Aviation Legal Terms

Diterbitkan Oleh
R.A.De.Rozarie
(Anggota Ikatan Penerbit Indonesia)
Jl. Ikan Lumba-Lumba Nomor 40 Surabaya, 60177
Jawa Timur – Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia
www.derozarie.co.id – 081333330187/0819671079
 Aviation Legal Terms
© April 2015

Eklektikus: Dr. Fajar Sugianto

Editor: Evangeline
Master Desain Tata Letak: Krisna Budi Restanto

Angka Buku Standar Internasional: 9786021176153

Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia
Katalog Dalam Terbitan

Sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini dilarang digunakan atau

direproduksi dengan tujuan komersial dalam bentuk apapun tanpa izin
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Terima kasih

PENERBIT PERTAMA DENGAN KODE BATANG UNIK

 PREFACE

The universal language of communication used in civil aviation

is English. This concise dictionary provides both the basic legalese and
common terms mostly in commercial aviation safety. The terms are
those used in everyday work on aviation by pilots, cabin staff,
maintenance crews, ground staff as well as travellers. Therefore, this
dictionary is designed to be used in conjuction with the Aviation Law
as a university text for aviation courses and, standing alone, as a
refrence guide for those who involved in aviation.
As the title suggests, this dictionary takes a practical viewpoint.
It aims to provide the reader with basic legal knowledge and
perspectives along with an understanding of basic legalese in relation
to aviation activities. The supplements at the back give further
information in the form of tables.

Dr. Fajar Sugianto

Law Faculty,
University of 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya.

i
 CONTENTS
PREFACE

A 1

B 19

C 24

D 35

E 41

F 45

G 51

H 54

I 57

J 61

K 62

L 63

M 67

N 71

O 73

P 76

Q 82

R 83

S 87

T 98

ii
U 102

V 104

W 107

X 111

Y 112

Z 113

SUPPLEMENT

ALPHABET – RADIOTELEPHONY GUIDE 114

AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION CODES 115

AIRLINE CODES 118

AIRPORT CODES – COUNTRY 121

LOCAL TIMES AROUND THE WORLD 125

iii
 A
A/D: Aerodrome.

A/P: Airport.

A/P: Autopilot.

AAIM: Aircraft Autonomous Integrity Monitor.

ABAS: Aircraft Based Augmenting System.

Abnormal load: Aload which is heavier than normal.

Abnormality: Something that is not normal, expected or correct, and

is therefore possibly worrying any abnormality in engine performance
should be checked.

Abort: To stop something taking place. They had to abort the landing
because of a violent storm; To end something before it has finished.

Above Sea Level: Distance of the aircraft above the average sea level.

Absolute: A standard, fixed reference, as opposed to moving

reference.

ACARS: Airline Communication and Reporting System.

Acceleration East: Aircraft acceleration in true east direction.

Acceleration North: Aircraft acceleration in true north direction.

Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity, either scalar or vector.

Accelerometer: An inertial device for measuring acceleration, usually

in three orthogonal axes; accelerometers usually consist of a mass,
spring, and damper; accelerometers are usually included in inertial
sensors, such as AHRS and INS.

Accept: Granted the ability to proceed with a position update usually

by an operator.

1
Accident: An occurence associated with the operation of an aircraft
that takes place between the time any person boars the aircraft with
the intention of flight and the time all such persons have
disembarked, and in which any person (occupant or non occupant)
suffer a fatal or serious injury or the aircraft receives substantial
damage.

Accuracy: Measure of exactness and precision, possible expressed in

percent.

Acquire: To begin reception of useful data

Activate: To begin performing a mission objective, such as flying

along a radial of a radio station; usually refers to a mode of radio
navigation, such flying along that radial after capturing that radial.

ADC: Air Data Computer.

ADDR: Air Data Dead Reckoning.

ADF: Automatic Direction Finding.

Adiabatic compression: Compression caused by atmospheric factors,

which makes descending air warm up.

Adiabatic cooling: A process in which ascending air is cooled by a

decrease in atmospheric pressure without heat transfer.

Adiabatic expansion: Expansion caused by atmospheric factors,

which makes ascending air cool down. Cooling by adiabatic
expansion may result in cloud formation.

Adiabatic heating: A process in which descending air is heated by an

increase in atmospheric pressure without heat transfer.

Adiabatic: Referring to processes through which heat cannot be lost

or gained; Referring to a change in temperature in a mass of air, which
occurs when the air is compressed or expanded by an increase or
decrease in atmospheric pressure and does not involve the air losing
heat to, or gaining heat from, its surroundings.
2
ADM: Aeronautical Decision Making.

Administrator: The Federal Aviation Administrator or any person to

whom he has delegated his authority in the matter concerned.

Advanced Qualification Program: FAA Advisory Circular 120-54A,

the overall goals are to increase aviation safety by using innovative
training and qualification concepts, and to be responsive to changes in
aircraft technology, operations, and training methodologies.

Advect: To move in a horizontal direction due to convection Dispersal

of hill fog takes place when surface heating lifts the cloud base or
drier air is advected.

Advection fog: Fog which forms when warmer moist air moves over
a colder surface.

Advection: The movement of air in a horizontal direction.

Advent: An arrival, especially of something very important. With the

advent of satellite navigation systems, pilots of light aircraft have a
more accurate means of knowing their position.

Advisory: A signal to indicate safe or normal configuration, condition

of performance, operation of essential equipment, or to attract
attention and impart information for routine action purposes.

Aerial display: A display of flying skills and aircraft performance.

Aerial photography: Photography done from an aircraft in the air

Aerial: Happening in the air; Done by an aircraft in flight; A device to

send or receive radio or TV signals ice covering reduces the
effectiveness of aerials (antenna).

Aero: Referring to the air aerodynamic; Referring to aircraft aero

engine aerotow.

Aerobatic aircraft: An aircraft which is designed to perform

aerobatics.

3
Aerobatic display: A demonstration, often public, of piloting skill and
aircraft performance.

Aerobatic: Referring to aerobatics loops and rolls are aerobatic

manoeuvres.

Aerobatics: The art of performing spectacular controlled movements

in a flying aircraft for the purposes of entertainment or competition
The Russian pilot gave a great display of aerobatics.

Aerodrome boundaries: The physical or geographical limits of an

aerodrome

Aerodrome Traffic Zone: An area of protected airspace around an

aerodrome, which pilots need permission to enter or to move in.

Aerodrome: Any area of land or water designed for the taking off and
landing of aircraft Airports and military air bases or stations are types
of aerodrome. All aerodromes are marked on charts. Abbreviation
A/D disused aerodrome an aerodrome which is no longer in use for
the purpose of taking off and landing aeroplanes.

Aerodynamic braking: The braking effect of drag.

Aerodynamic forces: The forces of the air which act on an aircraft in

flight.

Aerodynamic resistance: Same as drag.

Aerodynamic: Referring to the way in which objects are affected

when they move through the atmosphere; Referring to a smooth
rounded shape which moves easily through the air aerodynamic
design a streamlined shape that enables something to move easily
through the air.

Aerodynamics: The science that deals with the interaction of moving

objects with the atmosphere. Aerodynamics is one of the major areas
of study for a trainee pilot.

4
Aerodyne: An aircraft that is heavier than air and whose lift in flight
results from forces caused by its motion through the air, e.g. a plane
or helicopter.

Aero-engine: An engine used in aircraft. Most piston aero-engines are

cooled by air.

Aerofoil: A surface which is shaped to produce more lift than drag

when moved through the air wings, ailerons, elevators, fins and
propellers are all examples of aerofoils (airfoil).

Aeronautical chart: A map used in air navigation which may include

topographic features, hazards and obstructions, navigational aids and
routes, designated airspace and airports.

Aeronautical Decision Making: FAA Advisory Circular 60-22, A

systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to
consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given
set of circumstances

Aeronautical engineer: An engineer who specialises in the design of

aircraft.

Aeronautical engineering: The science or study of the design of

aircraft.

Aeronautical Fixed Service: A radio communications service between

fixed points that is designed to enable aircraft to travel safely.

Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network: A groundbased

network of teleprinters that transmits flight plans and similar data
between control centres.

Aeronautical information circular: A notice issued by an aviation

authority in which information is given about administrative,
technical, safety or operational matters.

Aeronautical Information Publication: A document issued by a state

in which information is given about aviation in that country.

5
Aeronautical: Referring to aeronautics.

Aeronautics: The science of aircraft design, construction and

operation; The theory and practice of aircraft navigation.

AFCS: Automatic Flight Control System.

Affidavit: A written statement under oath.

AFS: Aeronautical Fixed Service.

Afterburner: A system that injects fuel into the hot exhaust gases of a
jet engine in order to increase thrust.

AFTN: Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network.

AGL: Above Ground Level.

AGR Slant Range: Straight-line distance from the aircraft to a point

on the ground.

AGR: Air Ground Ranging.

AHOV: Approach to hover.

AHRS: Attitude Heading Reference System.

Aiding: A process by which one or more sensors provide data to

another sensor to produce results better than any single sensor; aiding
occurs at the data source level or at the physical device level,
depending upon specific implementation of the device and the data
source (choice of implementationis transparent above the data
source); aiding is automatically controlled by software without input
from an operator; a basic control to a data source from navigation,
radio navigation, or other devices.

Aileron: A control surface on fixed-wing aircraft, usually mounted on

the aftedge of wings, which controls roll, and is controlled by the
wheel.

6
Ailerons: An aircraft control surface hinged to the rear, outer section
of the wing for banking (“tilting”) the aircraft. A bank causes an
aircraft to turn. Controlled by right or left movement of the control
yoke or stick.

AIP: Aeronautical Information Publication.

Air bridge: A link provided by aircraft that carry people and supplies
between two places, especially in situations where travel by land is
not possible.

Air Carrier: A person who undertakes directly by lease, or other

arrangement, to engage in air transportation.

Air Commerce: Interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce or the

transportation of mail by aircraft or any operation or navigation of
aircraft within the limits of any Federal airway or any operation or
navigation of aircraft which directly affects, or which may endanger
safety in, interstate, overseas, or foreign air commerce.

Air Data Computer: A primary navigation data source used in

Aviation. A navigation sensor based on atmospheric data sensors;
usually measures static pressure, dynamic pressure, and outside air
temperature; sometimes computes other atmospheric data, such as
indicated airspeed, mach number, calibrated airspeed, as a guidance
mode, ADC is least accurate of the listed modes and is used only as a
last resort.

Air Data Dead Reckoning: Dead reckoning navigation based on

simple instruments as source (barometric altimeter, magnetic
compass, air speed indicator, known wind conditions); sometimes
called dead reckoning.

Air pollution: Pollution of the air by gas, smoke, ash, etc. Solid
particles in the air include dust, sand, volcanic ash and atmospheric
pollution. Also called atmospheric pollution.

Air Taxi: An aircraft operator who conducts operations for hire or

compensation in accordance with FAR Part 135 in an aircraft with 30
7
or fewer passenger seats and a payload capacity of 7,500 or less. An
air taxi operateson an on demand basis and does not meet the “flight
scheduled” qualifications of a commuter.

Air terrorism: Violent actions that aim to frighten or kill passengers,

disrupt air services, or damage or destroy aircraft in an attempt to
achieve a political objective.

Air traffic clearance: An authorization by air traffic control for the

purpose of preventing collision between known aircraft, for an aircraft
to proceed under specific command.

Air Traffic Clearance: An authorization by air traffic control, for the

purpose of preventing collision between known aircraft, for an aircraft
to proceed under specified traffic conditions within controlled
airspace.

Air Traffic Control: A service operated by appropriate authority to

promotethe safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic; Standard
aviation term used for the team of people that direct the planes,
develop flight patterns and stress the alleviation of aviation accidents.

Air Traffic controller: A person who works in air traffic control and
whose main task is to ensure correct separation of aircraft in all phases
of flight; The air traffic controller approved the emegency landing.

Air traffic movements: The number of aircraft taking off and landing
an increase in air traffic movements.

Air Traffic: Aircraft operating in the air or on an airport surface,

exclusive of loading ramps and parking areas.

Air Transportation Oversight System: Implemented in 1998 as a new

approach to FAA certification and surveillance oversight, using
system safety principles and systematic process to ensure that air
carriers are in compliance with FAA regulations and have safety built
into their operating systems.

8
Air Transportation: Interstate, overseas, or foreign air transportation
orthe transportation of mail by aircraft.

Air-breathing engine: An engine that burns a mixture of liquid fuel

and air. There are four types of air-breathing engine: turbo jet, turbo
prop, turbo fan and ram jet.

Airbus: A trademark for a large passenger jet aircraft manufactured

by aerospace companies from different European countries working
together.

Aircraft Engine: An engine that is used or intended to be used for

propelling aircraft. It includes turbo superchargers, appurtenances,
and accessories necessary for its functioning, but does not include
propellers.

Aircraft: A craft that flies in the air; either has fixed or rotary wings. A
device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air.

Airframe: The fuselage, booms, nacelles, cowlings, fairings, airfoil

surfaces (including rotors but excluding propellers and rotating
airfoils of engines), and landing gear of an aircraft and their
accessories and controls.

Air-Ground Ranging: Straight-line distance from the aircraft to a

point on the ground.

Airline Transport Pilot: The most advanced of all pilot certificates,

requiring the highest skill and experience levels. Required: a
minimum of 1,500 hours flight experience, ATP written exam and
flight test. Mandatory for captains of Part 121 major scheduled
airlines, regional carriers, Part 125 scheduled commuter airlines, and
some Part 135 operations. A hiring requirement for many pilot
positions in corporate and commercial general aviation flying.

Airline Transport Pilot: The most advanced of all pilot certificates,

requiring the highest skill and experience levels. Required: a
minimum of 1,500 hours flight experience, ATP written exam and
flight test. Mandatory for captains of Part 121 major scheduled
9
airlines, regional carriers, Part 125 scheduled commuter airlines, and
some Part 135 operations. A hiring requirement for many pilot
positions in corporate and commercial general aviation flying.

Airline Transport Pilot’s Licence: The licence that a person must have
to be the pilot-in-command or co-pilot of a public transport aircraft.

Air-Mass Flight Path Angle: Angle in vertical plane of earthspeed

vectorand ground speed vector; occasional is used as the definition for
flight path angle.

Airpark: A small airport, usually found near a business or industrial

centre.

Airplane: An engine-driven fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air,

which is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against
its wings.

Airport authority: The organisation responsible for the running of an

airport.

Airport: A civil aerodrome designed for the take off and landing of
passenger-carrying aircraft for the general public and/or cargo
aircraft.

Airport: An area of land or water that is used or intended to be used

for the landing and take off of aircraft, and includes its buildings and
facilities, if any.

Airship: An engine-driven lighter than air aircraft that can be steered.

Air-to-ground visibility: A description of how easily seen an object

on the ground is from the air. Glare caused by reflection of sunlight
from the top of a layer of fog or haze can seriously reduce the air-to-
ground visibility.

Air-to-surface: Directed from a flying aircraft to a point on the

ground.

10
Airway: An area of the sky, usually rectangular in cross-section, along
which civil aircraft fly from place to place. Airways provide a high
degree of safety by ensuring adequate separation between aircraft.
Aircraft inside an airway are controlled by ATC. Airways are usually
10 nm wide with a centre line joining navigational beacons.

Airways: A commercial company operating flights. Usually used in

the names of companies, e.g. British Airways, South African Airways.

Airworthiness: The state of an aircraft with regard to whether it can

fly safely, as determined by a national certifying authority.

Airy: A standard model for computing earth data.

Aisle: A long passageway between the seats in the passenger cabin of

an airliner aisle seat a seat which is by an aisle, as opposed to a
window seat.

Alarm: Fear or worry. If the ammeter shows a high level of charge

after start-up, it is quite normal and no cause for alarm; A warning
sound or light. In the event of fire or overheat, the control unit will
produce an alarm; To frighten or worry. Severe turbulence may alarm
passengers.

Alert Area: An alert area is established to inform pilots of a specific

area where in a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of
aeronautical activity is conducted.

Alert: Fully awake, watchful and ready to deal with any situation. The
crew must be alert at all times to the possibility of hijacking, bombs
and stow aways. A signal, warning everyone to be alert to be on the
alert to be watchful and ready for anything that may happen. To
warn. It is the cabin staff‟s responsibility to alert the flight crew if they
see smoke coming from an engine.

Alignment: A basic control to a data source from controls and

displays to align a device. Alignment may also be referred to as a
procedure to align physical devices, usually navigation sensors, so
that they provide the most accurate results possible.
11
Alternate Airport: An airport at which an aircraft may land if a
landing at the intended airport becomes in advisable.

Altimeter Setting: A value related to local barometric pressure,

usually provided to pilots by ATC. Used as a reference setting so that
the aircraft altimeter indicates an accurate altitude. Above 18,000 feet,
all pilots use a standard setting of 29.92 inches of mercury.

Altimeter: A device to measure altitude, either barometric altitude or

radar altitude.

Altimeter: A highly sensitive barometer which shows an aircraft‟s

altitude above mean sea level by measuring atmospheric pressure.

ALTINTVAL: Altitude integral input.

Altitude Engine: A reciprocating aircraft engine having a rated take

off power that is producible from sea level to an established higher
altitude.

Altitude Error Scale Factor: A guidance control law parameter,

generated by the vertical guidance modes; varies control authority of
vertical guidance.

Altitude Error: A basic output from guidance to flight director,

indicating the difference between actual altitude and desired altitude.

Altitude Integral Gain: A guidance control law parameter, generated

by the vertical guidance modes; varies control authority of the altitude
integral invertical guidance, to reduce steady-state errors in altitude
situations.

Altitude Integral Input: A guidance control law parameter, generated

bythe vertical guidance modes; a reference altitude for reducing
steady-state errors in altitude situation.

Altitude Integral Limit: A guidance control law parameter, generated

by the vertical guidance modes; limits the magnitude of altitude
integral.

12
Altitude: Height, usually with respect to the terrain below (radar
altitude, feet above closest dirt) or fixed earth reference (barometric
altitude, feet above mean sea level).

Altocumulus: Small white cumulus clouds which form as a layer at

moderate altitude, usually meaning fair weather.

Altostratus: A uniform layer cloud at moderate altitude.

Aluminium-aluminum: A strong, light metal used in the construction

of aircraft.

Angle of Attack: The difference between pitch and the air-referenced

flight path angle; the angle between the aircraft center line and the
airspeed vector in the vertical plane, positive when the nose is up.

Angle: The difference in direction between two lines or surfaces

measured in degrees.

Angular Acceleration: Rate of change of angular velocity, either scalar

orvector, often with subscripts such as XYZ to denote the coordinate
frame; time derivative of angular position; time integral of angular
acceleration.

Angular Position: Amount of rotation about an axis, either scalar or

vector, often with subscripts such as XYZ to denote the coordinate
frame; time integral of angular velocity.

Angular Velocity: Rate of change of rotation about an axis, either

scalar orvector, often with subscripts such as XYZ to denote the
coordinate frame; time derivative of angular position; time integral of
angular acceleration.

Annunciator: Any one of warning, caution, or advisory; synonyms

with alert.

Answer: Pleading filed by the defendant that responds to a complaint,

petition, or motion.

13
Anticlockwise: Referring to a circular movement in the opposite
direction to the hands of a clock. Turn the nut anticlockwise to loosen
it. Opposite clockwise.

