PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 REVIEWER

Variables

- any factor or property that a researcher measures, controls, and manipulates.

- the changing quantity of any factor or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types.
- Also a logical set of characteristics, numbers that can be measured. It is also called a data item.

Classifications Variables

1. Experimental Variables

a. Independent variables are those that cause changes in the subject

b. Dependent variables are those that bear or manifest the effects caused by the independent

variables.

Extraneous Variables- these variables are ready existing during the conduct of an experiment.

2. Numeric variables. These are variables with values that describe a measurable quantity.

a. Continuous variables - assume any value between a certain set of real numbers also called interval variables. Ex. time, age,
height, weight and temperature.

b. Discrete variables – assume whole value within the limits of the given variables. Ex. Registered car, population of students,
number of children in the family.

3. Categorical variables. Variables with values that describe a quality or characteristics of a data unit like”what type” “which category”.

a. Ordinal variables- variables can take the value which can be logically ordered or ranked. Ex. Academic grades such as A,B,C;
clothing size such as S,M,L,XL and measures of attitudes like agree, disagree, strongly disagree.

b. Nominal variables- values cannot be organized in a logically sequence. Ex business types, eye colors, kinds of religion, various
languages, and types of learners.

c. Dichotomous variables- variables present only two categories. Ex. gender, answer, etc.

d. Polychotomous variables- these are variables that have many categories. Ex. educational attainment, elem. HS, level of
performance, excellent, very good and so on..

CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEMS

A. EXTERNAL CRITERIA

1. Novelty 2. Availability of subjects 3. Administrative support

4. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment 5. Ethical consideration

B. INTERNAL CRITERIA

1. Experience, training and professional qualifications

2. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher

3. Time factor 4. Costs and returns 5. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps

Generally, the research title should:

1. Summarize the main idea of the paper 2. Be a concise statement of the main topic

3. Include the major variable/s 4. Show the relationship of the main variables of the study

5. Include the main task of the researcher about the major variables under study

6.Mention the participants in a general manner and the setting. Thus, instead of writing “Grade 5 pupils of Cabcaben
Elementary School, write “elementary pupils” or “selected elementary schools” because the specific characteristic will
be indicated in another part.

. Statement of the Problem

It will be difficult to conduct any research unless a clear problem is initially stated!

The elements of the Statement of the Problem section in Chapter 1 of a research paper are:

1. Main Tasks – answers the questions “what to do?” with the variables, such as: to associate, to relate, to assess, to measure, to determine

2. Main or major variables

3. Participants – the subjects or respondents

4. Setting – where the study was conducted

5. Coverage date – when the study was conducted

6. For developmental research, the intended outputs such as an intervention program, module, policies

The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. The specific problems are usually stated as questions that the
researcher seeks to answer

The specific problems must meet the following criteria:

1. They must be in question form

2. The must define the population and sample (the respondents or subjects) of the study

3. They must identify the variables being studied

4. They must be empirically tested

There are two general types of questions formulated in research. These are:

1. Non-researchable questions; and

2. Researchable questions

Non-researchable questions - are questions of value, they are answerable by “yes” or “no”

Researchable questions - are questions of value, opinions, or policy raised to gather data. The basic form of a research question
involves the use of question words such as who, what, where, when, why, and how
Subtypes of researchable questions:
1.. Factor-isolating questions ask “What is this?” They isolate, categorize, describe, or name factors and situations
2. Factor-relating questions ask “What is happening here?” Their goal is to determine the relationship among
factors that have been identified
3. Situation-relating questions ask “What will happen if…?” These questions usually yield hypotheses testing or
experimental study designs in which the researcher manipulates the variables to see what will happen
4. Situation-producing questions ask “How can I make it happen?” These questions establish explicit goals for
actions, development plans, or prescriptions to achieve goals, and specify the conditions under which these
goals will be accomplished.
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
- Is a tentative predictions about the relationship between two or more variables in a population under study.
Kinds of Hypotheses
1. Simple hypothesis – it is a hypothesis formulated when predicting a relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable.
Ex. a. The nature of the teacher is related to the nature of the child
b. There is a relationship between the level of exercise and weight retention among elementary
school children.
2. Complex hypothesis – it is a hypothesis formulated when predicting the relationship of two or more independent variables
to two or more dependent variables.
Ex. The intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of principals do not relate significantly to
the performance of secondary schools.
3. Directional hypothesis – it is a hypothesis that specifies not only the existence but also the expected direction of the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Ex. The higher the intake of fiber, the lower is the weight of the physical mass.
4. Non-directional hypothesis– it is hypothesis that does not stipulate the direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
Ex. The number of hours spent in reviewing is associated with the level of performance in periodical exams.
5. Null hypothesis – it is a hypothesis formulated for the purpose of statistical analysis. This is always expressed as a negative
statement. It is subjected to testing in which the decision is either to accept or reject it.
Ex. a. There is no significant relationship between the reasons for using alternative medicine and the
level of comfort of the patients.
b. The kind of teaching methods used has no effect on the level of performance of students as
shown in their academic grades and behavior in class.
Four types of reading:

Elementary reading – basic type of reading, consists of merely recognizing words and the literal comprehension of
sentences. Ex. Correct pronunciation and sounds
Systematic skimming – here material is discerned if they are important, prerequisite to analytical reading
Analytical reading – here material is examined paragraph by paragraph, sentence by sentence, word for
word
Comparative reading – highest level of reading, consists of analysing several articles or books
Review of literature involves three steps:
Looking for relevant materials, Actual reading, Note-taking
Tools for reading and review:
Highlighting - Uses marks and symbols to facilitate the reading process
Annotations - Remarks the researcher writes during reading and analysis

PLAGIARISM

- Is the appropriation of another person’s ideas, process, or words without giving appropriate credit.
Two forms of plagiarism

1. Self-plagiarism - in which the author copies large parts of one of their previous manuscript word for word.

2. Duplicate plagiarism – in which the author submits a previously-published work as if it is an original manuscript.

Ways of Avoiding Plagiarism

1. Citation – the complete reference must be placed after the copied phrase or sentence using
the prescribed format of citations.
2. Paraphrasing – a process by which the information to be lifted is rephrased into one’s own
words or how you understand the information. Verbatim narration should be avoided

3. Quoting – when using materials from one’s own former writings, one has to quote himself and
cite it again or paraphrase to avoid plagiarism.
4. Referencing – this is done in conjunction with citations.

On Authorship

1. Coercion Authorship – this form uses intimidation to gain authorship.

2. Honorary Authorship – this is called a guest or gift authorship accorded to an established author,
to gain favor or to give paper a greater sense of legitimacy.
3. Mutual support authorship – Two or more investigators include their names as co-authors of each
other’s papers to enhance their perceived productivity.
4. Ghost authorship – This involves papers that are written by people who are not included
as authors or are not acknowledged.
5. Denial authorship – A work is published without acknowledging or bestowing authorship
on people who made substantial contributions to the work.
THEORETICAL /CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

FRAMEWORK --Similar to a skeleton. Different concepts and theories served as the building blocks (or the “skeleton”) for the
foundation or bases of the study
Theoretical framework--Formulated from an existing theory serves as the foundation of the study

Theory-conceptual idea that is used to describe, explain, predict, or understand a certain phenomenon

Conceptual Framework - Guides the researcher by giving clear directions to the research

Paradigm - Pattern, model or set of forms which contains particular elements