1.1.

GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE
•Electromagnetic – by means of rotating machines
(AC generator or alternator)
1.rotation of a coil within a stationary magnetic field
2.rotation of a magnetic field within a stationary coil
•Electronic – by means of oscillator circuits in signal
generators whereby alternating current is
produced from a DC source (inverters)

Note: For rotating machines, the generated or induced

voltage across the coil depends on the following:
•the number of turns of the coil
•the speed of rotation of the coil or the magnetic field
•the strength of the magnetic field
1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Period (T) – time required for the waveform to complete one cycle (in
seconds or radians).
Frequency (f) – number of cycles the waveform completes per second
(cps or Hz)
Note: f = 1/T
For rotating machines, f = ½ p (rps) = p (rpm)/120
where p = number of field poles
rps = speed in revolutions per second
rpm = speed in revolutions per minute
Angular or radian frequency () = 2f = 2/T rad/s
Instantaneous value – the value at any point in time of the waveform
Amplitude or peak value – the maximum positive or negative
instantaneous value
Phase angle – an angular measurement that specifies the position of
the waveform relative to a reference
Phase difference (or phase shift) between two sinusoidal waveforms
operating at the same frequency – deviation between the zero (or
maximum) instantaneous values of the two waveforms.
Given: v(t) = 120 cos (400t + 45) V and i(t) = 15 sin (400t + 150)A.
Determine which function leads and by how much.
Ans. i(t) leads v(t) by 15
1.3. THE SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE OR FORCED RESPONSE
Let v(t) = Vm cos( t +  )
 1.4. PHASOR CONCEPT
The forced response current i(t) of a linear,
passive RLC network subjected to a sinusoidal voltage
source v(t) is also sinusoidal, operating at a frequency
the same as that of the voltage source.
The function v(t) = Vm cos (t + V) + jVm sin (t + V) is
a complex forcing function.
By Euler’s formula,

v(t) = Vm ej(t + v) = V ej(t)

where V = Vm v ------ phasor voltage

Similarly,
i(t) = Im ej(t + i) = I ej(t)
where I = Im i ------ phasor current
1.5. CONCEPT OF IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE
Impedance (Z) – represents the total =
opposition to the flow of alternating
current, expressed in ohms (Ω).
- represents the passive elements R, L, C and their combination in
the frequency domain
Admittance (Y) – the reciprocal of impedance, expressed in siemens (S)
If I = Im i is the resulting current drawn by a passive, linear RLC
circuit from source a voltage V = VmV, then

where magnitude of the impedance

phase angle of the impedance

active or real component of the impedance
reactive or quadrature component of impedance
Similarly,

where
magnitude of the admittance

= phase angle of the

admittance

conductive (or conductance) component

susceptive (or susceptance)

component
For the resistive element, the current through it is in phase with the
voltage across it.
Z = R and Y = 1/R = G
For the purely inductive element, the current through it lags the
voltage across it by 90.
Z = jXL and Y = - jBL
where XL = L = 2fL and BL = 1/XL
For the purely capacitive element, the current through it leads the
voltage across it by 90.
Z = -jXC and Y = jBC
where XC = 1/C = 1/2fC and Bc = 1/XC

For the inductive circuit (series RL or parallel RL), the current lags the voltage
by an angle less than 90 (equal to the angle of the equivalent
impedance).
and
For the capacitive circuit (series RC or parallel RC), the current leads
the voltage by an angle less than 90 (equal to the angle of the
equivalent impedance).

and

1.6. FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE RLC SYSTEMS

Series circuits
I = I1 = I2 = I3 = ……
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ……
Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + ……

Voltage Division Rule:

In a series circuit, the ratio of any two voltages is also the ratio of the
corresponding impedances.
 Parallel circuits

V = V1 = V2 = V3 = ……
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ……

= Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ……

Current Division Rule:

In a parallel circuit, the ratio of any two currents is
also the ratio of the corresponding admittances or
the inverse ratio of the corresponding impedances.
1.7. DELTA-WYE (OR WYE-DELTA) TRANSFORMATION
- involves the conversion of a network with the  (or delta)
configuration into a network with the T (or wye) configuration,
and vice versa, in order to facilitate network analysis.