Anti-collision light: A flashing white light on an aircraft.

Anti-collision: Helping to prevent collisions.

Anti-corrosion: Protecting against corrosion, especially rust an anti-

corrosion treatment.

Anticyclone: An area of high atmospheric pressure, usually

associated with fine dry weather in summer and fog in winter. Winds
circulate round an anticyclone clockwise in the northern hemisphere
and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Anti-icing fluid: A fluid which prevents icing.

Anti-icing: Preventing icing; anti-icing additive.

Anti-skid: Designed to prevent skidding.

Aperiodic: A process that executes based on events rather than a fixed

rate, it is not synchronized to other processes of interest.

Appeal: A request to the higher court for review of the lower court‟s
decision and to request a reversal of the judgment.

Appliance: Any instrument, mechanism, equipment, part, apparatus,

appurtenance, or accessory, including communications equipment,
that isused or intended to be used in operating or controlling an
aircraft in flight, is installed in or attached to the aircraft, and is not
part of an airframe, engine, or propeller.

APPR: Approach.

Approach: To fly towards a point; a basic guidance mode, providing

lateral guidance, longitudinal guidance, and vertical guidance to a
point at an operator selected groundspeed and radar altitude.

14
Approach (Departure) Control: Radar-based air traffic control,
associated with the control tower at larger airports. Provides traffic
separation services from outside the immediate airport area to a
distance of about 40 miles.

Approach control: A control station in an air traffic control centre that

guides an aircraft while it is making its approach.

Approach to Hover (AHOV): Hover approach of a rotary wing

aircraft.

Approach to land: The final stage of the flight when the aircraft is
manoeuvred into position, relative to the landing area, in preparation
for landing.

AQP: Advanced Qualification Program.

Arbitration: The procedure by which a dispute may be resolved by a

person who is not a judge. Arbitration is often used to limit legal costs
to both parties.

Arbitrator: A person who conducts an arbitration.

Area Navigation: A method of navigation that permits aircraft

operations onany desired course within the coverage of station-
referenced navigation signals or within the limits of self-contained
system capability.

Arm: To strive for a mission objective, such as flying toward a radial

of a radio station; usually refers to a mode of radio navigation, such as
striving to reach a specific radial of a radio station prior to flying
along that radial.

Arobatic team: A team of pilots and aircraft who perform aerobatics.

ASL: Above sea level.

ASOS: Automated Surface Observation System.

15
Assumption of Risk: A doctrine that states if the plaintiff has
knowingly accepted the danger of doing something, recovery from
the defendant in an action brought for negligence will be barred.

Astronomical Latitude: Latitude measured with respect to vector of

apparent gravity.

Asymmetric flight: A condition in which one engine, displaced from

the aircraft‟s centre line is not working.

Asymmetric power: Power on one side of the aircraft‟s centre line

only.

ATC Controller: Air Traffic Controller.

ATC: Air Traffic Control.

ATIS: Automated Terminal Information System.

Atmospheric Data: Environmental data related to the atmosphere at

somepoint of interest.

ATOS: Air Transportation Oversight System.

ATP: Airline Transport Pilot.

ATPL: Airline Transport Pilot‟s Licence.

Attitude Heading Reference System: Combines information from a

Magnetic Heading Sensor with self-contained aircraft acceleration
data to provide attitude, heading, position, body inertial velocity, and
body inertial acceleration. Typically a low-accuracy, self-contained
navigation source using strap-down accelerometers.

Attitude: The primary aircraft angles in the state vector; pitch, roll,
andyaw.

ATZ: Aerodrome Traffic Zone.

Australian National: A standard model for computing earth data.

16
Automated Surface Observation System: The primary surface
weather observing system in the U.S., supporting aviation operations
and weather forecasting. Automated sensors record wind direction
and speed, visibility, cloud ceiling, precipitation, etc. Data sent
automatically to the National Weather Service. At many locations, a
computer generated voice broadcasts the minute-by-minute weather
reports to pilots on a discrete radio frequency.

Automated Terminal Information System: A continuous broadcast

on a separate ATC frequency of an airport's current weather (updated
at least hourly). Eliminates controller requirement to read local
weather data to each landing or departing aircraft.

Automated Weather Observing System: Provides automated airport

weather observations to pilots on a discrete radio frequency via a
computer generated voice. Less sophisticated than ASOS, usually
installed using state funds.

Automatic Direction Finding: A basic guidance mode, providing

lateral guidance to a radio station.

Automatic Flight Control System: An automated system for

controlling the primary flight controls, often with built in functions for
guidance and flight direction and sometimes radio navigation. Many
flight control systems accept flight director inputs so that its radio
navigation, guidance, and flight director can be by passed.

Automation: The automatic operation or automatic control of a piece

of equipment, a process, or a system. Automation has speeded up
baggage handling. Automation of throttle control has removed the
need for pilots to monitor airspeed so closely. It is possible that the
alternate source might provide a reduced level of automation.

Autopilot: Automatic pilot.

Automatic pilot: A mode of an automatic flight control system which

controls primary flight controls to meet specific mission objectives,
such as maintain aheading or altitude; A system which automatically

17
stabilises an aircraft about its three axes, restores the original flight
path following an upset and, in some systems, causes the aircraft to
follow a preselected airspeed, altitude or heading.

Averaging Filter: A filter for combining multiple data sources, usually

of the same type, by adding with weighted averages.

Aviation Trust Fund: A federal reserve of tax monies levied on airline

tickets and operations and set aside to improve the U.S. air
transportation system.

Aviator: A person who flies aircraft.

Avionics: Electronic communication, navigation, and flight-control

equipment of an aircraft. The trainee engineer is doing an avionics
course.

AVM: Avionics monitor.

AWOS: Automated Weather Observing System.

Axis: One direction in an orthogonal reference frame.

Azimuth: An angle in the horizontal plane, usually measured with

respect to body coordinates.

18
 B
Backlash: Term describing the amount of play between gears, or gear
mesh. If too loose, the gear can slip, or strip the teeth.

Baggage allowance: The weight of baggage each air passenger is

allowed to take free. An accompanied baggage allowance is vary to
every airlines.

Baggage handling: The process by which passengers‟ baggage is

loaded on to an aircraft, or unloaded and moved to the airport
terminal.

Baggage: Luggage, cases and bags which you take with you when
travelling. One passenger had a huge amount of baggage. The word
luggage is also used in British English. Baggage hall an area where
arriving passengers pick up their baggage. Carry on baggage small
bags of limited size and weight that passengers are allowed to take
with them into the cabin of an aircraft.

Balance: A state in which weight, force or importance are evenly

distributed. The propelling nozzle size is extremely important and
must be designed to obtain the correct balance of pressure,
temperature and thrust; The act of staying steady; To be opposite and
equal in weight, force or importance to something else; The pressure
exerted by the weight of the atmosphere above the level of the bowl
balances a column of mercury in the tube; To stay steady, especially
when resting on the centre of gravity.

Ball: In an inclinometer, the round object which indicates if a turn is

coordinated to step on the ball to correct a skid or a slip by putting
pressure on the rudder on the side to which the ball in an inclinometer
has moved during a turn. If the ball has moved to the left, the turn can
be corrected by putting pressure on the left rudder, and vice versa.

Balloon: A large bag inflatable with hot air or gas to provide lift, but
without power.

19
BALT SEL: Barometric altitude select.

Band-Pass Filter: A filter that allows frequencies between two cut off
frequencies to pass while attenuating frequencies outside the cut off
frequencies; a band-pass filter can be constructed as the composition
of alow-pass filter and a high-pass filter.

Bandwidth: The width of a band of radio frequencies. The sharp

setting means the bandwidth is reduced to one kilohertz to minimize
noise or interference.

Bank Angle: The angle between the horizontal plans and the right
wing in the lateral plane, positive when the right wing is down.

Barnstormer: A pilot who in the early years of aviation provided

airplane rides to people and performed aerobatics for a fee.

Barograph: An instrument for measuring and recording atmospheric

pressure. The most common type of barograph is that which utilises
an aneroid capsule mechanically connected to a pen.

Barometric Altitude Select: A basic guidance mode, providing

vertical guidance to an operator selected barometric altitude.

Barometric Altitude: Height with respect to fixed earth reference

(abovemean sea level).

Barometric Pressure: Height with respect to fixed earth reference

(barometric altitude, feet above mean sea level).

Base leg: The part of the airfield traffic circuit flown at approximately
90° to the direction of landing, followed by the final approach.

Base: The bottom part or lowest part; To develop or develop

something from something else. The operation of the auxiliary power
unit is based on the gas turbine engine. The principle of vapour cycle
cooling is based upon the ability of a refrigerant to absorb heat.

20
Basic area navigation: A standard of performance for navigation that
requires an aircraft to remain within 5 nautical miles of the centre line
of its course for 95% of the time.

Battery: Is a harmful or offensive contact with another person with

intent to cause the contact or apprehension of contact and without the
consent of the other person (or where consent is obtained by fraud or
duress).

Bay: A space or area in the structure of an aeroplane where equipment

can be located.

BC: Bus Controller.

Beacon: A light or radio signal for navigational purposes. If the

aircraft turns towards the beacon, signal strength will increase.

Bench Trial: A trial without a jury. The judge rules on facts and
evidence presented to him.

Bessel 1841: A standard model for computing earth data.

Bias: An offset applied to a measurement for error correction.

BIS: Built-in simulation

Black Out Dates: Not available. Dates on which tickets or certain fares
are not available. Blackout dates usually coincide with holidays and
peak travel seasons.

Boarding gate: The door through which passengers leave the terminal
building to get on to an aircraft.

Boarding pass: A temporary pass, issued at the check-in desk, which

allows the holder to board the aircraft. Boarding passes must be
shown at the gate.

Boarding steps: Stairs used by passengers and crew to get on board

an aircraft. Passengers had to wait in the aircraft for 15 minutes before
the boarding steps were put in position.
21
Boarding time: The time when passengers are due to board the
aircraft.

Body Coordinates: Coordinates referenced to the body of the aircraft.

Body: The aircraft, usually referring to a coordinate system.

Body: The main part of an aeroplane, system, text, etc. The body of an
aircraft is also called the „airframe‟; A large mass of liquid or gas body
of air a large quantity of air behaving in a particular way.

Boresight Angle: The angle between the center line of a sensor and
aircraft center line, either by design or by misalignment.

Boresighting: A basic control to a data source from controls and

displays to boresight a device. Also, known as a procedure to align
the center line of physical devices, usually update sensors, so that they
provide the most accurate results possible; a basic control to a data
source from controls and displays; commonly required by FLIR,
MMR; boresight procedures commonly result in correction factors to
be downloaded from the host processor to the device; during
boresighting, the device is usually not available.

Boring holes in the sky: Having fun flying an airplane without pre-
determined flight pattern.

BPF: Band-pass filter.

BRG: Bearing.

Bucket Shop: A consolidator; any retail outlet dealing in discounted

airfares.

Built-in simulation: Function in avionics software that simulates

sensors, aircraft, and pilot, to exercise avionics software (including
navigation, radio navigation, guidance and flight director). BIS is
often used by a development team to check basic operation following
installation of new software or patches. BIS is seldom used by aircraft
flight crews or maintenance crews.

22
Burden of Proof: The obligation of one party in a suit to prove all the
requirements necessary to show entitlement to recovery. If the burden
is not met, the party with the burden will lose the issue or the case.

Bus Controller: A term used to define the role of a device on a MIL-

STD-1553 bus as being waste.

23
 C
CAA: Civil Aviation Authority.

Cabin attendant: Member of the flight crew who looks after

passengers, serves food, etc. Also called flight attendant.

Cabin compressor and blower system: Part of the air conditioning

system for the cabin.

Cabincrew: Airline staff who are in direct contact with the passengers
and whose in flight responsibilities include: ensuring correct seating
arrangements, serving food and attending to the general well-being of
passengers, etc.

Cabin environment: The conditions inside the aircraft cabin,

including the temperature, the space, the colour scheme, the seating
arrangements, etc.

Cabin pressure: The pressure of air inside the cabin which allows
people to breathe normally at high altitudes.

Cabin pressurization: The maintenance of an acceptable atmospheric

pressure in an aircraft while flying at high altitude. At 35,000 ft (feet)
passengers can breathe freely because of cabin pressurisation.

Cabin: A passenger compartment in an aircraft.

Calibrated Airspeed: Indicated airspeed corrected for

instrumentation errors, but not for air density.

Calibration: A basic control to a data source from controls and

displays for calibrating a device. Calibration is also a procedure used
to adjust physical devices so that they provide the most accurate
results possible. Calibration procedures commonly result in correction
factors to be downloaded from the host processor of the device;
during calibration, the device is usually not available.

Cant Angle: Angle of nacelle mounting.

24
Capture Criterion: A test case used to determine if an armed objective
has been captured. In avionics, an aircraft might have an objective to
fly to a radial of a radio station, then to fly along it. While en route, the
objective is armed, meaning that the crew and software are attempting
to reach the radial. The radial is captured and the objective is met
when the capture criteria is met. An objective can have multiple
criteria. Capture criterion are often used with radio navigation to
determine a transition from armed to active.

Capture: To attain an objective, such as reaching a radial of a radio

station.

CAS: Calibrated Air Speed.

Casualty: A loss of property due to fire, storm ship wreck or other

casualty, which is allow able as a deduction in computing tax able
income.

CAT: Clear Air Turbulence.

Category as defined by the FAA: (1) As used with respect to the

certification, ratings, privileges, and limitations of airmen, means a
broad classification of aircraft. Examples include: airplane; rotorcraft;
glider; and lighter than air; and (2) As used with respect to the
certification of aircraft, means a grouping of aircraft based upon
intended use or operating limitations. Examples include: transport,
normal, utility, acrobatic, limited, restricted, and provisional.
“Category A”, with respect to transport category rotorcraft, means
multi engine rotorcraft designed with engine and system isolation
features specified in Part 29 and utilizing scheduled take off and
landing operations under a critical engine failure concept which
assures adequate designated surface area and adequate performance
capability for continued safe flight in the event of engine failure.
“Category B”, with respect to transport category rotorcraft, means
single-engine or multi engine rotorcraft which do not fully meet all
Category Astandards. Category B rotorcraft have no guaranteed stay-
up ability in the event of engine failure and unscheduled landing is

25
assumed. “Category II operations”, with respect to the operation of
aircraft, means a straight-in ILS approach to the runway of an airport
under a Category II ILS instrument approach procedure issued by the
Administrator or other appropriate authority. “Category III
operations,” with respect to the operation of aircraft, means an ILS
approach to, and landing on, the runway of an airport using a
Category III ILS instrument approach procedure issued by the
Administrator or other appropriate authority. Category IIIa
operations, an ILS approach and landing with no decision height
(DH), or a DH below 100 feet (30 meters), and controlling runway
visual range not less than 700 feet (200 meters). Category IIIb
operations, an ILS approach and landing with no DH, or with a DH
below 50 feet (15 meters), and controlling runway visual range less
than 700 feet (200 meters), but not less than 150 feet (50 meters).
Category IIIc operations, an ILS approach and landing with no DH
and no runway visual range limitation.”

Cause of Action: The plaintiff‟s legal claim against the defendant.

There is often more than one cause of action in a lawsuit.

Caution: A signal which alerts the operator to an impending

dangerous condition requiring attention, but not necessarily
immediate action; more critical than an advisory but less critical than
a warning.

CCLIM: Course cut limit.

Ceiling: The height above the earth‟s surface of the lowest layer of
clouds or obscuring phenomena that is reported as broken, overcast,
or obscuration.

CEP: Circular Error Probability.

Certified Travel Counselor: One who has passed a series of rigorous

tests of professional competency administered by the Institute of
Certified Travel Agents.

26
Chandelle: A very steep climbing turn where the airplane makes a
180 degree change of direction.

Channel: A number that maps to a frequency.

Checkin: To register by giving in your ticket, showing your passport

and giving your baggage at an airline desk before a flight; An airline
desk where passengers register before a flight.

Circular Error Probability: A probability that a percentage of two

dimension measurements will lie within a circle of given radius, with
the circle centered at truth or mean of the measurements.

Cirro: Prefix high altitude, i.e. above 20,000 feet.

Cirrocumulus: A layer of broken cloud at about 20,000 feet.

Cirrostratus: A layer cloud at about 20,000 feet.

Cirrus: A high cloud in a mass of separate clouds which are formed of

ice crystals.

Civil Aviation Authority: The organization which licences operators,

aircraft and employees for non military, especially commercial
aviation.

Civil Law: That part of the law which governs relationships between
people where there is no criminal activity involved.

Clarke 1866 and Clarke 1880: Standard models for computing earth
data.

Class: (1) As used with respect to the certification, ratings, privileges,

and limitations of airmen, means a classification of aircraft within a
category having similar operating characteristics. Examples include:
single engine; multi engine; land; water; gyroplane; helicopter;
airship; and free balloon; and (2) As used with respect to the
certification of aircraft, means a broad grouping of aircraft having
similar characteristics of propulsion, flight, or landing. Examples
include: airplane; rotorcraft; glider; balloon; landplane; and seaplane.
27
Clear Air Turbulence: Turbulence encountered in air where no cloud
is present. It is often associated with the jet stream.

Clear to land: Air traffic control permission to land.

Climate: Weather conditions particular to a given area.

Climatic zone: One of the eight areas of the Earth which have distinct
climates.

Climatic: Referring to climate or weather conditions particular to a

given area. The aircraft forward speed and altitude as well as climatic
conditions will influence the value of thrust.

Climatology: The science of the study of climate. Although pilots do

not need to be experts in climatology, they should have a good
understanding of the factors which produce changes in the weather.

Climb: The act of increasing altitude by use of power. Fine pitch

enables full engine speed to be used during take-off and climb. To
increase altitude by use of power.

Climb-out: A flight after take-off from 35 feet to 1,500 feet during

which under carriage and flaps are retracted.

Clockwise: Opposite anticlockwise. Describing a circular movement

in the same direction as the hands of a clock a clockwise direction.

Clog: To prevent movement of fluid through a pipe, etc., because of a

build up of solid matter.

Close: To shut.

COA: Certificate of Airworthiness.

Cockpit: The forward area in an aircraft from where the aircraft is

controlled by the pilot.

Co-Defendant: A defendant joined together with one or more other

defendants in the same case.

28
Collective Cue: A vertical flight director cue for rotary-wing aircraft,
primarily to control altitude, by changing power.

Collective: A flight control operated by moving up or down with

hand in rotary-wing aircraft, primarily to control lift (altitude);
controls the collectiveor total pitch of the rotors on a rotary-wing
aircraft.

Collide: To bump or to crash into something the aircraft left the

runway and collided with a fire truck.

Collision: A crash between two objects, two vehicles, etc. Collision

avoidance the prevention of collisions by taking measures before hand
to ensure that they do not happen.

Commanded: Controls given to a device.

Commence: To start to do something commence the evacuation start

getting people out of the aircraft.

Commercial aircraft: Aircraft used to carry cargo or passengers for

payment.

Commercial Airline: An airline that carriers passengers.

Commercial Operator: A person who, for compensation or hire,

engages in the carriage by aircraft in air commerce of persons or
property, other than as an air carrier or foreign air carrier or under the
authority of Part 375 of thistitle. Where it is doubtful that an operation
is for “compensation or hire”, thetest applied is whether the carriage
by air is merely incidental to the person‟s other business or is, in itself,
a major enterprise for profit.

