument over the positioning.

 Magnetic compass- A circular box compass or magnetic compass is mounted on the vernier scale between
the standards. It is provided for taking the magnetic bearing points.

 Tripod- The theodolite is mounted on a powerful tripod once getting used within the field. The tripod’s
legs are sturdy or framed. At the lower ends of the legs, pointed steel shoes are provided to urge them
pushed into the bottom. The tripod head has male screws on that the trivet of the leveling head is
screwed.

 Plumb bob- To center the instrument precisely over a station mark, a plumb bob is suspended from the
hook fitted to the rock bottom of the central vertical axis.
The theodolite has other more parts are - Level tube, Foot Plate, Standard Frame, Upper Clamp, Trunnion Axis,
Lower Clamp, Vernier Frame, Inner Axis, Outer Axis, Altitude Level, Leveling Screw, Clamp Screw. Tangent
Screw

Types of Theodolite - Theodolite Classification

Raqifa Rahman Chowdhury

Theodolite is a surveying instrument. It is very popular in measuring horizontal and vertical angles. There are
different types of theodolite available in the market. To fulfill the purpose of a specific one must choose the right
type of theodolite for the surveying. Different theodolite types are discussed in the following segments.

Types of Theodolite
There are various kinds of theodolites for different purposes of different constructional works. Usually, four types
of theodolites are uses in site works for different measuring points. Such as-

1. Repeating Theodolite
2. Directional Theodolite
3. Electrical Digital Theodolite
4. Total Station

To clearly saying, theodolites can be also classified into two types

1. Primary Theodolite
2. Electronic Digital Theodolite

These types of theodolites are briefly discussed below.

Theodolite Classification 1
This classification of theodolite contains four types of theodolite which are discussed below.
Repeating Theodolite
This design facilitates horizontal angles to be remade any number of times and added directly on the instrument
circles. This type of instruments is restricted for locations where

 the support is not steady, or

 area for using other such instruments is limited.

Directional Theodolite
Angles are obtained by deducting the first direction reading from the second direction reading. This reads directions
rather than angles. The non-repeating instrument has no minor motion.

Electrical Digital Theodolite

Naturally interprets and records horizontal and vertical angles. Eliminates the standard reading of scales on graduated
circles

Total Station
The total Station accommodates the functions of a theodolite for measuring angles, an EDM for measuring gaps,
digital data, and information documentation. Examples of Total Stations are the Nikon DTM 801, Topcon, and
Geodimeter 400 series.

Theodolite Classification 2
This classification of theodolite contains two types of theodolite which are discussed below.

Primary Theodolite
Primary Theodolite can be two types.

i. Transit Theodolites: A theodolite is named a transit theodolite once its telescope will be transited i.e.
rotated through a whole revolution regarding its horizontal axis within the vertical plane.
 ii. Non-Transit Theodolite In this kind, the telescope cannot be transited. They are inferior in utility and
have currently become obsolete.

Electronic Digital Theodolite

This type of theodolite provides the worth of observation directly within the viewing panel. The exactitude of this
sort of instrument varies within the order of 1" to 10". It has also two types.

i. Vernier Theodolites: For reading the graduated circle, verniers are used to correct reading of measuring
points and this theodolite is termed as a Vernier theodolite.
ii. Micrometer Theodolites: A micrometer provides to browse the graduated circle identical be termed as a
Micrometer theodolite.

This Digital theodolite is also known as Modern Theodolite and can perform the following functions:

 Distance measurement
 Angular measurement
 Data processing
 Digital display of point details
 Storing data is an electronic field book
 Sources of Error in Measurement

While dealing with any kind of measurements, it is important to identify the possible sources of error. It helps to
maintain the accuracy of physical measurement in both fields and labs. There are mainly three possible sources of
errors.

Instrumental
The imperfection or faulty adjustment of the measurement instrument may cause errors. Such errors, produced
from the equipment, is known as instrumental error. Example: a long or short tape, an angle measurement
instrument without proper adjustment.

Personal
Error may also arise due to imperfection of human sight in observation and of touch in manipulating
instruments. These man made errors are known as personal error. Example: Taking wrong level reading, taking
wrong reading of an angle of circle of a theodolite.

Natural
Variation of natural phenomena is also a possible source of error. Variation of temperature, humidity, gravity,
wind, refraction, magnetic declination etc. are most common natural phenomena which may cause measurement
errors. If they are not properly observed while taking measurements, the results will be incorrect. Example:
Length error of tape or chain due to temperature change.

When any surveying such as land survey, topographical survey, building survey, structural survey, boundary survey,
property survey etc. or any other measurements are done these possible sources of errors should be highly considered
for an accurate measurement. All the surveying tools and surveying equipment should be selected in such that they
are free from any errors. The surveyor’s should be careful during taking measurements. They should make proper
adjustment for any natural phenomena occurs.
Surveying Lecture Notes PDF
Surveying is a very important part of Civil Engineering. It is a basic course for all universities for civil engineers.
Here in we have gathered some pdf lectures on surveying. We hope students all over the world will find it helpful.

Surveying Lecture 1
The following pdf lecture is created by GAURAV. H .TANDON for the civil engineering students. Here the
following topics of Surveying are discussed:

 Definition of Surveying
 Objectives of Surveying
 Principle of Surveying
 Uses of Surveying
 Types of surveying
 Classifications of Surveying
 Ranging, Tapes, Chains, Linear measurements
 Chain Surveying
 Difference Between Dumpy Level and Auto Level

Dumpy level and auto level are two different leveling instruments used in surveying. To choose between these two
instruments a surveyor must know the differences between them. The main differences between dumpy level and
auto level are given below.

Dumpy Level Auto Level

1 In the dumpy level survey, staff In the auto level, no adjustment

reading need to be adjusted as for staff reading is required as the
inverted level staff reading is seen in actual reading is seen from the
the eyepiece. eyepiece.

2 In the dumpy level, to level the In the auto level, the bubble can be
bubble, one has to keep bubble adjusted from any side and any angle
parallel to two leveling screws and with any 3 screws available.
then right angle to the third screw.
 Dumpy Level Auto Level

3 Line of sight is manually adjusted in The auto level has an

dumpy level. internal compensator mechanism
which automatically adjusts the line of
sight.

4 It difficult to make an accurate The measurement accuracy of the

measurement with dumpy level. auto level is higher than the dumpy
level.

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