Delta to wye conversion:

R wye =

Wye to delta conversion:

R delta =

Note: For balanced delta or wye, Rwye = Rdelta/3 and Rdelta = 3

Rwye
Sample problems:
1.An RL circuit is designed to provide a 60 leading phase shift at 1000
rad/s. If R = 25Ω, find L? Ans. 14.43 mH

2. An industrial coil has a resistance of 17.32 ohms and a reactance of

10 ohms and rated 220 V at 60 Hz. If the coil were to be connected to a
220 V, 50 Hz AC source, how much percentage overcurrent would the
coil suffer? Ans. 4.05 %

3. A parallel RC circuit consists of a 10 µF capacitor and a 100Ω

resistor. What is the phase angle of the equivalent impedance at 200
Hz? Ans. - 51.5 

4. The voltage across a certain network and the current through it are
given by v(t) = 240 sin (500t + 100) V and i(t) = 4.8 sin (500t + 40) A,
respectively. Obtain the equivalent simple series circuit of the
network. Ans. 25 ohms; 86.6mH
5. The current in a series RLC circuit leads the
applied voltage by 60. The voltage across the
inductor is one third of the voltage across the
capacitor. The applied voltage is 100V and the
resistance is 25Ω. Find the circuit current and the
value of L and C, assuming that  = 1000 rad/s.
Ans. 2 A; 21.65 mH; 15.4 µF

6. What value of capacitance will have a

capacitive reactance at 180 Hz that is equal to the
60 Hz inductive reactance of a 61 mH coil?
Ans. 38.45 µF

7. What capacitance must be placed across a coil

having a resistance of 10Ω and reactance of 20Ω
in order to draw minimum current from a 60 Hz
source? Ans. 106.1 µF
8. When connected to a 240V, 60 Hz source, a certain coil takes
13.62A. When the frequency of the source was
changed to 40Hz, the current increased to 16.12A.
What is the inductance of the coil?
Ans. 33.5 mH

9. A resistor R, a coil and a 50 µF capacitor are in

series across an AC source. The circuit current is 2A.
The voltage across R is 20V, across the coil is 50V, and
across the capacitor is 100V. The voltage across the
combination of R and the coil is 60V. What is the source
voltage and the resistance of the coil?Ans. 65 V; 8.75 Ω
1.8. IMPEDANCE BRIDGE CIRCUITS
.

- are used to measure unknown inductance with winding resistance and

unknown capacitance with or without leakage resistance.

When the bridge is balanced, VX = 0 and

Some types of impedance bridges with Z2 = R2
Type Z1 Z3 ZU

Parallel- R1 R3 // (1 / jC3) Capacitive

comparison
Series- R1 R3 + (1 / jC3) Capacitive
comparison
Schering R1 // (1 / jC1) 1 / jC3 Capacitive

Maxwell R1 // (1 / jC1) R3 Inductive

Hay R1 + (1 / jC1) R3 Inductive

Owen 1 / jC1 R3 + (1 / jC3) Inductive

Note. Some of these configurations, together with a Wheatstone bridge, are built
into a universal impedance bridge, which usually contains a DC source, a 1 kHz AC
source and terminals for external sources and meters and oscilloscopes.
Sample problems:

1.Derive the relationships for RU and CU when the Schering

bridge is balanced with ZU = RU + 1/jCU. What elements
should be adjustable so that the real and reactive parts can
be balanced independently? Ans. Ru =
C1R2/C3; Cu = R1C3/R2; C1 and R1

2. An Owen bridge is balanced with ZU = R // j  L. Determine

the values of R and L given that C1 = 0.05 µF, R2 = 20Ω, R3 =
25 kΩ, C3 = 0.2 µF and  = 1000 rad/s. Hint: Use YU = (Z2 Z3
/ Z1)-1. Ans. 130Ω; 26 mH
RLC CIRCUITS CONTAINING CONTROLLED SOURCES

Sample problems:
1. Refer to the network shown. Obtain VX. Ans. 8 + j4
V

2. For the circuit shown, find the input impedance Zin at ω = 10 krad/s.
Ans. (150 – j 80) ohms