Commercial: Referring to a business activity commercial aviation

flying as a business enterprise.

Common Law: Body of law that has grown based on the decisions of
courts long ago. It originated in England and has since passed to the

29
United States. It is always changing to reflect the current needs
society.

Communications: How well equipment is communicating.

Commuter: An air carrier operator operating under 14 CFR 135 (Code

of Federal Regulations) that carries passengers on at least five round
trips perweek on at least one route between two or more points
according to its published flight schedules that specify the times, day
of the week, and places between which these flights are performed.
The aircraft that a commuter operates has 30 or fewer passenger seats
and a payload capability of 7,500 or less.

Comparative Negligence: A defense to negligence used when it is

believed that the plaintiff‟s negligence contributed to his or her
injuries. Based on the amount of negligence by each party, the amount
of damages is adjusted accordingly.

Complaint: A pretrial document filed in a court by one party against

another that states a grievance, called a “cause of action”.

Complementary Filter: A filter in which the complement of the filter

is desired, giving the effect of a high-pass filter by implementing a
low-pass filter; a filter for combining multiple data sources, usually of
different types, by adding filtered values, where the sum of the filters
in the frequency domain is unity; a Kalman filter with fixed gains.
Complementary filters are often designed in the frequency domain in
way that the filters determined at build time such that the cut off
frequency of the LFP is equal to that of the HPF. This provides the
advantages of DNS‟s long-term accuracy and INS's short-term
accuracy, while filtering DNS‟'s high-frequency noise and INS's slow
drift

Computer Cycle: In a periodic, cyclical computer system, the most

basic, fastest timing loop.

Constant Speed Drive Unit: A device fitted to aircraft with constant

speed propellers.
30
Constant speed propeller: A propeller with a control system which
automatically adjusts pitch to maintain selected rpm.

Constant Speed Unit: A device that automatically keeps a propeller at

a speed set by the pilot.

Contingency Fee Agreement: An agreement between an attorney and

their client, which allows the attorney to be paid only if the client
prevails in a lawsuit and collects monetary damages. The lawyer then
receives a percentage of the damages, generally 1/3 of the award.

Continuous Time: Time which can have any point expressed as a real
quantity without regard for any specific interval or processing rate.

Continuous-Time Equation: A mathematical relationship to describe

a function of time; expressed in terms of continuous time.

Contributory Negligence: A defense to negligence, which points out

that the plaintiff‟s negligence contributed to his or her injuries.
Contributory negligence is an absolute bar to the plaintiff‟s recovery
against the defendant.

Control Area: The airspace above a particular area on the ground,

which is controlled by a particular authority.

Control column: The main hand control used by the pilot to control
the aircraft in roll and pitch.

Control Law: The mathematical definition of a system used to control

or to change the dynamic response of a system.

Control Surface: An airfoil attached to an aircraft that is moved to

control the attitude of the aircraft; an surface to control flight of an
aircraft indirectly, such as a swash plate to control pitch of rotor
blades.

Controlled Airspace: Airspace which is governed by rules and

regulations which pilots must comply with.

31
Controlled Altitude: A guidance control law parameter, generated by
the vertical guidance modes; altitude that is being controlled.

Controlled speed (CTS): A guidance control law parameter,

generated by the longitudinal guidance modes; speed that is being
controlled.

Controller: A device which ensures that something operates in the

correct way the propeller speed controller; A person who manages
systems to ensure the smooth operation of procedures.

Conversion: Is defined as the act of assuming rights to personal

property that are inconsistent with the rights of the owner or person
entitled to possession.

Coriolis Acceleration: Tangential acceleration caused by motion on a

radial on a rotating surface. In aviation, it is acceleration in the earth's
longitudinal direction caused by changing latitude, usually computed
from system statedata.

Corrected Altitude: Measured pressure altitude corrected for

instrumentation errors.

Counterclaim: A demand by the defendant against the plaintiff

asserting an independent cause of action in the same lawsuit.

Counter clockwise: Same as anti clockwise.

Coupled: Describes operation of flight director in which automatic

flight control system causes flight controls to follow commands from
flight director or errors from guidance.

Course Cut Limit (CCLIM): A guidance control law parameter,

generated by the lateral guidance modes; limits the intercept angle of
the flight path with adesired course, typically 45 degrees.

Course: Towards a point specified initially.

Crash: An accident that causes damage; To have an accident or

collision that causes damage.
32
Crash-dive: To move downwards quickly through the air front first
and crash, or cause an aircraft to do this.

Crash-land: To land heavily without using the under carriage, so that

the aircraft is damaged.

Crash-landing: An act of landing an aircraft heavily, sometimes

without the under carriage.

Creeping Line Search: A pattern of equally spaced parallel lines

followedfor searching the ground from an aircraft.

Critical Altitude: The maximum altitude at which, in standard

atmosphere, it is possible to maintain, at a specified rotational speed, a
specified power or a specified manifold pressure. Unless otherwise
stated, the critical altitude is the maximum altitude at which it is
possible to maintain, at the maximum continuous rotational speed,
one of the following: (1) The maximum continuous power, in the case
of engines for which thispower rating is the same at sea level and at
the rated altitude. (2) The maximum continuous rated manifold
pressure, in the case of engines, the maximum continuous power of
which is governed by a constant manifold pressure.

Cross Examination: Questioning the witness who has been presented

by the opposition at trail or a deposition.

Cross Track: Perpendicular to the course.

Cross-track Deviation Gain: A guidance control law parameter,

generated by the lateral guidance modes; relative weighting of cross-
track deviation in the lateral control law.

Cross-track Deviation: A guidance control law parameter, generated

by the lateral guidance modes; distance from the aircraft to a desired
course measured along a perpendicular to the course.

CSDU: Constant Speed Drive Unit.

CSU: Constant Speed Unit.

33
CTA: Control Area.

CTALT: Controlled Altitude.

CTS: Controlled speed.

Cue: An indicator to an operator for control placement, tells the

operator where to place controls; synonyms with command.

Customs: An official department of government concerned with

movement of people and freight across national borders customs
aerodrome an aerodrome, usually near a border or coast, with
customs facilities.

Cut off Frequency: The frequency at which the gain of a filter is at an

edge of a band, usually taken to be when gain is 0.5, or -3.01dB; the
frequency at which the output of a filter is half the power of the input.

34
 D
D or DA: Danger Area.

Damage tolerance: The ability of a material or structure to with stand

or resist damage.

Damage: Harm that is caused to something. To cause harm to

something, i.e., small stones around the run-up area may damage
propellers.

Damages: The sum of money awarded to the injured party in a

personal injury lawsuit

Damped Frequency: The frequency of oscillation of an under-damped

second order filter.

Damping Ratio: Control parameter for a second order filter.

Danger Area: Airspace of a particular length, width and depth, within

which at particular times there may be activities which are dangerous
to the flight of the aircraft.

Danger zone: An area where danger exists.

Data Source Object: Software that receives data from a physical

device, translates the data into standard units, maintains equipment
status, and provides a common interface for each variation of a
particular device.

Data Transfer System: A device for transferring data which includes

avionics; it is similar to a diskette drive.

Data: Information made up of numbers, characters and symbols often

stored on a computer in such a way that it can be processed (i.e.,
airspeed information, meterological of weather conditions, etc.);
Information.

dB: Decibel.

35
Dead Reckoning: A method of navigation based on basic information
(barometric altitude, magnetic heading, airspeed, wind conditions)
from best available source; sometimes short for air data dead
reckoning.

Decibel: A unit for measuring the loudness of a sound.

DECIDE Model of Aeronautical Decision Making, the: The FAA

Pilot‟s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge to provide the pilot
with a logical way of making decisions. The DECIDE acronym means
to:
D: Detect=the decision maker detects the fact that change has occured;
E: Estimate=the decision maker estimates the need to counter or react
to the change;
C: Choose=the decision maker chooses a desirable outcome (in terms
of success) for the flight;
I: Identify=the decision maker identifies actions which could
successfully control the change;
D: Do=the decision maker takes the necessary action;
E: Evaluate=the decision maker evaluates the effects of his/her action
countering the change.

Default Judgment: A judgment issued when the defendant offers no

defense by not responding to the complaint. A judge may issue a
judgment without the necessity of a trial.

Defendant: The person against whom a claim is brought.

Delay: A period after the expected time that you have to wait before
something happens, the length of time by which something is late; To
make late, to cause to be late.

Delayed-action: In which there is an unusual passing of time between

stimulus and response. Example: a delayed-action lock in the door
which operates one minute after the power has been switched off.

36
Denied-Boarding Compensation: Payment given passengers who
have been bumped from a flight, cruise, or land-tour. Compensation
may be in the form of a free trip, money, or accommodations.

Deponent: The person who testifies at a deposition.

Deposition: A pretrial discovery device in which one party verbally

answers questions from the other party.

Depressurize: To lose pressure suddenly, or to cause to lose pressure.

Derivative: Rate of change, usually with respect to time.

Derived: Calculated values for which no direct measurement exists.

Desired Path: A trajectory in space determined by guidance to meet

the current mission objectives.

Desired Speed:A guidance control law parameter generated by the

longitudinal guidance modes.

Destroy: To damage so much as to make useless The aircraft was

destroyed in the accident.

Destruction: An act or instance of making completely useless by

breaking.

Deviation: A different plan or path from what was initially desired.

Device: A piece of equipment or a sub system; synonyms with

physical device, unit.

Difference Equation: A mathematical relationship to model a discrete

function, expressed in terms of other values in the sequence.
Difference equations are usually derived from differential equations.

Differential Equation: A mathematical relationship to model a

continuou sfunction, expressed in terms of derivatives. Initial
conditions are usuallygiven or implied. In avionics, differential
equations are commonly used by systems engineers to model avionics
systems. The systems engineer usually converts differential equations
37
to difference equations for specification and implementation in
software. In avionics, a differential equation usually models
continuous-time phenomenon in terms of time derivatives.

Digital Map Generator: Digital equipment that produces map video,

and sometimes contains TRN; uses Digital Terrain Elevation Data and
Digitized Feature Analysis Data; displays reconstructed digital map
data, aeronautical charts and/or photographs. The digital map data
can be annotated with natural and man-made features as well as
threats.

Direct Flight: Any flight between two places that carries a single
flight number. Unlike a non stop, a direct flight will make one or more
stops between two places. The passenger may have to change planes
or even change airlines. This is a change in meaning. In the past, direct
flights made stops but required no change of plane.

Direct User Access System: Permits pilots with a personal computer

to obtain preflight weather data and flight plans. Toll free service
available to all pilots with a current medical certificate.

Directional radar beam: A signal from a directional beacon enabling

the pilot to determine a bearing from the beacon with a
communications receiver.

Discovery: Methods and procedures by which information is made

availableto each party prior to trial. Discovery may include
depositions, interrogations, requests for production of documents,
and demands for independent medical examinations.

Discrete Time: Time divided into quantized intervals; in avionics,

time is usually divided into equal intervals to create a periodic
process.

Discrete-Time Equation: A mathematical relationship to describe a

function of time, expressed in terms of discrete time.

Disembark: To leave the aircraft after landing.

38
Disembarkation: The act of leaving the aircraft after landing.

Distance Measuring Equipment: Equipment for measuring distance,

usually from an aircraft to a ground station; usually part of a Tactical
Air Navigation System.

Docket: A summary system kept by the clerk‟s office which contains a

record of all pleadings, court orders and other important activities in a
case.

Domestic Airline: An air carrier that provides service within its own
country. Also called a domestic carrier.

Domestic passenger: An airline passenger whose ticket shows an

origin and destination within a country and whose planned routing
does not include any stops outside the country.

Doppler Navigation System: A navigation for measuring velocity by

radiating and determining frequency shift.

Doppler :A technique for measuring velocity by radiating and

determining frequency shift.

Downwind: The standard traffic pattern leg where traffic flies parallel
to the landing runway in the direction opposite that of landing.
Airplanes usually land into the wind. In this leg of the pattern, the
aircraft has the wind behind it, thus the plane is flying “downwind”.

DPLR: Doppler navigation system

Drift: Movement away from the desired course, created by wind

blowing at an angle to the intended direction of flight; To move away
from the desired course.

Drill: A short series of actions carried out in a particular sequence; A

tool, often electrically powered, for making holes in metal, wood, etc.

Drive: A series of connected devices that transmit power to the

wheels, propellers, etc.; To make something move or turn shaft driven

39
using a rotating shaft as a means of transmitting power from one part
to another, e.g. from a turbine engine to a helicopter rotor; To control

Drone: An aircraft whose flight is controlled from the ground.

Drop: A small amount of liquid that falls a drop of water a few drops
of rain; A sudden lowering; To become lower or to decrease suddenly.

DUATS: Direct User Access System.

40
 E
Earth Coordinates: Coordinates referenced to the earth.

EGNOS: A European system that improves the quality of data from

existing satellite navigation systems to make the data suitable for use
by aircraft. Full form European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
Service (The US equivalent is WAAS).

Ego: The second variables of determining the interaction with co

workers. It related to a person‟s sense of individuality or self-esteem.
In moderate doses, it has a positive effect on motivation and
performance. A strong ego is usually associated with a domineering
personality. For pilots in command, this trait may produce good
leadership qualities in emergency situations, but itmay also result in
poor crew or resource management. The domineering personality
may discourage advice from others or may disregard established
procedures, previous training, or good airmanship.

EICAS: A cockpit display for monitoring the engines and warning of

malfunction.

Eject: To throw out forcefully.

Elevation: An angle in the vertical plane through a longitudinal axis;

height above mean sea level, usually references terrain.

Elevator: A control surface on fixed-wing aircraft, usually mounted on

the aft edge of stabilizers, which controls pitch, and is controlled by
the yoke.

Elevator: An aircraft control surface hinged to the rear of the left and
right horizontal stabilizer of the aircraft tail. Changes the aircraft pitch
attitude nose-up or nose-down, as during climb or descent. Controlled
by pushing or pulling on control yoke or stick.

Embarkation: The act of going onto an aircraft (Boarding is usually

preferred). Embarkation time is the time at which passengers will be
asked to go onto the aircraft.
41
Emergency descent: A planned rapid losing of altitude because of a
serious situation.

Emergency equipment: Devices for use only in serious situations.

Emergency exit: A way out only to be used in case of an emergency.

Emergency frequency: The frequency on which aeronautical

emergency radio calls are made.

Emergency landing: A landing made as a result of an in flight

emergency.

Emergency procedures: A set of actions pre-planned and followed in

the event of a serious situation.

Emergency services: Services which are provided from the airport to

take immediate action to deal or to handle an emergency, e.g. the fire,
ambulance and police services.

Emergency: A serious situation that happens unexpectedly and

demands immediate action to deal with or to handle an emergency.

Emotional Distress: Mental anguish.

Endurance: The length of time an aircraft can stay in the air without
refuelling.

Energy: The ability of a physical system to do work; Power from

electricity, petrol, heat, etc.

Environmental factors: The fifth categories which becomes one of the

variables that affect human performance, include noise, temperature,
humidity, partial pressure of oxygen, vibration, and
motion/acceleration.

Environmental Protection Agency, the: Established in the executive

branch of government as an independent pursuant to President
Nixon‟s Reorganization Plan No. 3 of July, 1970. Created to enable
coordinated and effective government action on behalf of the

42
environment and it strives to abate and control pollution
systematically by integrating a variety of research, monitoring,
standard-setting, and enforcement activities.

EPA: The Environmental Protection Agency.

Equipment Status: Operational status of a piece of equipment

consisting of a status indicator and status words.

Equitable Remedies: Remedies that do not include monetary

settlements. Examples include injunctions and restraining orders.

Error: Difference between desired and measured data.

Estimated Take-off: The time when an aircraft is expected to take off.

Estimated Time of Arrival: The time when an aircraft is expected to

arrive.

Estimated Time of Departure: The time when an aircraft is expected

to take off.

Estimated: Data that is the result of filtering two or more signals.

Estimation: An approximate calculation an estimation of ground

speed; An opinion in my estimation in one‟s opinion.

ETA: Estimated Time of Arrival.

ETD: Estimated Time of Departure.

ETOT: Estimated Take-off.

Evacuate: To remove all the people from somewhere in the event of

an emergency to evacuate all passengers from the airport; To empty
somewhere of all people in it because of an emergency to evacuate the
aircraft; To create a vacuum.

Evacuation: The act of removing all people from somewhere in the

event of an emergency; An act of emptying somewhere of all people
in it because of an emergency; A way out.
43
Evidence: The body of law concerning the manner of presentation of
information to a judge or jury in a trial.

Excess Baggage: Luggage that exceeds the allowed limits for weight,
size, or number of pieces. Carriers usually charge extra for excess
baggage, and insome cases, may have to ship it later rather than with
the passenger.

Excursion Fare: A special-price fare that comes with restrictions, such

asadvance purchase requirements and a minimum stay. Excursion
Fares are usually a round-trip fares.

Exhibit: Any piece of physical evidence used at a trial.

Exit point: A position on the ground above which an aircraft leaving a

control zone crosses the boundary.

Expanding Square Search: A pattern of progressively larger squares

(referred to as a “square spiral”) followed for searching the ground
from an aircraft.

Expert: A witness who may give an opinion in court based on the

particular competence of that witness.

Extreme: Most distant in any direction, the outermost or farthest the

most extreme point on the map; To the greatest or highest degree.

44
 F
FAA: The Federal Aviation Administration.

False arrest: Is a false imprisonment carried out by a serious

erroneous assertion of legal authority to detain the other person.

False imprisonment: Consists of intentionally confining, restraining,

or detaining another person against her/his will.

Fatal injury: Any injury that results in death within 30 days of the
accident.

FDR: Flight Data Recorder. Also called black box, although it is not
black.

Federal Aviation Administration, the: A U.S. government agency

with primary responsibility for the safety of civil aviation. Established
by the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 and was originally known as the
the Federal Aviation Agency.

Feeder Airline: An air carrier that services a local market and “feeds”
traffic to the national and international carriers.

Fight simulator: A device or computer program which allows a user

to pilot an aircraft, showing a realistic control panel and moving
scenes, used as training programme.

Filter: A device used to alter a signal.

Final Judgment: The written ruling on a lawsuit by the judge who

presided at trial. This completes the case unless it is appealed to a
higher court. Alsocalled a final decree or final decision.

Fire Resistant: (1) With respect to sheet or structural members means

the capacity to with stand the heat associated with fire at least as well
as aluminum alloy in dimensions appropriate for the purpose for
which they are used; and(2) With respect to fluid-carrying lines, fluid
system parts, wiring, air ducts, fittings, and power plant controls,

45
means the capacity to perform the intended functions under the heat
and other conditions likely to occur whenthere is a fire at the place
concerned.

Fireproof: (1) With respect to materials and parts used to confine fire
in a designated fire zone, means the capacity to with stand at least as
well as steel in dimensions appropriate for the purpose for which they
are used, the heat produced when there is a severe fire of extended
duration in that zone; and (2) With respect to other materials and
parts, means the capacity to with stand the heat associated with fire at
least as well as steel in dimensions appropriate for the purpose for
which they are used.

Five-M (5-M) Model, the: The man, machine, medium, mission, and
management factors represent another valuable model for examining
the nature of accidents. That is, when one seeks causal factors or
preventive or remedial action, the diagram of the intertwined circles
becomes a meaningful checklist for fact-finding and analysis to ensure
that all factors are considered. The five factors are closely interrelated,
although management plays the overall predominent role. Mission is
located as the central target or objective to emphasize that effective
mission accomplishment is implicit in professional system (aviation)
safety work.

Flight bag: A bag used by flight crew to carry manuals, documents,

headset, etc.

Flight Control System: A primary or automatic flight control system.

Flight Controls: Controls placed in a cockpit, which are used

specifically forflying an aircraft. The primary flight controls are the
wheel, yoke, cyclic,pedals, throttle, and collective. Secondary flight
controls are flight controls that are not primary and include the flaps,
slats, stabilizer, and landing gear.

Flight crew: Airline staff responsible for flying the aircraft.

46
Flight Data Recorder: An electronic device located in the tail section
of an aircraft that picks up and stores data about a flight.

Flight deck instruments: Flight deck instruments plural noun

instruments used by the flight crew when flying an aircraft.

Flight deck: A place where the flight crew of an airliner sit while
flying the aircraft.

Flight Director: A system, usually in the form of software, which

generates stick position cues from state errors. There are typically
three cues: thepitch, roll, and throttle for fixed-wing and longitudinal
cyclic, lateral cyclic, and collective for rotary wing.

Flight engineer: The member of the crew of a plane who is

responsible for checking that its systems, including the engines,
perform properly.

Flight Manual: Same as Pilot‟s Operating Handbook.

Flight operations: The use of aircraft.

Flight path: A line, course or track along which an aircraft flies.

Flight Plan: A predetermined route, possibly including guidance

modes, communications, and mission objectives, used by guidance
and mission management for planning. Included in a flight plan may
be navigation reference points, waypoints, and mode commands for
navigation, radio navigation, guidance, and flight direction.

Flight plan: A written statement that gives details of the flight that a
pilot intends to make.

Flight progress strip: A thin cardboard strip with information on it

about a flight, which is updated by air traffic controllers as the flight
progresses.

Flight Safety Foundation: Founded in 1947 by then leaders of the

aviation industry, who recognized the need for an independent body
that would promote safety in aviation, anticipate flight safety
47
problems, act as a clearing house on safety matters, and disseminate
aviation safety information. FSF, with more than 1.200 member
organizations in more than 150 countries, provides an information
collection and feedback function that many less developed aviation
industries rely on for aviation safety information.

Flight Time: (1) Pilot time that commences when an aircraft moves
under its own power for the purpose of flight and ends when the
aircraft comes to rest after landing; or (2) For a glider without self-
launch capability, pilot time that commences when the glider is towed
for the purpose of flight and ends when the glider comes to rest after
landing.

Flight-briefing room: A room where instructors talk to trainees

immediately before a training flight or where a pilot talks to his or her
crew immediately before boarding the aircraft.

Flight-test: To test the performance of an aircraft or component in

flight.

Fly Over: A position that a pilot takes when he is flying directly over a
known point.

Fly: To move through the air or to cause an aircraft to move through

the air in a controlled manner.To fly in formation to fly as a group
which maintains a particular pattern or arrangement in the air.

Fly-by-wire: Technology which interprets movements of the pilot‟s

controls and, with the aid of computerised electronics, moves the
control surfaces accordingly. The more reliable and quick fly-by-wire
system allows a much greater degree of flexibility with aircraft
stability. Fighters like the General Dynamics F16 and large transport
aircraft such as the Boeing 777 and Airbus A320 have fly-by-wire
systems.

Foot: A unit of length in the US and British Imperial Systems equal to

12 inches or 30.48 centimetres. Symbol ft. The plural form is feet; foot
is usually written ft or „after figures: 10 ft or 10‟.
48
Foot-pound: The ability to lift a one pound weight a distance of one
foot.

Forecast: A statement of what is likely to happen in the future or

describing expected events or conditions weather forecast; To estimate
or calculate weather conditions by studying meteorological
information.

Foreign Air Commerce: The carriage by aircraft of persons or

property for compensation or hire, or the carriage of mail by aircraft,
or the operation or navigation of aircraft in the conduct or furtherance
of a business or vocation, in commerce between a place in the United
States and any place outside there of; whether such commerce moves
wholly by aircraft or partly by aircraft and partly by other forms of
transportation.

Forward-Looking Infrared: Sensor equipment used to supplement

AGR, extend the aircraft visual search capability and provide position
information for guidance and navigation update capability. Imagery
derived from the FLIR sensor is displayed in the cockpit. FLIR
pointing can be controlled manually using a tracking handle or
automatically by the Mission Computer. FLIR converts a heat image
into a video image and determines azimuth, elevation, and sometimes
range of a point.

Freedom of Air: A Chicago Conference 1944, The United States tought

basically a free global market for the airlines, proposing that the
nations of the world agree to recognize (explained for an airline of
nation A): I. First Freedom: overflight without landing; II. Second
Freedom: to land for non traffic purpose such as refueling or
maintenance, but not to load or unload passengers or cargo; IIII. Third
Freedom: to carry passengers and cargo from nation “A” to nation
“B”; IV. Fourth Freedom: to carry passengers and cargo from nation
“A” to nation “B”; and V. Fifth Freedom: to carry passengers and
cargo beyond nation “B” to another nation and return.

FSF: Flight Safety Foundation.

49
ft-lb: Foot-pound.

Fuel: A substance such as gas, oil, petrol, etc., which is burnt to

produce heat or power. A fuel system includes tanks, fuel lines, fuel
pumps, fuel filters and a carburattor or fuel injection system.

50
 G
G/S, GS: Ground Speed.

gal: Gallon.

Gallon: Imperial gallon unit of volume in the British Imperial System,

used in liquid measure and sometimes in dry measure, equal to 4.546
litres; A unit of volume in the US Customary System, used in liquid
measure, equal to 3.785 litres.

Garnishment: A proceeding whereby a debtor‟s money, or other

property,which is under the control of another is given to a third
person to whom the debtor owes a debt.

Gateway City: 1. A city that serves as a departure or arrival for

international flights. 2. A city that serves as an airline‟s entry or
departure point to or from a country.

GEM: Ground-Effect Machine.

General Aviation: That portion of civil aviation which encompasses

all facets of aviation except air carriers holding a certificate of public
convenience and necessity from the Civil Aeronautics Board and large
aircraft commercial operators.

Global Positioning System: A navigation sensor based on satellites.

A Global Positioning System provides highly accurate navigation data
such as position, velocity, and time reference. GPS is often aided by
other systems like the weather alerts provided by Doppler data. GPS
is accurate with four or more properly oriented satellites. Accuracy is
degraded with improperly placed satellites or fewer than four
satellites visible. GPS-INS is the most accurate of modes listed, with
day/night and all weather capability.

GPS: Global Positioning System.

GPWS: Ground Proximity Warning System.

51
Gravitational Acceleration: Acceleration caused by the force of
gravity.

Gravity: A natural force of attraction which pulls bodies towards each

other and which pulls objects on Earth towards its centre; Seriousness.
Gravity sometimes includes the effects of the earth‟s rotation; gravity
is often treated as a constant, but for greateraccuracy gravity is a
function of latitude, altitude, and actually the phase of the moon.

Gross Negligence: Failure to use even the slightest amount of care in

a way that shows recklessness or willfull disregard for the safety of
others.

Ground crew: A team of employees who service and maintain the

aircraft while it is on the ground.

Ground elevation: The vertical distance, in feet, of the ground above

sea level.

Ground instructor: A trained person who teaches support subjects

such as meteorology in a classroom.

Ground loop: A sharp unplanned turn made by an air- craft that is

taxiing, taking off, or landing, caused by unbalanced drag.

Ground movement: A manoeuvre such as taxiing carried out by an

aircraft while on the ground, or any movement on an airfield by
people or surface vehicles

Ground position: The point on the surface of the Earth immediately

beneath the aircraft.

Ground Proximity Warning System: A system in aircraft which

warns pilot, by means of an audible signal, that the aircraft is below a
preset height.

Ground signal: A visual signal displayed on an air field to give

information about local traffic rules to aircraft in the air.

52
Ground Speed: The speed of the aircraft in relation to the ground
over which it is flying.

Ground temperature: The temperature recorded by a thermometer

placed at ground level.

Ground visibility: Horizontal visibility near the surface of the earth.

Ground Visibility: Prevailing horizontal visibility near the earth‟s

surface asreported by the United States National Weather Service or
an accredited observer.

Ground: The solid surface of the earth; To prohibit an aircraft or

member of an aircrew from flying; to connect an electrical circuit to a
position of zero potential.

Groundling: A member of the ground crew at an airport or air force

base.

Ground-running operation: A procedure of running the engine while

the aircraft is stationary on the ground to check engine performance

Groundspeed Select: A basic guidance mode, providing longitudinal

guidance to an operator selected groundspeed.

Guidance Control Law Parameter: One of several parameters for the

guidance control laws, generated by individual guidance modes.

53
 H
Hardware factors: The fifth categories which becomes one of the
variables that affect human performance, include the design of
equipment, displays, controls, software, and the interface with
humans in the system.

Hazard: A condition, object or activity with the potential (emphasis

added) of causing injuries to personnel, damage to equipment or
structures, loss of material, or deduction of ability to perform a
prescribed function.

Heading Error: A basic output from guidance to a flight director,

indicating the difference between actual heading and desired heading.

Heading Select: A basic guidance mode, providing lateral guidance to

an operator selected heading.

Hearing: A proceeding usually without a jury.

Heavy landing: A routine landing in which the aircraft makes contact

with the surface with more force than usual, thereby possibly causing
damage to the under carriage.

Heavy-duty: Referring to something designed forhard wear or use a

heavy-duty battery.

Helideck: A deck on something such as a ship or offshore oil platform

that is used as a landing area for helicopters.

Heliograph: An instrument with a mirror to send messages by

reflecting the sun.

Helipad: An area where helicopters take off and land.

Heliport: An airport designed for helicopters.

Helistop: A place where helicopters can take off and land, but usually
one that does not have the support facilities found at a heliport.

54
Helo: A rotary-winged aircraft; same as heliport.

High performance aircraft: An aircraft capable of flying faster, higher

or with more manoeuvre ability than normal aircraft.

High Season: The season of the year when travel to an area peaks and
rates are at their highest.

High-performance: A system which provides better than usual

output an engine with a high performance.

Hijack: To take over control of an aircraft by one or several

unauthorized person or persons with the intention of forcing the crew
to fly it to a different destination.

Hijacker: A person who hijacks an aircraft or other vehicle.

Hijacking: The act of taking over control of an aircraft by one or

several unauthorized person or persons with the intention of forcing
the crew to fly it to a different destination.

Holding fuel: Extra fuel carried by an aircraft to allow for time spent
in the hold waiting for air traffic control clearance.

Holding pattern: A race track-shaped flight pattern with two parallel

sides and two turns, flown usually while an aircraft is waiting for
clearance to land.

Home: The home airfield home airfield the airfield which one returns
to after a two-leg flight.

Homeward: Going towards home; bound heading towards home.

Homing: A flight towards or away from a radio station while using

direction finding equipment.

Hover Hold: A basic guidance mode, providing lateral guidance and

longitudinal guidance to maintain an operator selected north velocity
and east velocity; if the selected velocities are zero, then a position is
held.

55
Human factors: is a multidisciplinary science that attempts to
optimize the interaction between people, machines, methods, and
procedures that interface with one another within an environment in a
defined system to achieve a set of systems goals. Human factors
encompass fields of study that include, but are not limited to,
engineering, psychology, physiology, anthropometry, biomechanics,
biology, and certain fields of medicine. It also concentrates on
studying the capabilities and limitations of the human in a system
with the intent of using this knowledge to design systems that reduce
mismatch between what is required of the human and what the
human is capable of doing.

Human performance: Variables that affect human performance can be

grouped into seven categories, i.e., physical factors, physiological
factors, psychosocial factors, hardware factors, task factors, and
environmental factors.

Humid: Containing a lot of water vapour humid weather weather

which, although warm, feels damp and uncomfortable.

Humidity: A measurement of how much water vapour is contained in

the air the humidity is high there is a lot of moisture or water vapour
in the air.

Hysteresis: A function in which the algorithm for computing output

change sat defined events or thresholds, such that output follows one
path as input increases and another path as input decreases.

56
 I
IATA: International Air Transport Association.

ICAO: The International Civil Aviation Organization.

Idle: The state of an engine when it is running but not delivering

power to move the vehicle or aircraft; To turn over slowly without
providing enough power to move the vehicle or aircraft.

IFR: Instrument Flight Rules.

ILS: Instrument Landing System.

Impaneling: Selecting a jury from the list of potential jurors.

Impeach: Attacking the credibility of a witness.

Inboard: Closer to the centre of an aircraft rather than the sides or

edges.

Incident: An occurance other than an accident associated with the

operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of
operations.

Inertial Navigation System: A navigation system which calculates

aircraft position by comparing measurements of acceleration with
stored data, using gyros rather than radios. It consists of gyroscopes
and accelerometers to provide attitude, heading, position, attitude,
body/inertial velocity, and acceleration information.

Infrared: Referring to the range of invisible radiation wave lengths

from about 750 nanometres to 1 millimetre.

Initialization: A basic control to a data source from controls and

displays for initializing a device. Initiated by power-on, operator,
driver, or MC; during initialization, the device is usually not available;
Also, a procedure to reset physical devices to a known state.

57
Injunction: A court order requiring a person to do, or to refrain from
doing, a particular thing.

Injury: A non fatal accident with at least one serious injury without
substantial damage to a Part 121 aircraft.

Inspect: To look at something closely and to check for problems or

defects. Propellers should be inspected prior to flight.

Inspection: A careful check for problems.

Instability: A condition in which a body or mass moves easily, and

with increasing speed, away from its original position.

Instrument Flight Rules: Rules of the road for flights permitted to

penetrate clouds and low visibility conditions by reference to cockpit.
flight instruments and radio navigation. Aircraft must be equipped
and pilots qualified and current for IFR flight. Flight plans and ATC
clearances are required. Flights are monitored and traffic separated by
Air Traffic Control, usually by radar.

Instrument Landing System: A precision instrument approach

system utilizing radio transmitters at the runway ends which provide
precise descent and course guidance to the runway permitting aircraft
to land during periods of low ceilings or poor visibility.

Instrument: A device for recording, measuring or controlling,

especially functioning as part of a control system

Instrumentation: Hardware to measure and to monitor a system.

Integrate: To combine multiple systems.

Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress: Intentionally causing

severe emotional distress by extreme or outrageous conduct.

Inter-crew communications: Communications between members of

the crew.

58
Interference: The prevention of reception of a clear radio signal. Some
equipment, such as generators and ignition systems, will cause
unwanted radio frequency interference.

Interline Agreements: Contractual or formal agreements between

airlines governing such matters as ticketing, baggage transfers, and so
forth.

International Air Transport Association: A trade association which

originally formed by international airlines to address international
civil aviation‟s routes, fares, frequency, and capacity. Today, IATA‟s
most important function is its clearing house in London, which
rapidly settles accounts amounting to over $30 billion annually for
interline transactions among member airlines and with their
associated travel agents.

International Civil Aviation Organization, the: A United Nations

specialized agency, which serves as the global forum for international
civil aviation. Established by the Chicago Conference in December
1944, and was originally known as the Provisional International Civil
Aviation Organization (PICAO).

International passenger: If his/her ticket shows either (1) an origin in

one country and a destination in another country, or (2) an origin and
destination in one country but a planned intermediate stop in a
different country.

International: A standard model for computing earth data.

Interpolate: Function to determine intermediate values from two or

more values in a table; usually linear but can be a higher order;
endpoints are either extra polated or limited.

Interrogation: A request of data.

Interrogatories: A written set of questions sent from one party to the

other during the discovery process.

Investigate: To examine or look into something in great detail.

59
Investigation: A detailed inquiry or close examination of a matter
accident investigation process of discovering the cause of accidents.

Investigator: A person who investigates accident investigators found

poor coordination between controllers.

Invisible: Impossible to see.

Inwards: Towards the inside or the interior. Opposite outwards.

Ion: An atom or a group of atoms that has obtained an electric charge

by gaining or losing one or more electrons. Ultraviolet light from the
sun can cause electrons to become separated from their parent atoms
of the gases in the atmosphere, the atoms left with resultant positive
charges being known as ions.

Ionisation: The process of producing ions by heat or radiation. The

intensity of ionisation depends on the strength of the ultraviolet
radiation and the density of the air.

Ionosphere: The part of the atmosphere 50 km above the surface of

the earth.

Ionospheric attenuation: Loss of signal strength to the ionosphere.

Ionospheric: Referring to the ionosphere.

60
 J
Jet fighter: A fighter plane that is powered by a jet engine or engines.

Jet lag: The temporary disturbance of body rhythms such as sleep and
eating habits, caused by high speed travel across several time zones.

Jet plane: An aircraft powered by jet engines.

Jet: A strong fast stream of fluid forced out of an opening a jet of

water from a pipe; A type of engine used to power modern aircraft
which takes in air at the front, mixes it with fuel, burns the mixture
and the resulting expansion of gases provides thrust. The turbo jet
engine was invented by Frank Whittle in 1941; A type of aircraft
which has jet engines .

Jetliner: A large passenger aircraft powered by jet engines.

Joule: An International System unit of electrical, mechanical, and

thermal energy. Ignition units are measured in joules (1 joule=1 watt
per second). It is usually written J with figures.

Judgment Noth with standing The Verdict: An order by the trial

judge entering a judgment in a manner contradictory to the jury‟s
verdict. This isgranted only when the verdict is unreasonable and
unsupportable.

Judgment: A court‟s decision.

Jumbo jet: A large wide-bodied aircraft capable of carrying several

hundred passengers.

Jumbo: Same as jumbo jet (informal).

Jump jet: A jet aircraft with fixed wings that can take off and lands
vertically.

Jurisdiction: The power of a court to act in particular case.

Jury: The panel of people who decide the facts in a lawsuit.

61
 K
kHz: Kilohertz.

Kick-back: The tendency of the engine to suddenly reverse the

rotation of the propeller momentarily when being started. On most
modern engines the spark is retarded to top-dead-centre, to ensure
easier starting and prevent kick-back.

Kilo: Same as kilogram.

Kilogram: A measure of weight equal to one thousand grams. It is

written kg after figures.

Kilohertz: A unit of frequency measurement equal to one thousand

Hertz.

Kilometre: A measure of length equal to one thousand metres. It is

written km with figures. The US spelling is kilometer.

Kilowatt: A unit of measurement of electricity equal to 1000 watts.

Kilowatt-hour: A unit of 1000 watts of electricity used for one hour.

Kit: A set of items used for a specific purpose.

Knob: A rounded handle door knob; A rounded control switch or

dial.

Knot: (nautical mile per hour) Most common measure of aircraft

speed. 100 knots equals 115 statute miles per hour. (For mph, multiply
knots by 1.15).

kW: Kilowatt.

kW-hr: Kilowatt-hour.

62
 L
LAAS: Local Area Augmentation System.

Landing beacon: A radio transmitter at an airfield that sends a beam

to guide aircraft that are landing.

Landing beam: A radio beam from a beacon at a landing field that

helps incoming aircraft to make a landing.

Landing charges: Money paid to an airport authority by an operator

or private pilot for landing an aircraft.

Landing field:A place where aircraft can land and take off.

Landing gear: Same as under carriage.

Landing pad: Same as helipad.

Landing run: The distance on the runway from the touchdown point
to the stopping point or taxiing speed.

Landing speed: The lowest speed at which an aircraft must be flying

in order to land safely.

Landing strip: A specially prepared area of land for an aircraft to land

on.

Landing weight: The weight of an aircraft when it lands, which is

made up of its empty weight, the weight of its payload, and the
weight of its remaining fuel.

Landmark: Something on the ground which enables the pilot to know

where he/she is, e.g. a notice able building, bridge, coastal feature,
etc. Railway lines are usually useful landmarks.

Landside: The part of an airport farthest from the aircraft.

Lane: Same as air lane.

Latitude: Position on earth, north or south of the equator.

63
lb: Pound.

LDW: Loss Damage Wavier.

Leg basic: Referring to the most important but often simplest part of
something, from which everything else is derived. This chapter
provides a basic understanding from which the study of meteorology
can develop.

Leg: A single segment of an itinerary.

Light aircraft: A small, single engine aircraft generally for private not
commercial use.

Line of Sight: A clear path between sending and receiving antennas.

Line Operations Safety Audit: FAA Advisory Circular 120-90, is a

voluntary formal process that uses highly trained observers to collect
safety-related date on regularly scheduled airline flights. The observer
is often a trusted airline captain who rides the jump seat in the cockpit
to obtain data about flight crew behavior and crew strategy for
managing threats and errors under conditions of operational
complexity.

Line up: To move aircraft into position ready for departure.

Liverware to Software: The SHELL Model that detects the

relationship between the human and supporting systems found in the
work place. Not just computer programs, these include user-friendly
issues in regulations, manuals, and checklists.

Liveware to Environment: The SHELL Model that detects the

relationship between the human and the internal and external
environments. Sleep paterns and fatigue are examples of important
consideration here.

Liveware to Hardware: The SHELL Model that detects the

relationship between man and machine. Although humans adapt well

64
to poor interfaces, they can easily cause safety hazards if not well
designed.

Liveware to Liveware: The SHELL Model that detects the relationship

between the human and other people in the workplace.
Communication styles and techniques are important here. Crew
Resource Management (CRM) training has made great strides in this
area.

LMT: Local Mean Time.

Load factor: The stress applied to a structure as a multiple of stress

applied in 1g flight. In straight and level, unaccelerated flight, the load
factor is: 1. When an aircraft turns or pulls up out of a dive, the load
factor increases. An aircraft in a level turn at a bank angle of 60
degrees has a load factor of; 2. In such a turn, the aircraft‟s structure
must support twice the aircraft‟s weight.

Loading bridge: A covered walkway from an airport departure gate

that connects to the door of an aircraft, used by passengers and crew
getting on and off the aircraft.

Loading: The act or process of adding a load to an aircraft loading is

in progress passengers, baggage, freight, etc., are being put on the
aircraft; The total aircraft weight or mass divided by wing area.

Local Area Augmentation System: An enhancement of the Global

Positioning System (GPS) providing greater navigation accuracy and
system integrity.

Local Mean Time: The time according to the mean sun.

Local time: The time in the country you are talking about.

Locate: To find the position of survival beacons transmit a signal

which enables search aircraft/vessels to rapidly locate accident
survivors still in the sea; To position the digital flight data recorder is
located in the tail section.

65
Location: A place where something can be found; Finding where
something is rapid location of survivors is important.

Lock: A device operated by a key for securing a door; to secure a door

by turning a key in the lock; To be in or to move into a secure position;
To block or prevent moving; To lock on to search for, find and follow
a target with a thin radar beam.

Longitude: Position on earth, east or west of the prime meridian.

Longitudinal Guidance: Calculations for the longitudinal axis of the

guidance modes. The control law longitudinal axis input data are:
Reference Acceleration, Reference Acceleration Gain, Desired
Velocity, Velocity Error Scale Factor. The major output from
Longitudinal Guidance is the speed error for the selected longitudinal
guidance mode.

Loop: A flight manoeuvre in which the aircraft rotates, nose up,

through 360° while holding its lateral position.

LOS: Line of Sight.

LOSA: Line Operations Safety Audit.

Loss Damage Wavier: Daily insurance that covers theft and

vandalism of a rented car in addition to damage caused by accident.

Loss of Consortium: Damages awarded to a family member (usually

a spouse) for loss of companionship.

Low Frequency Automatic Direction Finding: Equipment that

determines bearing to a radio station on a low frequency band,
usually the standard AM band for your website.

Luggage: Baggage, i.e. cases and bags that somebody takes when
travelling.

66
 M
Mach: The ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound in the
same atmospheric conditions. Mach 2 equals twice the speed of
sound. Named after E. Mach, the Austrian physicist who died in 1916.

Magnetic: Referring to or having the power of a magnet or something

with a magneticfield. A freely suspended magnet – not influenced by
outside forces – will align itself with the Earth‟s magnetic lines of
force which run from the north magnetic pole to the south magnetic
pole.

Magnitude: Greatness in size or extent. When the surface wind speed

reaches a particular magnitude the term gale is used.

Maintenance crew: Ground staff whose responsibility it is to keep the

aircraft service able.

Major accident: An accident in which a Part 121 aircraft was

destroyed, or there were multiple fatalities, or there was one fatality
and a Part 121 aircraft was substantially damaged.

Major Repair: A repair (1) hat, if improperly done, might appreciably

affect weight, balance, structural strength, performance, power plant
operation, flight characteristics, or other qualities affecting air
worthiness; or (2) that is not done according to accepted practices or
cannot be done by elementary operations.

Mark: A visible trace on a surface, e.g. a dot or a line; The number of

points or a percentage given for academic work; to make a visible line,
dot, etc., on a surface; To show or indicate; To correct or check
academic work done by a student.

Marker Beacon: Part of Instrument Landing System that signals crew

members of distance to runway, consisting of three markers: inner,
middle, and outer.

Marshal: To direct aircraft into their parking positions on the apron

by means of hand signals.
67
mb: Milibar.

Mean Sea Level: The average level of the sea taking tidal variations
into account.

Mean sun: The position of an imaginary sun in a solar day of exactly

24 hours.

Mental Anguish: Mental suffering. In some cases, damages maybe

awarded for mental anguish even though no physical injury is
present.

Milk run: A routine trip, especially an airline‟s regular flight.

Millibar: A unit of atmospheric pressure equal to 1 thousandth of a

bar.

Milligramme: One thousandth of a gramme.

Millilitre: One thousandth of a litre. It is usually written ml after

figures. Also written milliliter in US English.

Minimum flying speed: The lowest true air speed at which an aircraft
can maintain height.

Minimum fuel: The amount of fuel required to reach destination and

land without delay.

Minimum: Smallest possible the minimum amount required; The

smallest or least possible quantity or amount. The plural form is
minima or minimums.

Missed approach point: The point at which a pilot must carry out a
missed approach procedure if a particular visual reference has not
been made.

Missed approach procedure: The action and flight path to be

followed after a missed approach at a particular aerodrome.

Missed approach: An approach that does not result in a landing and

is followed by a go around.
68
Mission Objectives: Goals to be accomplished during a specific
mission, including flight plan, NRPs, legs, and a plan on how to
accomplish these objectives; plan includes, usually on a leg-by-leg
basis, navigation modes, radio navigation modes, guidance modes,
flight director modes, data source control information such as
frequencies.

Montreal Convention of 1999: The modernization of the Warsaw

system hosted by ICAO that represented by 118 nations and 11
international organization in Montreal in May of 1999 for the
International Conference in Air Law. The principle changes include
compensation for personal injury, cargo liability limitations, new
documentation provisions allowing the use of electronic ticketing and
electronic air way bills, code-sharing flights, and cargo claims.

Morse: A code used for transmitting messages in which letters of the

alphabet and numbers are represented by dots and dashes or short
and long signals VOR stations transmit a 2 or 3 letter aural. Named
after S. F. B. Morse, the American electrician who died in 1872 and it is
still used for identifying some radio beacons.

Motion: An application to the court requesting an order or rule in

favor of the applicant.

Mountain Standard Time: A time zone of the west-central part of the

USA and Canada.

Mounted: Fixed to a support rear-mounted mounted at the rear of the

aircraft.

MSL: Mean Sea Level.

MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures.

MTBF: The average period of time that a piece of equipment will

operate between problems.

MTTR: Mean Time To Repair.

69
Mean Time To Repair: The average period of time required to repair
a faulty piece of equipment.

Multi-Mode Radar: A Multi-Mode Radar is used for Terrain

Following (TF) and Terrain Avoidance (TA), Ground Mapping (GM)
and Air to Ground Ranging (AGR). The TF mode supplies commands
which are processed anddisplayed as climb/dive commands on the
flight director display and E-squared video used by the operators in
anticipating near term TF commands.When in TA or GM modes, the
operator is provided with a Plan Position Indicator (PPI) display. The
AGR mode allows the operators to determine the range to a
designated target, which can be used for position updates.

Multi-mode receiver: A type of radio receiver used in navigation and

landing that can receive signals from a variety of different
transmission systems.

Multiplane: An aircraft with more than one pair of wings.

70
 N
Nautical Mile: 1.852 kilometres. One knot is equal to one nautical
mile per hour. A nautical mile is precisely defined as the length of an
arc on the Earth‟s surface subtended by an angle of one minute at the
centre of the Earth.

Nautical: Referring to the sea.

NAVAID: Navigational Aid.

Navigation aid: A device or process to help with navigation, such as a

VOR station or a position update.

Navigation Reference Point: A point, usually fixed in earth

coordinates but possibly moving; also, a basic guidance mode,
providing lateral guidance toan NRP, either by course or by direct
point.

Navigation: A system, usually software, in which the primary

purpose is to generate position relative to a coordinate frame, usually
fixed earth frame, such as latitude and longitude; The theory and
practice of planning, controlling and recording the direction of an
aircraft.

Navigational Aid: A mechanical or electronic device designed to help

a pilot navigate. Any type of navigational aid but particularly
electronic aids, for example ADF (Automatic Direction Finding) and
NDBs (non-directional beacons).

Navigational: Referring to navigation, the accuracy of modern

navigational equipment is much greater than older systems.

Negligence: Failure to exercise reasonable care to avoid injuring

others or their property. Negligence includes both actions and failure
to act.

nm: Nautical Mile.

71
Noise: Part of received data that is undesired, consisting of randoms
inusoidal terms added to a signal.

Non-Refundable: No money is returned should the trip be cancelled.

The amount of the ticket, minus a service fee, may be applied to
another trip in many cases.

Normalizer: Function to restrict input to a specific range; normalized

variables often present problems for filters and other functions at their
discontinuities.

Nuisance: An unreasonable or unlawful use of one‟s real estate that

results in injures to another or interferes with another person‟s use of
his real property.

72
 O
OAT: Operational air traffic; Outside air temperature.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration: An Act was signed

into law by President Nixon on January 29, 1970, to ensure safe and
healthful working conditions for working men and women. This was
to be accomplished by authorizing enforcement of the standards
developed under the Act, assisting and encouraging the states in their
efforts to ensure safe and healthful working conditions, and providing
for research, information, education, and training in the field of
occupational safety and health.

Ocean: The body of salt water which covers the earth (British English
prefers the word sea); Any of the major sea areas of the world the
Atlantic Ocean. The five oceans are: the Atlantic, the Pacific, the
Indian, the Arctic and the Antarctic (or Southern).

Oceanic: Referring to the oceans.

Open Skies Agreements: Are the latest fashion in treaties for

international air service. Unlike the bilateral agreements that were
typical for many decades following the Chicago conference, open
skies agreements do not limit the service to be provided by airlines of
signatory nations to specify city pairs, but give the airline of both
countries the right to operate between any point in one country and
any point in abother, as well as to and from third countries (also
called “beyond rights”). Other important features of open skies
agreements designed to encourage competition include: a. Free
Market Competition; b. Pricing Determined by Market Forces; c. Fair
and Equal Opportunity to Compete; d. Cooperative Marketing
Arrangements; e. Liberal Charter Arrangements; f. “Seventh
Freedom” Rights; g. Safety and Security; h. Dispute Settlement and
Consultation.

73
Open-skies: Referring to a policy of allowing aircraft belonging to any
country to fly over an area, without restrictions on surveillance of
military installations.

Operational Air Traffic: Flights operating in accordance with military

air traffic service procedures.

OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Overflew: Overfly.

Overflight: The flight of an aircraft over an area.

Overfly: To fly over an area (overflew – overflown).

Overheat: To get too hot e.g., an acceleration/deceleration control is

fitted to prevent the turbine assembly from overheating during
acceleration, and to prevent flame-out during deceleration.

Overlap: Part of one thing covering something else; To have an area

or range in common with something else, or to cover part of
something else (overlapping – overlapped).

Overload operations: Operation of aicraft in unusual situations when

take-off weight exceeds the permitted maximum.

Overload: An excessive amount of work or electricity; To load a

device or system, such as an electrical circuit, with too much work; To
demand more than a system is capable of; To load too heavily.

Override: To take over control of the operation of an automatic device

or system (overriding – overrode – overridden).

Overrun: A cleared level area at the end of a runway, available in case

a plane does not stop quickly enough.

Overshoot: To fly past a target, the pilot tried to land but the aircraft
overshot the runway.

Overspeed: To go too fast.

74
Overspeeding: The act of going too fast.

Oxygen: A colourless, odourless gas, which is essential to human life,

constituting 21% by volume of the Earth‟s atmosphere. At very high
altitudes the flying pilot must be on oxygen at all times, unless an
aircraft dispensation has been obtained (The atomic number of
oxygen is 8).

Ozone: A poisonous form of oxygen found naturally in the

atmosphere which is toxic to humans at concentrations above 0.1 parts
per million. Symbol O3.

75
 P
Pacific Standard Time: The time zone of the west coast area of the
USA and Canada, 8 hours behind Greenwich Mean Time.

Pancake landing: A landing in which an aircraft drops suddenly

straight to the ground from a low altitude, usually because of engine
failure.

Pancake: Same as pancake landing; Cause an aircraft to make a

pancake landing

PAR: Precision Approach Radar

Pass: A badge or document which allows one to enter a restricted or

prohibited area; A successful result in an exam; To move; To give; To
move past another thing.

Passenger aircraft: An aircraft specially designed for carrying people.

Passenger: A person who travels in an aircraft, car, train, etc., and has
no part in the operation of it.

Peer pressure: The first variables of determining the interaction with

coworkers. It can build to dangerous levels in competitive
environments with high standards such as aviation in which a
person‟s self-image is based on a high standard of performance
relative to his or her peers. Such pressure can be beneficial in someone
with the necessary competence and self-discipline, but it may be
dangerous in a person with inferior skill, knowledge, or judgment.

Personality Traits: Consists of: 1. Motivation: is a desire of an

individual to complete the task at hand. Motivation affects one‟s
ability to focus all the necessary faculties to carry out the task; 2.
Memory, allows us to benefit from experience. Is the mental faculty
that allows us to prepare and act upon plans. Memory can be
improved through the processes of association, visualization,
rehearsal, priming, meneumonics, heuristic, and chaining. Memory
management organizes remembering skills in a structured procedure
76
while considering time and criticality. It is a step by step process to
increase the accuracy and completeness of remembering; 3.
Complacency, can lead to a reduced awareness of danger. The high
degree of automation and reliability present in today‟s aircraft and the
routines involved in their operation are all factors that may cause
complacency; 4. Attention, determines what part of the world exists
for you at the moment. Conscious control of attention is needed to
balance the environment‟s pull on attention. An intra personal
accident prevention approach would describe the hazardous states of
attention as distraction, absorption, and attention mismanagement.
The inability to concentrate can lead to lack of awareness, which has
been identified as a contributing factor in many accidents and
incidents; 5. Attitude, strongly influences the functioning of attention
and memory, and they are built from thought patterns; 6. Perceptions,
can be faulty. What we perceive is not always what we see or hear.
Initial perceptions and perceptions based solely on intended actions
are especially susceptible to error; 7. Self-discipline, is an important
element of organized activities. Lack of self-discipline encourages
negligence and poor performance; 8. Risk taking, is considered by
some to be a fundamental trait of human behavior. It is present in all
of us to varying extents since an element of risk is present in most
normal daily activities; 9. Judgement and decision making, are unique
capabilities of humans. They enable us to evaluate data from a
number of sources in the light of education or past experience and to
come to a conclusion. Good judgement is vital for safe aircraft
operations. Usually good judgment and sound decision making are
the results of training, experience, and correct perceptions.

Physical factors: The first categories which becomes one of the

variables that affect human performance, include body dimension and
siza (anthropometric measurements), age, strength, aerobic capacity,
motor skills, and body senses such as visual, auditory, olfactory, and
vestibular.

Physiological factors: The second categories which becomes one of

the variables that affect human performance, include general health,
77
mental, and medical conditions such as low blood sugar, irregular
heart rates, incapacitation, illusions, and history of injury, disability,
or disease. Also included in this category are human conditions
brought on by lifestyle such as the use of drugs, alcohol, or
medication; nutrition; exercise; sports; leisure activities; hobbies;
physical stress; and fatigue.

PIC: Pilot In Command.

Pilot In Command: The pilot who has responsibility for the operation
and safety of the aircraft during flight time.

Pilot: A person who operates an aircraft in flight; To operate or guide

to pilot an aircraft. A pilot holding a private or commercial pilot‟s
license may log as pilot-in-command time only the flight time during
which he or she is the only operator of the aircraft‟s flying controls.

Pilot’s Operating Handbook: A book giving details of an aircraft with

recommendations and instructions regarding its use.

Pleading: The process of making formal, written statements by the

litigants. All papers filed with the court are collectively referred to as
“pleadings.”

PNR: Point of No Return.

POH: Pilot‟s Operating Handbook.

Point of No Return: A place on the route where the aircraft does not
have enough fuel to return to the starting place. The Point of No
Return is calculated before departure to cover the chance that both the
terminal airfield and its alternate become unavailable during flight.

Position Update: To cause navigation sensors, devices, or algorithms

to reset position to value known to be more accurate due to
inaccuracies and drift in the devices and algorithms.

78
Position: Location, usually in fixed earth coordinates such latitude
and longitude; location, either scalar or vector, often with subscripts
such as ENUor XYZ to denote source or coordinate frame.

Pound: A unit of weight equal to 16 ounces or 453.592 grams.

Precedent: The value that a completed case has on deciding future

cases.

Precision Approach Radar: A ground based primary radar system to

give vertical and lateral information about an aircraft‟s final approach
path.

Precision area navigation: A standard of performance for navigation

that requires an aircraft to remain within 1 nautical mile of the centre
line of its course for 95% of the time.

Precision: Measure of exactness, possibly expressed in number of

digits, for example, computed to the nearest millimeter.

Prefix: Part of a word added at the beginning of a word to alter the

meaning Pre- is a prefix meaning „before‟ (the plural form is pre-
fixes). The prefixes for cloud types are: alto-medium level cloud (6,500
feet to 23,000 feet); cirro-high cloud (16,500 feet and above); nimbo-
any height, but rain-bearing as for example nimbo stratus: rain
carrying, low-level cloud; strato- low cloud (up to 6,500 feet).

Pre-flight: Taking place before a flight. Pre-flight briefing is a short

instructional talk before a flight. Pre-flight checks is checks made on
the aircraft structure and systems before taking off. During pre-flight
checks: The set of procedures and checks that pilots and ground crew
must carry out before an aircraft takes off; To inspect an aircraft before
it takes off to ensure that it is airworthy.

Preventive Maintenance: Simple or minor preservation operations

and there placement of small standard parts not involving complex
assembly operations.

79
Primary Flight Control System: The most basic part of the flight
controls operated by a pilot, including wheel (fixed wing), yoke (fixed
wing), cyclic (rotary wing), pedals (fixed wing and rotary wing),
throttle (fixed wing), and collective (rotary wing).

Priority: The order of importance or urgency, high priority: important

or urgent in the circumstances, low priority: not important or not
urgent in the circumstances.

Private Pilot: The Private pilot certificate allows flying passengers for
personal transportation and business. Requires the pilot to be at least
17 years old, have a minimum of 40 hours of flight experience and
training (35 hours under Part 141), and pass at least a Third Class
Medical exam, a written exam and flight test. May not “fly for hire or
compensation” but may share expenses equally with passengers.

PRNAV: Precision area navigation.

Pro Se: On one‟s own behalf; not using an attorney.

Procedural approach: A specific approach made often after procedure

turns as part of timed, accurately flown flight pattern to prepare for a
landing at a particular aerodrome.

Process Serving: The method by which a defendant in a lawsuit is

notified that a plaintiff has filed a suit against him.

Product Liability: A type of strict liability in which the manufacturer

or seller is strictly liable for injuries caused by defective products.

Prohibited Area: An airspace area where flight is prohibited except by

prior arrangement with the controlling agency. An example is the P-
56 area over downtown Washington, D.C., prohibiting flight over the
White House.

Propeller blade: One of the elements of a propeller which generate lift

when the unit is turning.

80
Propeller: A rotating shaft with blades which, together with the
engine, moves an aircraft through the air.

Psychological factors: The third categories which becomes one of the

variables that affect human performance, include mental and
emotional states, mental capacity to process information, and
personality types (introverts and extroverts).

Psychosocial factors: The fourth categories which becomes one of the

variables that affect human performance, include mental and
emotional states due to death in the family or personal finances, mood
swings, and stress due to relations with family, friends, coworkers,
and the work environment. Some of the factors that cause stress are
inadequate rest, too much cognitive activity, noise, vibration and glare
in the cockpit, anxiety over weather and traffic conditions, anger,
frustation, and other emotions. Stress causes fatigue and degrades
performance and decision making, and the overall effect of multiple
stresses is cumulative. Interactions with coworkers are influenced by
two important variables, namely, peer pressure and ego.

PTT: Press To Test/Talk.

Punitive Damages: Damages given for the purpose of punishing the

defendant.

Purple airway: An area of temporarily controlled airspace, established

to provide special protection to Royal flights in fixed wing aircraft, in
which additional rules for air traffic apply at all times and in all
weathers.

Push-back: The process of pushing a plane out from its parked

position using a special vehicle.

81
 Q
Q-code: An international telegraph code which is now used in RTF
operations.

QFI: Qualified Flying Instructor.

Quadrant: A device shaped like a quarter of a circle gated quadrant a

quadrant with a device preventing a lever from being moved to an
incorrect setting; Compass quadrant the quarter part of a circle
centred on a navigational aid. Note: NE quadrant=000° – 089°; SE
quadrant=090° – 179°; SW quadrant=180° – 269°; NW quadrant=270° –
359°.

Qualified Flying Instructor: A pilot with an instructor‟s rating.

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 R
R/W: Runway.

Radar: A method of detecting distant objects and establishing their

position, velocity, or other characteristics by analysis of very high
frequency radio waves reflected from their surfaces.

Radial Error Probability: A probability that a percentage of one-

dimension measurements will lie on a radial (line) of given length,
with the origin centered at truth or mean of the measurements; used
to specify test cases for measurement errors of sensors of one
dimension, such as vertical velocity.

Radio Navigation: Navigation relative to radio station, providing, for

example, of relative bearing, range, lateral deviation, and glide slope.
Examples include VOR, TACAN, and PLS. Radio navigation differs
from other navigation in that the transmitter signals often drop out for
a long period of time, like minutes. This can occur because of natural
obstructions, or because the transmitter was shut down intentionally.
In hostile territory, a PLS can locate a downed pilot, who would be
fool hardy to be continuously transmitting, but would transmit in
frequently with small bursts of data. The Radio Navigation system
accommodates this phenomenon by simulating range and bearing to
the fixed site when it is not transmitting. After reacquiring a mobile
transmitter, the mobile station‟s position is re-determined. The
navigation component supports wash-out filters on output data.

Raft: A flat-bottomed inflatable rubber craft for floating on water.

Railway line: A railway track or train track a railway line is a useful

landmark.

Ramjet: A type of jet engine in which fuel is burned in a duct with air
compressed by the forward motion of the aircraft.

Ramp: An inclined track for loading and unloading; Same as apron.

RAS: Rectified Airspeed.

83
Reaction thrust principle: The process by which exhaust gases
coming of the back of an object cause a reaction force to act on the
object and push it forwards.

Real time: Time in a computational process which runs at the same

rate as a physical process.

Reasonable Care: The standard of care in negligence cases; the duty

to act reasonably so as to avoid harming others.

Reasonableness: A test to determine if data is reasonable, for

example, radar altitude must be positive and two devices should
return similar data within known limits of each other.

Recreational pilot: A pilot certificate requiring less training than a

Private certificate. Privileges limited accordingly to flight within 50
nautical miles of base, carrying no more than one passenger; using
non-tower airports and flying during daylight hours only unless
restrictions are removed through further training. May not share
expenses. Few new pilots currently choose the recreational certificate.

Rectified Airspeed: Indicated airspeed corrected for instrument error

and pressure error. When Rectified Airspeed is corrected for density
error the resultant is known as the true airspeed.

Redeye: A late night or overnight airline service.

Registration: The entry of civil aircraft into records of national

certification authority with details of letter and number code
displayed on aircraft certificate of registration a document issued as
proof of registration.

Regular: Occurring at fixed time intervals regular flight, regular

inspections: inspections taking place at equal intervals of time;
Ordinary or standard part.

Remand: The decision of an appellate court to send a case back to the

trial court with instructions on how to correctly decide the case; often

84
used with the term “reversed.” Reversed means that the appellate
court overturned the trial court‟s decision.

Remedies: Relief that the plaintiff receives from the defendant in a

lawsuit. Often this will include monetary damages or equitable relief
(i.e. injunctions).

Respondent: The party that won at trail.

Restricted area: Airspace of a particular length, width and depth,

within which the flight of an aircraft must be carried out in
accordance with particular conditions.

Restricted area: Airspace which usually excludes civilian aircraft.

Examples: airspace for rocket flights, practice air-to-air combat or
ground-based artillery practice. Temporary restricted areas are
established for events such as forest fires, natural disasters or major
news stories. Flight through a restricted area may be authorized by
the controlling agency.

Restriction: A narrowing or partial blockage; A limitation.

Retard: To cause to occur later, or to delay; To move back-wards.

Retentivity: The ability to remain magnetized after the magnetizing

force has gone.

Reverse thrust: Thrust in the opposite direction to normal in order to

decelerate the aircraft after landing.

Reversible pitch propeller: A propeller which allows the aircraft to be

propelled backwards when taxiing.

Reversible: That can be made to go backwards or to change direction.

Revolution: A rotation or turn aboutan axis.

Revolutions Per Minute: The speed of an engine or the number of

rotations of the crankshaft per minute. Alsi, RPM is the number of
revolutions per minute that the engine crank shaft is making.

85
RPM: Revolutions Per Minute.

Rudder: A control surface on fixed-wing aircraft, usually mounted at

aft end off the fuselage sticking up (like a dorsal fin), that controls
yaw (heading), and is controlled by the pedals.

Rudder: Aircraft control surface attached to the rear of the vertical

stabilizer (fin) of the aircraft tail. Forces the tail left or right,
correspondingly “yawing” the aircraft right or left. Rudder movement
“coordinates” with the banking of wings to balance a turn. Controlled
by left and right rudder (foot) pedals.

Runway incursion: Any occurence at an aerodrame involving the

incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected
area of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft.

Runway Visual Range: The distance along a runway at which

selected lights can be seen, adjusted to simulate approach visibility.
Runway visual range is obtained by an observer standing at the side
of the runway in the vicinity of the threshold counting the number of
markers or lights visible along the side of the runway.

Runway: A strip of level, usually paved ground on which aircraft take

off and land. Large airports often have more than one runway,
arranged to cope with varying wind directions. Some busy airports
have parallel runways which can be used simultaneously.

Rupture: The process of breaking open or bursting; To break open or

burst.

RVR: Runway Visual Range.

86
 S
SA: Safety Asurance.

Safe landing: A landing which does not endanger people or damage

the aircraft.

Safe life: The principle of putting the least load or force on each
component, so that it will last well beyond a plane‟s expected life.

Safe: Free from danger.

Safeguard: Something done as a precaution. To take action to make

sure that something is protected from harm.

Safety Asurance: The third component of an SMS that evaluates the

continued effectiveness of implemented risk control strategies;
supports the identification of new hazards.

Safety factors: Also referred to as causal factors, are events that are
associated with or influence fatality rates. A safety indicator is a
measureable safety factor. The probability of death (or injury) as a
result of traveling on a given mode, when quantified, is the primary
benchmark of passenger transportation safety.

Safety Management Systems: An organized approach to managing

safety, including the necessary organizational structures,
accountabilities, policies and procedures. ICAO sets that member
States shall require that its operatirs implement a SMS that as a
minimum: i. indentifies safety hazards; ii. ensures that remedial action
necessary to maintain an acceptable level of safety is implemented; iii.
provides for continuous monitoring and regular assessment of the
safety level achieved; and iv. aims to make continuous improvement
to the overall level of safety. The four pillars of a SMS are: I. Safwty
Policy and Objectives; II. Safety Risk Management; III. Safety
Assurance; and IV. Safety Promotion.

Safety pilot: A pilot present in the cockpit to ensure the safety of the
flight, e.g. when a student is practising instrument flying.
87
Safety policy: The first component of an SMS that establishes senio
management‟s commitment to continually improve safety; defines the
methods, process, and organizational structure needed to meet safety
goals.

Safety Promotion: The fourth component of an SMS that included

training, communication, and other actions to create a positive safety
culture within all levels of the workforce.

Safety regulations: Rules or laws which must be followed to make a

place safe.

Safety Risk Management: The second component of an SMS that

determines the need for, and adequacy of, new or revised risk controls
based on the assessment of acceptable risk.

Safety straps: Device to keep a person in position in a seat.

Safety: Freedom from danger, injury or risk safety conscious: the state
of being aware at all times of the importance of safety and the means
by which it is achieved and maintained.

Sailplane: A light glider particularly well adapted to making use of

rising air currents.

Sandwich: A construction of three layers, the material of the one in

the middle being different from the two on each side.

SAS: Stability Augmentation System.

Satellite Navigation system: A system of navigation which uses or

biting satellites to determine the position of an aircraft or point, in
relation to the Earth‟s surface.

SATNAV: Satelite Navigation.

Schedule: A list of times of departures and arrivals (an airline

schedule); A printed or written list of items in the form of a table
inspection schedule (maintenance schedule); to plan for a particular
time or date; To enter on a schedule.
88
Scheduled flights: Flights that are listed in the airline timetable, as
opposed to charter flights.

Scheduled: An arrival at a time-tabled destination (scheduled

landing).

Sea level: The average level of the surface of the sea, used for
measuring barometric pressure.

Seaplane: A water-based aircraft with a boat-hull fuselage, often

amphibious. The term is also used generically to define a similar
Flying Boatand a pontoon Floatplane.

Search pattern: Basic guidance mode; provides lateral steering

guidance tofly an expanding square search pattern, creeping line
search pattern, or sector search pattern.

Seat/sit: A place for sitting pilot‟s seat window seat a seat next to a
window.

Seating capacity: The maximum number of people an aircraft, bus,

etc., can seat.

Secondary radar: A radar system in which the active target replies to

the interrogation unit.

Secondary Surveillance Radar: A radar which uses ground

equipment called interrogators and airborne equipment called
transponders to identify aircraft, determine altitude and range, etc.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is normally used to supplement
data from primary systems.

Secondary: Of the second rank in importance, etc., not primary; An

induced current that is generated by a primary source.

See-And-Avoid: The requirement that all pilots are ultimately

responsible for separation from other aircraft when visual conditions
permit spotting traffic. Even IFR flights when operating in visual

89
weather conditions or VFR flights being issued radar advisories are
responsible for visual scanning to see-and-avoid other traffic.

SELCAL: Selective Call.

Selective Call: A high-frequency radio system which alerts the crew

of an aircraft to the fact that air traffic control is trying to contact them.

Sensor: A device that measures, receives, or generates data, for

example, an INS, a FLIR, a map.

Separation standards: Internationally agreed minimum separation

limits for aircraft in flight.

Separation: The condition of being spaced a part; The removal of

something from a mixture or combination;

Serious accident: An accident in which there was one fatality without

substantial damage to a Part 121 aircraft, or there was at least one
serious injury and a Part 121 aircraft was substantially damaged.

Serious injury: Any injury that requires hospitalization for more than
48 hours, results in a bone fracture, or involves internal organs or
burns.

Service area: Area where maintenance and repairs are carried out.

Service bay: A space in the structure of an aeroplane where

equipment can be located for maintenance or repairs.

Service of Process: Providing a formal notice to the defendant that

orders him to appear in court to answer plaintiff‟s allegations.

Shallow depression: An area of slightly low relative atmospheric

pressure.

Shell Model, the: Another widely used conceptual tool in aviation

safety introduced by ICAO. The components of this model are as
follows:
S: Software (such as procedures, checklists, training, etc.);

90
H: Hardware (machines and equipment);
E: Environment (operating conditions);
L: Liveware (human interface to S, H, and E above);
L: Liveware (again, i.e., human to human interface).

Shower: A short period of rain or snow.

SID: Standard Instrument Departure.

SIGMET: Significant meteorological information.

Signal: A device, action or sound which passes information; A radio

wave transmitted or received.

Signals area: An area on an aerodrome used for displaying ground

signals.

Signals mast: A vertical pole on an airfield from which signal flags

are flown.

Signals square: An area on an aerodrome from which ground signals

are displayed.

Significant meteorological information: A weather advisory

concerning weather conditions important to the safety of all aircraft,
such as severe or extreme turbulence.

Skip distance: The shortest distance at which a sky wave can be

received.

Skiplane: An aircraft equipped with skis for taking off from and
landing on snow.

Sky wave: Part of a radiated wave which is returned to Earth by

refraction from the ionosphere.

Sky: The atmosphere and outer space as seen from the earth.

Skyjack: To use force to take illegal control of an aircraft, especially a

commercial aircraft, when it is in the air.
91
Skyway: A route used by aircraft.

Skywriting: The use of an aircraft releasing coloured smoke to form

letters in the sky; Letters or a message formed in the sky by coloured
smoke released from an aircraft.

Slip: An aircraft control technique with wings banked one way and
rudder deployed for the opposite turn. Aircraft flies slightly sideways,
increasing drag to make it descend faster without increasing forward
speed. Also one of two control configurations used for crosswind
landings when the rudder must counteract the turning effect of
banking into a crosswind to neutralize the wind‟s effect.

SMS: Safety Management Systems.

Special Use Airspace: All airspace in which restrictions or

prohibitions to flight are imposed for military or government needs.

Specific gravity: The density of a substance compared with that of

water, which is 1.00 (this is the old name for relative density).

Speed: Scalar velocity.

Spin: An aerodynamic condition in which the wings have lost lift and
the aircraft follows a descending corkscrew flight pattern in auto
rotation. Aircraft must be stalled for a spin to occur; this is usually the
result of “crossed” flight controls (uncoordinated rudder) causing
residual lift on one wing during the stall.

Spine: The longitudinal central part of an engine.

Spinner: A cap that fits over the hub of the propeller of an aircraft.

Spiral dive: A dangerous uncontrolled turning descent of an aircraft

in which rate of descent and speed increase.

Spiral: Winding continuously in circles as it ascends or descends.

S-plane: Continuous complex frequency plane; S-plane is used in

control systems engineering in the design of control laws.
92
Spline: A groove in a shaft for meshing or engaging with another
component.

Split bus system: An electrical system in which there are two separate
power generation systems.

Split: A division; A break along a line, especially in wood, plastic or

rubber; To divide; To break along a line; Divided or broken along a
line.

Spoiler: A hinged surface on the upper wing which, when opened,

decreases lift and increases drag. Spoilers are sometimes called „speed
brakes‟. They are used during the descent prior to landing and
immediately after landing to decrease lift and increase braking effect.

Sponson: An air-filled structure or small wing projecting from the

lower hull of a seaplane to keep it steady on water.

SPS: Standard Pressure Setting.

SR: Sunrise.

SRM: Safety Risk Management.

SS: Sunset.

SSR: Secondary Surveillance Radar.

Stability Augmentation System: A flight control system which

automatically adjusts pitch and yaw to improve an aircraft‟s stability.

Stabilizer: A control surface, usually mounted at aft end of the fuse

large parallel to the wings, that provides pitch stability, some aircraft
have and adjustable stabilizer.

Stall warning system: A system to warn the pilot that the aircraft is
about to stall.

Stall: A loss of lift caused by the breakdown of airflow over the wing
when the angle of attack passes a critical point; A situation in which
an engine or machine stops suddenly because an opposing force
93
overcomes its driving power; To lose lift by the breakdown of airflow
over the wing when the angle of attack passes a critical point. A stall
has nothing to do with the engine stopping. An aircraft can stall at any
airspeed and in any attitude.

Stall: Purely an aerodynamic condition - nothing to do with engine

operation. Occurs when lift-producing airflow over the wings is
disrupted or lost because angle of wings to airflow (angle of attack) is
too high. Most commonly occurs when a pilot doesn‟t maintain
sufficient airspeed in a climb or turn. Student pilots are trained in stall
prevention, recognition and recovery.

Stalling angle: The angle relative to the horizontal at which the flow
of air around an aerofoil changes abruptly, resulting in significant
changes in the lift and drag of an aircraft.

Stalling speed: The speed at which the angle of attack is such that lift
over the wing surface breaks down. Traditionally, an aircraft can stall
at any airspeed, providing the angle of attack is great enough. Stalling
speed is often used to refer to the speed below which the aircraft
cannot remain airborne.

Standard atmosphere: A unit of pressure defined as the pressure that

will support a 760 mm column of mercury at 0°C at sea level, equal to
1.01325 x 105 newtons per square metre.

Standard Instrument Departure: A published navigational chart

showing the route an aircraft must take as it takes off and climbs away
from an airport.

Standard parallels: The parallels of latitude where the cone cuts the
surface (in a conical projection).

Standard Pressure Setting: 1013.25 millibars.

Standard rate turn: A turn made at a precise number of compass

degrees per second. Rate 1 turn=180° in 1 minute, Rate 2 turn=360° in
1 minute, Rate 3 turn=540° in 1 minute, Rate 4 turn=720° in 1 minute.
Standard rate turns are made using particular angles of bank for
94
specific airspeeds and are used while flying under Instrument Flight
Rules (IFR). The pilot can make accurate turns to given headings by
banking at the standard rate and timing the turn.

Standard time: A universally adopted time for all countries based on

zone time.

Standard: Something, e.g. a quality or measure, that is officially

recognized as an example that others must conform with; Normal,
officially or generally accepted standard procedure normal procedure.

Standby ticket: A cheaper air ticket bought just before departure time.

Standby: Secondary, able to be used as a back-up.

Standing agreement: An agreement between controlling units in

different flight information regions to allow the transfer of control
from one sector to the next without individual coordination, provided
agreed parameters are met.

STAR: Standard Arrival Route.

Statute of Limitations: The time period within which a plaintiff must

file his action against the defendant. This time frame varies by state. In
North Carolina, the statute of limitations is three years.

Stowaway: A person who travels secretly by hiding in an aircraft, or a

ship, not paying the fare.

Strict Liability: The defendant is liable to the plaintiff regardless of

fault.

Student Pilot: A pilot who is training for a Private Pilot certificate,

either before or after the first solo. In the U.S, A student must obtain a
Third Class Medical certificate through an examination by an FAA
designated Aviation Medical Examiner before being allowed to fly
solo in a powered aircraft. The medical certificate for a student pilot
has a student “license” printed on the back.

SUA: Special Use Airspace.

95
Subpoena: A form issued by the court requiring someone to appear in
courtand/or bring documents. (Also referred to as a “Summons.”).

Substantial damage: Damage or failure that adversely affects the

structural strength, performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft
and that would normally require major repair or replacement of the
affected component.

Sunrise: The time when the upper edge of the sun appears on the
visible horizon.

Sunset: The time when the upper edge of the sun just disappears over
the horizon.

Supersonic: Faster than the speed of sound.

Surface air temperature: The temperature recorded in the shade at a

height just above ground level.

Surface: An outer covering of something, or the top part of something

the surface of the wing;The Earth‟s surface or ground.

Sweepback: An aircraft wing that slopes backwards towards the tail,

forming an acute angle with the body of the aircraft.

Swell: A long wave on water that moves continuously without

breaking.

Sweptback: Referring to a wing that slopes backwards towards the

tail of the aircraft.

Sweptwing: Referring to an aircraft that has swept back wings.

Swing: To move from side to side with some force; To swing a

compass to calibrate compass deviation by recording its value on a
compass base while rotating the aircraft through 360; To swing a
propeller to turn a propeller by hand to start the engine.

Swirl: A movement with a twisting motion swirls of smoke came out

of the engine.

96
Swiss Cheese Model: One of accident causation models which
introduced by James Reason in 1990 to illustrate how human factors at
various levels of the organization can lead to accidents. He traces the
root cause of accidents to human errors that occur in the management
levels of an organization. This model is a good representation of the
complex relationship between the individual and the organization.
Reason explains that before an active human failure occurs, there are
certain latent conditions in the organization which are the result of
management action or in actions. He also states that human error is
the active “end result” rather than the root cause of accidents.

97
 T
Tachometer: A device for measuring angular velocity.

Tactical Air Navigation: A basic guidance mode, providing lateral

guidance to a TACAN station; equipment that determines range and
bearing to a radio station with a TACAN transmitter.

Take off: To leave the ground. When flying speed is reached the
aeroplane take off.

Take-off run: The distance from the start of take off to the point
where the wheels leave the ground.

Take-off weight: The weight of an aircraft at take off, made up of its

empty weight, plus the weight of its passengers, freight and fuel.

Take-off: The procedure when an aircraft leaves the ground.

TAS: True Air Speed.

Task factors: The sixth categories which becomes one of the variables
that affect human performance, include the nature of the task being
performed (vigilance and inspection tasks versus assembly
operations), workload (work intensity, multitasking, and/or time
constraints), and level of training.

Taxi: To move an aircraft along the ground under its own power
before take off or after landing. The US English is taxying.

TEM: Threat and Error Management.

TEMPO: Abbreviation temporary by ICAO.

Tempo: The speed of an activity.

Terminal: Referring to a limit or to a final point; The departure

and/or arrival building at an airport; An electrical connection point.

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Terrain following: A basic guidance mode, providing vertical
guidance to maintain an operator selected radar altitude above the
terrain. Flight such that the aircraft tries to maintain a constant height
above the terrain, usuallyin the range of 100-1,000 ft; uses a g-
command from the Multi Mode Radar to generate a flight director
cue. This controls the aircraft flight path so that the set clearance
altitude is achieved over major high points in the terrain with zero
flight path angle.

Terrain Referenced Navigation: A navigation mode based on

comparison of barometric altitude and radar altitude with a map;
Kalman filters correlate the terrain data and the altitudes. TRN
combines INS with map references. It is most accurate over rough
terrain; however it does not give accurate data while over flat areas or
water.

Terrain: The contour of the earth.

TF: Teraain Following.

Thermal activity: A period of time when there is a lot of vertical

movement of air caused by heating.

Third Party Litigation: When a lawsuit is brought against a defendant

and that defendant wants to add another party to the suit, the original
defendant may file a “third party complaint” which results in a third
party litigation or lawsuit.

Threat and Error Management: A natural follow-on to LOSA which

focuses on the normal working environment and the humans working
in that environment. Threats Pilots must manage threats that come at
them in the normal operating environment. Errors Human error
comes from the crew and may be innocent or intentional.
Throttle: A flight control operated by moving fore or aft with hands,
primarily to control thrust (speed) in fixed-wing aircraft.
Thrust: Force, created by engines and rotors, acting in the direction of
the engine.
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Time constant: Constant for a first-order filter determining time at
which the output of the filter reaches nearly 0.6321 percent of a step
input.

Time zone: One of the 24 parts of the Earth in which the same
standard time is used.

Timetable: A printed list which shows the times of departure from

and arrival to various destinations.

TO, T/O: Take-off.

Tort: A civil wrong; a wrongful injury to a person‟s property. There

are three types of torts: intentional, negligence and strict liability.

Tort: Is an act or omission that causes injury to another person by

breach of a legal duty not arising out of contract and subjects the actor
to liability for damages in a civil lawsuit.

Total pressure: A measure of barometric pressure in the moving air.

Touchdown: To make controlled contact with the landing surface

after a flight.

Touchdown: The moment, after a flight, when the aircraft makes

controlled contact with the landing surface.

Track (TRK): A basic guidance mode, providing lateral guidance to

an operator selected ground track.

Traffic pattern: The shape marked out on the ground of an aircraft

track in the aerodrome circuit; The pattern of routes that an aircraft
must keep to when approaching or circling an airport.

Traffic: The number of aircraft in operation.

Transit lounge: A room where transit passengers wait for connecting

flights.

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Transit passenger: A traveller who is changing from one aircraft to
another.

Transition level: The lowest flight level above the transition altitude.

Transmitter: A device that transmits.

Trespass: Is an intentional invasion of someone else‟s land.

TRN: Teraain Referenced Navigation.

True Air Speed: Airspeed corrected for instrumentation errors and air
density for your website.

True airspeed: Airspeed corrected for instrument and position error

in addition to altitude, temperature and compressibility errors.

101
 U
U/V ADF: UHF/VHF Automatic Direction Finding.

UAR: Upper Air Route.

UAS: Undersired Aircraft State.

UAS: Upper Airspace.

UHF/VHF Automatic Direction Finding (U/V ADF): An Automatic

Direction Finder that determines relative bearing to a transmitter to
which it is tuned, in either the UHF band or VHF band.

UHF: Ultra High Frequency.

UIR: Upper Information Region.

Ultra High Frequency: A radio frequency range between 300 MHz

and 3000 MHz.

Ultralight: A small single-seat or two-seat aircraft constructed of light

materials and powered by a small motor, flown mainly for recreation.

Ultrasonic: Referring to frequencies in the range of 20,000 Hz which

cannot be heard by the human ear.

Undersired Aircraft State: An error not well managed which may

lead to an event which compromises safety. An UAS is defined as a
position, speed, altitude, or configuration of an aircraft that: results
from flight crew error, actions, or inaction; and clearly reduces safety
margins.

Update: A process by which position is reset with a known better

position; updates occur at the data source level or at the physical
device level,depending upon specific implementation of the device
and the data source (choice of implementation is transparent above
the data source); all updatesare operator initiated, but the new

102
position may be derived from other sources such as FLIR, MMR, or
radio navigation.

Upper air chart: A chart showing airflow pattern and distribution of

temperatures at specific altitudes above about 10,000 feet.

Upper Air Route: A route above FL245, approximately 24,500 ft.

Upper airspace: The airspace above FL245, approximately 24,500 ft.

Upper Information Region: Upper information region noun airspace

which covers the same geographical area as a flight information
region but above 24,500 ft.

UTM: Universal Transverse Mercator.

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 V
V/STOL: Vertical and Short Takeoff and Landing.

VASI: Visual Approach Slope Indicator.

VCR: Visual Control Room.

Velocity: Rate of change of location, either scalar or vector, often with

subscripts such as ENU or XYZ to denote the coordinate frame; time
derivative of position; time integral of acceleration.

Venue: The place of trial.

Verdict: The decision of the case reached by the jury.

Vertical and Short Takeoff and Landing: A system used by some

aircraft that allows them to take off and land vertically or on a short
runway; An aircraft that is able to take off and land vertically or on a
short runway.

Vertical cue: A cue to control altitude.

Vertical guidance: Calculations for the vertical axis, rather than the
longitudinal axis. The control law vertical axis input data are: Desired
Altitude, Altitude Integral, Altitude Integral Gain, Altitude Integral
Limit, Altitude Error Scale Factor, Magnitude limit for delta altitudes.
The major output from Vertical Guidance is the altitude error for the
selected vertical guidance mode.

Vertical Speed Indicator: A flight instrument which indicates the rate

of climb and descent.

Vertical velocity: Aircraft velocity in earth vertical direction.

Vertical: Reference to earth radial, for example, vertical velocity is

velocity along earth radial.

Very High Frequency: The radio frequency range between 30 MHz

and 300 MHz.

104
VFR: Visual Flight Rules.

VHF: Very High Frequency.

Vicarious Liability: The liability of one person for the torts of another.

Visibility: The ability to see unlighted objects by day and lighted

objects by night, subject to atmospheric conditions. Measurement of
visibility by day is made by direct observation of objects at known
distances and is therefore an estimated value. Poor visibility a
situation in which things cannot be seen clearly, e.g. because of fog,
mist or smoke

Visibility-by-day values: Values which indicate how easily seen an

object is in a horizontal line from an observer in daylight conditions.

Visual Approach Slope Indicator: An arrangement of red and white

lights on each side of the runway touch-down point to give the pilot
information about the plane‟s height on final approach.

Visual Control Room: The control room in the tower at an airport.

Visual examination: A close observation or inspection with the eyes.

Also called visual inspection.

Visual Flight Rules: Rules set down by an authority for flight in

visual conditions, regarding such things as flight visibility and
distance from cloud. Particular requirements for VFR depend on the
type of airspace, time of day, and height above terrain.

Visual indication: Something which is seen and which suggests a

more serious cause, e.g. a warning lamp.

Visual Meteorological Conditions: All the factors which define the

limits of flying in visual meteorological conditions.

Visual warning: A warning that can be seen as opposed to a audible

warning that can be heard.

VMC: Visual Meteorological Conditions.

105
Volt: The SI unit of electrical potential.

VOR: Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range.

VSI: Vertical Speed Indicator.

VTOL: A system used by some aircraft that allows them to take off
and land vertically; An aircraft that is able to take off and land
vertically.

VTOL: Vertical Take off and Landing.

106
 W
WAAS: Wide Area Augmentation System.

Wake turbulence: The disturbance of the air remaining after the

passage of an aircraft.

Wake Turbulence: Turbulent air condition caused by small, tornado

like horizontal whirl winds trailing an aircraft's wingtips (wingtip
vortices). Wake turbulence associated with larger aircraft flying at
slow speeds (as on take-off or landing approach) is the most severe
and can cause loss of control for smaller aircraft following close
behind. Controllers use defined separation standards to avoid the
problem for take off, landing, approach and departure operations.

Wall: The side.

Warning: A signal which alerts the operator to a dangerous condition

requiring immediate action; an instruction that is more critical than an
advisory or a caution. May also indicate potential failure is eminent
soon.

Warsaw Convention, the: A landmark international treaty that began

the legal relationship between airlines and international passengers,
and formally titled The Convention for the Unification of Certain
Rules Relating to International Transportation by Air. This convention
now being rapidly updated worldwide by the new Montreal
Convention.

Watt: The SI unit of measurement of electrical power.

Waypoint Approach: To approach a waypoint.

Waypoint: A point on the ground, predefined as a point of interest for

the flight; a basic guidance mode, providing lateral guidance to a
waypoint.

WCA: Warning Caution Advisory.

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Weight on Wheels (WOW): Indication of whether the aircraft has
weight on its wheels, meaning airborne or on the ground; weight on
wheels can bedetected by a sensor on the wheels, computed from
other state data or a combination of all data received.

Wheel: A flight control operated by turning with hands in fixed-wing

aircraft, primarily to control roll (heading) via the ailerons; the wheel
is connected to yoke.

Wide Area Augmentation System: An enhancement to the GPS

system providing greater navigation accuracy and system integrity
and permitting GPS to be used for precision instrument approaches to
most airports.

Wind cone: Same as windsock.

Wind currents: The movement of air in a particular direction through

a mass of air which is not moving so much.

Wind direction: A description of where the wind is blowing from,

given as north, south, east, west, etc., or a number of degrees, e.g. a
wind coming from the west would be a wind direction of 270°.

Wind gradient: The rate of increase of wind strength with unit

increase in height above ground level. After take off, as the aircraft
gains altitude, the ground speed may be affected by the wind
gradient.

Wind Shear: Large changes in either wind speed or direction at

different altitudes which can cause sudden gain or loss of airspeed.
Especially hazardous when aircraft airspeeds are low on take off or
landing.

Wind tunnel: A tunnel shaped chamber through which air can be

passed at a known speed in order to test the aerodynamic properties
of an object such as an aircraft placed inside it.

Wind velocity: Wind speed and direction.

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Wind wind2: To move in a curving or twisting manner.

Wind1: Horizontal movement of air in relation to the Earth‟s surface.

Windblast: The harmful effect of air flow on a pilot who has ejected
from an aircraft travelling at high speed.

Winding:A series of 360° turns of wire.

Windmill: To turn round by wind force only without engine power.

Windscreen: The front window of an aircraft through which the pilot

has forward vision. The windscreen is a glass laminated construction
with an electrical element, made of gold film, sandwiched between
the layers. Wiper.

Windshear: A change in wind direction and speed between slightly

different altitudes. Windshear, if strong enough, can produce clear air
turbulence.

Windshield: US same as windscreen.

Windsock: A pole at the top of which is a fabric tube through which

the wind blows, showing the wind direction.

Windspeed: The speed of the wind which, if combined with a

direction, is called velocity. It is usually measured in knots.

Windward: Facing the direction from which the wind blows.

Wing loading: The weight of an aircraft per unit wing area.

Wing: The main horizontal aerofoil or mainplane.

Winglet: An up turned wing tip or small additional vertical aerofoil

on a wing tip.

Wingman: A pilot who flies in a position behind and to the side of the
leader of a group of flying aircraft.

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Wingover: A manoeuvre to turn a flying aircraft in which the pilot
puts the aircraft into a steep turning climb until it almost stalls and
then allows the nose to fall.

Witness: One who testifies at a trial or a deposition.

WMO: World Meteorological Organization.

Wrap test: A test to send data to a device having it sent back

unaltered.

110
 X
X-ray: A ray with a very short wave length, which is invisible, but can
go through soft tissue or material and register as a photograph on a
film; To take an X-ray photograph of luggage.

111
 Y
Yard: A unit of length in the US and British Imperial Systems equal to
3 ft or 0.9144 m.

Yaw: Rotation of the aircraft around its vertical axis; To rotate around
the vertical axis. Single-engine, propeller-driven aircraft tend to yaw
on take off.

yd: Yard.

Yield Management: The practice of adjusting prices up and down

inresponse to demand in order to control yield. The process is usually
computerized.

Yoke Cue: A vertical flight director cue for fixed-wing aircraft,

primarily to control altitude, by changing pitch.

Yoke: A flight control operated by pushing and pulling with hands in

fixed-wing aircraft, primarily to control pitch or altitude with the
elevators. The yoke is mounted on a column between the operator‟s
legs, positioned much like a steering wheel in a car. Yoke control is
achieved by pushing and pulling the wheel to move the column.

Yoke: A type of aircraft control column by which the pilot controls

ailerons by rotating a device on top of the column to the left or right;
A supporting structure like the forked metal mounting for the nose
wheel.

Z transform: A mathematical relationship to model a discrete function

in the complex frequency domain (Z-plane); Z transforms are
commonly used by systems engineers to describe avionics systems.

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 Z
Z: Zulu time.

Zero: Nought or the figure 0.

Zero-zero: Referring to flying conditions of thick, low cloud when a

pilot can see nothing ahead and nothing above or below the aircraft.

Zonal: Referring to one of the five parts into which the Earth‟s surface
is divided by imaginary lines parallel to the equator.

Zone: An area with particular features or purpose; An administrative

area of airspace control zone Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ);One of
five divisions into which the Earth‟s surface is divided by imaginary
lines parallel to the equator temperate zone climatic zone.

Zoom: To make an aircraft climb rapidly at a very steep angle, or

move upwards in this way.

Zulu time: Greenwich Mean Time.

113
 ALPHABET – RADIOTELEPHONY GUIDE

A - Alfa N – November
B - Bravo O - Oscar
C - Charlie P - Papa
D - Delta Q - Quebec
E - Echo R - Romeo
F - Foxtrot S - Sierra
G - Golf T - Tango
H - Hotel U - Uniform
I - India V - Victor
J - Juliett W - Whiskey
K - Kilo X - X-ray
L - Lima Y - Yankee
M - Mike Z - Zulu

114
 AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION CODES

These codes are painted on all aircraft, showing their country of

registration.

3A Monaco OH Finland
3B Mauritius OK Czech Republic
3C Equatorial Guinea HV The Vatican
3D Swaziland HZ Saudi Arabia
3X Guinea I Italy
4K Azerbaijan J2 Djibouti
4R Sri Lanka J3 Grenada
4U United Nations Organisation J5 Guinea Bissau
4X Israel J6 St Lucia
5A Libya J7 Dominica
5B Cyprus J8 St Vincent and the Grenadines
5H Tanzania JA Japan
5N Nigeria JU Mongolia
5R Madagascar JY Jordan
5T Mauritania LN Norway
5U Niger LV Argentina
5V Togo LX Luxembourg
5W Samoa LY Lithuania
5X Uganda LZ Bulgaria
5Y Kenya N USA
6O Somalia OO Belgium
6V Senegal OY Denmark
6Y Jamaica P North Korea
7O Yemen P2 Papua New Guinea
7P Lesotho P4 Aruba PH Netherlands
7Q Malawi PJ Netherland Antilles
7T Algeria PK Indonesia
8P Barbados PP Brazil PZ Suriname
8Q Maldives RA Russian Federation
8R Guyana RP Philippines
9A Croatia S2 Bangladesh
9G Ghana S5 Slovenia
9H Malta S7 Seychelles
9J Zambia S9 Sao Tome and Principe
9K Kuwait SE Sweden
9L Sierra Leone SP Poland
115
9M Malaysia ST Sudan
9N Nepal SU Egypt
9Q Democratic Republic of the SX Greece
Congo T2 Tuvalu
9U Burundi T3 Kiribati
9V Singapore T7 San Marino
9XR Rwanda T8A Palau
9Y Trinidad and Tobago T9 Bosnia-Herzegovina
A2 Botswana TC Turkey
A3 Tonga TF Iceland
A40 Oman TG Guatemala
A5 Bhutan TI Costa Rica
A6 United Arab Emirates TJ Cameroon
A7 Qatar TL Central African Republic
A9C Bahrain TN Congo-Brazzaville
AP Pakistan TR Gabon TS Tunisia
B China & Taiwan TT Chad TU Côte d‟Ivoire
B-H Hong Kong TY Benin
B-M Macau TZ Mali
C Canada UK Uzbekistan
C2 Nauru UR Ukraine
C3 Andorra V2 Antigua and Barbuda
C5 Gambia V3 Belize V4 St Kitts and Nevis
C6 Bahamas V5 Namibia
C9 Mozambique V6 Micronesia
CC Chile V7 Marshall Islands
CN Morocco V8 Brunei
CP Bolivia VH Australia
CS Portugal VN Vietnam
CU Cuba VP, VQ British Overseas Territori-
CX Uruguay es
D Germany VP-A Anguilla (UK)
D2 Angola VP-B Bermuda (UK)
D4 Cape Verde VP-C Cayman Islands (UK)
D6 Comoros Islands VP-F Falkland Islands
DQ Fiji EC Spain VP-G Gibraltar (UK)
EI Ireland VP-L British Virgin Islands
EK Armenia VP-M Montserrat
EP Iran VQ-H St Helena (UK)
ER Moldova VQ-T Turks and Caicos Islands

116
ES Estonia (UK)
ET Ethiopia VR-B Bermuda
EW Belarus VR-C Cayman Island
EY Tajikistan VR-G Gibraltar
EZ Turkmenistan VR-H Hong Kong
F France VT India
F New Caledonia (France) XA Mexico
F Guadeloupe (France) XT Burkina Faso
F Martinique (France) XU Cambodia XY Myanmar
F Tahiti (French Polynesia) YA Afghanistan
G United Kingdom YI Iraq
H4 Solomon Islands YJ Vanuatu
HA Hungary YK Syria
HB Switzerland & Liechtenstein YL Latvia
HC Ecuador YN Nicaragua
HH Haiti YR Romania
HI Dominican Republic YS El Salvador
HK Colombia YU Serbia and Montenegro
HL South Korea YV Venezuela
HP Panama Z Zimbabwe
HR Honduras ZA Albania
HS Thailand ZK New Zealand
OB Peru ZP Paraguay
OD Lebanon ZS South Africa
OE Austria

117
 AIRLINE CODES
2J Air Burkina
4U GermanWings
9U Air Moldova
AA American Airlines A
B Air Berlin
AC Air Canada
AF Air France
AH Air Algerie
AI Air India
AM Aeromexico
AQ Aloha Airlines
AR Aerolineas Argentinas
AS Alaska Airlines
AT Royal Air Maroco
AY Finnair
AZ Alitalia
BA British Airways
BB Seaborne Airlines
BD Bmi British Midland
BG Biman Bangladesh Airlines
BH Transtate Airlines
BI Royal Brunei Airlines
BL Pacific Airlines
BM Air Sicilia
BP Air Botswana
BR EVA Air
BU Braathens ASA
BW BWIA - West Indies Airways
CA Air China International
CB ScotAirways
CI China Airlines
CJ China Northern Airlines
CM COPA (Compania Panamena
de Aviación)
CO Continental Airlines
CU Cubana
CX Cathay Pacific Airways
CY Cyprus Airways
CZ China Southern Airlines
118
MA MALEV Hungarian Airlines
MD Air Madagascar
MH Malaysia Airlines
MK Air Mauritius
MN Commercial Airways
MR Air Mauritanie
MS Egyptair
NF Air Vanuatu
NG Lauda Air
NH All Nippon Airways
NO Aus-Air
NQ Air Japan
NV Nakanihon Airlines
NW Northwest Airlines
NZ Air New Zealand
OA Olympic Airlines
OB Astrakhan Airlines
OK Czech Airlines
OM MIAT - Mongolian Airlines
ON Air Nauru
OO SkyWest Airlines
OS Austrian Airlines
OU Croatia Airlines
OV Estonian Air
PB Provincial Airlines
PC Air Fiji
PH Polynesian
PK Pakistan International Airlines
PR Philippine Airlines
PS Ukraine International Airlines
PU Pluna Lineas Aereas Urugu-
ayas
PX Air Niugini
PY Surinam Airways
PZ TAM - Transportes Aereos del
Mercosur
QF Qantas Airways
QM Air Malawi
QR Qatar Airways
DL Delta Air Lines
DS Easyjet Switzerland
DT TAAG Angola Airlines
DU Hemus Air
DY Air Djibouti EI Aer Lingus
EK Emirates
ET Ethiopian Airlines
FC Finncomm
FG Ariana Afghan Airlines
FI IcelandAir
FJ Air Pacific
FO Airlines of Tasmania
FR Ryanair
GA Garuda Indonesia
GC Gambia International Airlines
GF Gulf Air
GH Ghana Airways
GL Air Greenland
GN Air Gabon
GR Aurigny Air Services
GY Guyana Airways
HA Hawaiian Airlines
HM Air Seychelles
HP America West Airlines
HV Transavia Airlines
HY Uzbekistan Airways
IB Iberia
IC Indian Airlines
IE Solomon Airlines
IR Iran Air
IV Wind Jet
IY Yemenia - Yemen Airways
JL Japan Airlines
JM Air Jamaica
JP Adria Airways
JU JAT Airways
JY Interisland Airways
KE Korean Air Lines
KL KLM Royal Dutch Airlines
KM Air Malta
QU East African Airlines
QV Lao Airlines
QX Horizon Air
RA Royal Nepal Airlines
RB Syrian Arab Airlines
RG Varig RJ Royal Jordanian
RK Royal Khymer Airlines
RO TAROM
SA South African Airways
SD Sudan Airways
SN Brussels Airlines
SQ Singapore Airlines
SU Aeroflot Russian Airlines
SV Saudi Arabian Airlines
SW Air Namibia
TC Air Tanzania
TE Lithuanian Airlines
TG Thai Airways International
TK Turkish Airlines
TM LAM - Lineas Aereas de
Moçambique
TN Air Tahiti Nui
TP TAP - Air Portugal
TU Tunisair
U2 Easyjet
UA United Airlines
UB Myanmar Airways
UI Eurocypria Airlines
UL SriLankan Airlines
UM Air Zimbabwe
US US Airways
UY Cameroon Airlines
VE AVENSA
VH Aeropostal
VJ Jatayu Airlines
VN Vietnam Airlines
VO Tyrolean Airlines
VR TACV - Transportes Aereos
de Cabo Verde
VS Virgin Atlantic

119
KP Kiwi International Airlines VU Air Ivoire
KQ Kenya Airways VX V Bird
KU Kuwait Airways W6 Wizz Air
KV Kavminvodyavia WG Wasaya Airlines
KX Cayman Airways WJ Labrador Airways
KY Linhas Aereas de Air Sao To- W6 Wizz Air
me and Principe WG Wasaya Airlines
LA Lan-Chile WJ Labrador Airways
LG Luxair WN Southwest Airlines
LH Lufthansa WR Royal Tongan Airlines
LN Jamahiriya Libyan Arab Airli- WY Oman Aviation
nes YK Kibris Turk Hava Yollari
LO LOT Polish Airlines YN Air Creebec
LY El Al Israel Airlines YU Dominair
LX Swiss ZB Monarch Airlines
LZ Balkan-Bulgarian Airlines

120
 AIRPORT CODES – COUNTRY
ABJ Abidjan Côte d‟Ivoire
ABZ Aberdeen UK
ACA Acapulco Mexico
ACC Accra Ghana
ADD Addis Ababa Ethiopia
ADL Adelaide Australia
AGP Malaga Spain
AKL Auckland New Zealand
ALC Alicante Spain
ALG Algiers Algeria
AMM Amman Jordan
AMS Amsterdam Netherlands
ANC Anchorage USA
ANK Ankara Turkey
ANR Antwerp Belgium
ANU Antigua Antigua
ARN Stockholm Arlanda Sweden
ASU Asuncion Paraguay
ATH Athens Greece
ATL Atlanta USA
AUH Abu Dhabi UAE
AXA Wallblake Anguilla
BAH Bahrain Bahrain
BCN Barcelona Spain
BDA Bermuda Bermuda
BER Berlin Germany
BEY Beirut Lebanon
BFS Belfast UK
BGI Bridgetown Barbados
BGO Bergen Norway
BHX Birmingham UK
BIO Bilbao Spain
BJL Banjul Gambia
BJM Bujumbura Burundi
BJS Beijing China
BKK Bangkok Thailand
BLQ Bologna Italy
BNE Brisbane Australia
BOD Bordeaux France
121
GEO Georgetown Guyana
GIB Gibraltar Gibraltar GIG Rio
de Janeiro Brazil
GLA Glasgow UK
GND Grenada Grenada
GOA Genoa Italy
GOT Gothenburg Sweden
GRU Sao Paulo Brazil
GRZ Graz Austria
GUA Guatemala City Guatemala
GVA Geneva Switzerland
HAJ Hanover Germany
HAM Hamburg Germany
HAV Havana Cuba
HEL Helsinki Finland
HKG Hong Kong
HNL Honolulu USA
HOU Houston USA
HRE Harare Zimbabwe
IAD Washington Dulles USA
IAH Houston Intl. USA
INN Innsbruck Austria
ISB Islamabad Pakistan
IST Istanbul Turkey
JED Jeddah Saudi Arabia
JER Jersey UK
JFK New York Kennedy Intl. USA
JKT Jakarta Indonesia
JNB Johannesburg South Africa
KEF Reykjavik Iceland
KHI Karachi Pakistan
KIN Kingston Jamaica
KLU Klagenfurt Austria
KOJ Kagoshima Japan
KRT Khartoum Sudan
KUL Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
KWI Kuwait Kuwait
LAD Luanda Angola
LAS Las Vegas USA
BOG Bogota Colombia
BOM Mumbai India
BOS Boston USA
BRE Bremen Germany
BRN Berne Switzerland
BRS Bristol UK
BRU Brussels Belgium
BSL Basle/Mulhouse Switzerland
BTS Bratislava Slovakia
BUD Budapest Hungary
BUE Buenos Aires Argentina
BUH Bucharest Romania
BWI Baltimore USA
BZV Brazzaville Congo
CAI Cairo Egypt
CAS Casablanca Morocco
CBR Canberra Australia
CCS Caracas Venezuela
CCU Calcutta India
CDG Paris Charles de Gaulle Fr-
ance
CGK Jakarta Indonesia
CGN Cologne Germany
CHC Christchurch New Zealand
CHI Chicago USA
CLE Cleveland USA
CMB Colombo Sri Lanka
CMN Casablanca Mohamed V
Morocco
CNS Cairns Australia
COO Cotonou Benin
CPH Copenhagen Denmark
CPT Cape Town South Africa
CUR Curacao Neth. Antilles
CVG Cincinnati USA
CWL Cardiff UK
DAC Dhaka Bangladesh
DAM Damascus Syria
DBV Dubrovnik Croatia
DCA Washington National USA
122
LAX Los Angeles USA
LBA Leeds/Bradford UK
LCA Larnaca Cyprus
LCY London City UK
LED St Petersburg Russia
LEJ Leipzig Germany
LGA New York La Guardia USA
LGW London Gatwick UK
LHR London Heathrow UK
LIL Lille France
LIM Lima Peru
LIN Milan Italy
LIS Lisbon Portugal
LJU Ljubljana Slovenia
LLW Lilongwe Malawi
LNZ Linz Austria
LOS Lagos Nigeria
LPA Gran Canaria Spain
LPB La Paz Bolivia
LPL Liverpool UK
LTN London Luton UK
LUN Lusaka Zambia
LUX Luxembourg
LYS Lyons France
MAA Chennai India
MAD Madrid Spain
MAN Manchester UK
MBA Mombasa Kenya
MCI Kansas City Intl. USA
MCO Orlando USA
MCT Muscat Oman
MEL Melbourne Australia
MEX Mexico City Mexico
MIA Miami USA
MIL Milan Italy
MKC Kansas City USA
MLA Malta Malta
MLW Monrovia Liberia
MME Teeside UK
MNL Manila Philippines
DCF Dominica Dominica
DEL Delhi India
DEN Denver USA
DFW Dallas/Fort Worth USA
DKR Dakar Senegal
DOM Dominica Oman
DRW Darwin Australia
DTT Detroit USA
DUB Dublin Ireland
DUR Durban South Africa
DUS Dusseldorf Germany
DXB Dubai UAE
EBB Entebbe Uganda
MOW Moscow Russia
MPM Maputo Mozambique
MQS Mustique Grenadines
MRS Marseilles France
MRU Mauritius Mauritius
MSP Minneapolis St Paul USA
MSY New Orleans USA
MUC Munich Germany
MVD Montevideo Uruguay
MXP Milan Italy NAP Naples Ita-
ly
NAS Nassau Bahamas
NBO Nairobi Kenya
NCE Nice France
NCL Newcastle UK
NGO Nagoya Japan
NOU Nourrea New Caledonia
NRT Tokyo Narita Japan
NUE Nuremburg Germany
NYC New York USA
ORD Chicago O‟Hare USA
ORK Cork Ireland
ORL Orlando USA
ORY Paris Orly France
OSA Osaka Japan
OSL Oslo Norway
OTP Bucharest Otopeni Romania
123
RIO Rio de Janeiro Brazil
RIX Riga Latvia
ROM Rome Italy
RTM Rotterdam Netherlands
RUH Riyadh Saudi Arabia
SAH Sana‟a Yemen
SAN San Diego USA
SAO Sao Paulo Brazil
SCL Santiago Chile
SEA Seattle USA
SEL Seoul South Korea
SFO San Francisco USA
SHA Shanghai China
SHJ Sharjah UAE
SIN Singapore Singapore
SKG Thessaloniki Greece
SLC Salt Lake City USA
SLU Saint Lucia Saint Lucia
SNN Shannon Ireland
SOF Sofia Bulgaria
SOU Southampton UK
STL Saint Louis USA
STN London Stansted UK
STO Stockholm Sweden
STR Stuttgart Germany
SVG Stavanger Norway
SVO Moscow Sheremetyevo Rus-
sia
SVQ Seville Spain
SXB Strasbourg France
SXF Berlin Schoenefeld Germany
SYD Sydney Australia
SZG Salzburg Austria
TCI Tenerife Spain
TGU Tegucigalpa Honduras
THF Berlin Tempelhof Germany
THR Tehran Iran TLL
Tallinn Estonia
TLS Toulouse France
TLV Tel Aviv Israel
PAR Paris France
PBM Paramaribo Surinam
PDX Portland USA
PEK Beijing China
PER Perth Australia
PHL Philadelphia USA
PHX Phoenix USA
PIT Pittsburgh USA
PLH Plymouth UK
PMI Palma de Mallorca Spain
POM Port Moresby Papua New
Guinea
POS Port of Spain Trinidad and
Tobago
PPT Papeete French Polynesia
PRG Prague Czech Republic
PSA Florence Pisa Italy
PTY Panama City Panama
RAR Rarotonga Cook Islands
EDI Edinburgh UK
EMA East Midlands UK
EWR Newark USA
FAO Faro Portugal
FCO Rome Fiumicino Italy
FIH Kinshasa Congo
FRA Frankfurt Germany
FUK Fukuoka Japan
GBE Gabarone Botswana
GCI Guernsey UK
GCM Grand Cayman Cayman Is-
lands
124
TPA Tampa USA
TPE Taipei Taiwan
TRN Turin Italy
TUN Tunis Tunisia
TYO Tokyo Japan
UIO Quito Ecuador
REK Reykjavik Iceland
VCE Venice Italy
VIE Vienna Austria
VLC Valencia Spain
VNO Vilnius Lithuania
WAS Washington DC USA
WAW Warsaw Poland
WDH Windhoek Namibia
WLG Wellington New Zealand
YEA Edmonton Canada
YEG Edmonton Intl. Canada
YMQ Montreal Mirabel Canada
YOW Ottawa Canada
YTO Toronto Canada
YUL Montreal Pierre Elliot Cana-
da Trudeau Intl.
YVR Vancouver Canada
YWG Winnipeg Canada YYC
Calgary Canada
YYZ Toronto Lester Pearson Ca-
nada
ZAG Zagreb Croatia
ZRH Zurich Switzerland
 LOCAL TIMES AROUND THE WORLD

London time 1200 London time 1200

Abu Dhabi 1600 Luanda 1300
Adelaide 2130 Luxembourg 1300
Algiers 1300 Madagascar 1500
Amsterdam 1300 Madrid 1300
Ankara 1400 Malé 1700
Astana 1800 Malta 1300
Athens 1400 Manila 2000
Baghdad 1500 Mexico 0600
Bangkok 1900 Minsk 1400
Beijing 2000 Montevideo 0900
Beirut 1400 Montreal 0700
Berlin 1300 Moscow 1500
Bern(e) 1300 Mumbai 1730
Bogota 0700 Nairobi 1500
Brasilia 0900 Nassau 0700
Brazzaville 1300 New York 0700
Brussels 1300 Oslo 1300
Bucharest 1400 Ottawa 0700
Budapest 1300 Panama 0700
Buenos Aires 0900 Paris 1300
Cairo 1400 Perth 2000
Calcutta (Kolkata) 1730 Phnom Penh 1900
Canberra 2200 Prague 1300
Cape Town 1400 Pretoria 1400
Caracas 0800 Pyongyang 2100
Chicago 0600 Quebec 0700
Colombo 1730 Rangoon 1830
Copenhagen 1300 Reykjavik 1200
Costa Rica 0600 Rio de Janeiro 0900
Damascus 1400 Riyadh 1500
Delhi 1730 Rome 1300
Dhaka 1800 San Francisco 0400
Dublin 1200 Santiago 0800
Gibraltar 1300 Seoul 2100
Hanoi 1900 Seychelles 1600
Harare 1400 Singapore 2000
Helsinki 1400 Stockholm 1300
Hong Kong 2000 Sydney 2200
125
Honolulu 0200 Taipei 2000
Istanbul 1400 Tallinn 1400
Jakarta 1900 Tbilisi 1600
Jerusalem 1400 Tehran 1530
Kabul 1630 Tirana 1300
Karachi 1700 Tokyo 2100
Khartoum 1400 Toronto 0700
Kiev 1400 Tripoli 1300
Kinshasa 1400 Tunis 1300
Kuala Lumpur 2000 Ulan Bator 2000
Kuwait 1500 Vienna 1300
Lagos 1300 Warsaw 1300
La Paz 0800 Washington DC 0700
Lima 0700 Wellington 0000 (+1 day)
Lisbon 1200 Yaoundé 1300

126
 NOTE

127