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Laser Physics
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A few glimpses from
the book of
Laser Physics
By
Dr. Asloob A Mudassar
(Looking for an appropriate Publisher)
1
Laser Physics
First Edition
Asloob Ahmad Mudassar
PIEAS
Note: This book is in Question‐Answer format.
2
Q.1: What are the essential components of a general laser system?
Ans: From a laser system optical energy is obtained as output. This is only possible when energy
is first given to a laser system. The process of giving energy as input is called Pumping
Process. This energy is absorbed in a material contained within a laser system called Active
Medium. For amplification of output optical beam the Active Medium is placed in an optical
cavity called Resonator. Pumping Process, Active Medium and Resonator may be considered
as basic components of a laser system.
Q.2: Give a brief description of Pumping Process, Active Medium and Resonator.
Ans: Active Medium may be in the form of a gas or a mixture of gases or in liquid form or in solid
form like crystal. In the Pumping Process, energy is delivered to the Active Medium either
through electron collision when the Active Medium is in gaseous state or through flash
lamps when the Active Medium is in liquid or solid state. After absorption of energy by an
Active Medium, the energy is given off by this medium in electromagnetic waves. A simplest
Resonator may consist of two plane mirrors. The electromagnetic energy moves back and
forth between the two components of the resonator and also through the Active Medium.
This results in the amplification of the electromagnetic waves through a process known as
Stimulated Emission. One of the Resonator components is partially transmitting allowing a
part of the electromagnetic oscillating waves to escape in the form of Laser output beam.
The basic components are shown in the figure below.
Oscillating waves
Output Beam
Active Medium
100% reflector Partial Reflector
Pumping Process
Figure Q2.1: Scheme showing basic components of a laser system.
Q.3: What are the Absorption, Spontaneous and Stimulated Emissions?
Ans: An atom or a molecule can accept energy from outside world in many ways. With respect to
laser point of view particularly when Active Medium is in gaseous state, the particles (atoms
or molecules) of the Active Medium can accept energy from energetic electrons hitting the
species or from the electromagnetic waves interacting with them. Absorption is a process in
which the particles of the Active Medium accept energy from electromagnetic waves when
the photon energy matches exactly with the energy gap between any two levels which exist
in the particles of an Active Medium. An incident photon is absorbed by a particle of the
Active Medium and the particle is said to be in the excited state. Absorption is thus the
excitation of an atomic or molecular component of an Active Medium through the
absorption of a photon. When the energy of a photon matches with the energy gap between
any two levels of particles of an Active Medium the levels are said to be in resonance with
photon energy. Absorption is sometimes referred to as Stimulated Absorption.
3
An excited particle may radiate its energy in any direction by giving up the photon of the
same energy as that of the incident absorbed photon. The process in which an excited
particle comes to a lower energy state by giving up energy in the form of a photon is called
Spontaneous or Radiative Emission. If E1 and E2 are the energies corresponding to two
levels of the particle under consideration with E1 < E2 then the frequency vo of the emitted
Radiative wave or the photon is given by:
E2 − E1
vo = (Q3.1)
h
Where h is the Planck’s constant. There are other ways in which an excited particle may
come to the lower energy state without emitting a photon or without radiating
electromagnetic energy are called Non‐Radiative decay processes.
Atom in state 1
Atom in state 2
E2
Incident Photon E2
E1
E1
Absorption
Atom in state 2 Atom in state 1
E2 E2
E1 E1
Radiated
Spontaneous Emission
Photon
Atom in state 2
Atom in state 1
E2
Incident Photon E2
E1
E1
Stimulated Emission Incident + Stimulated
photons
Figure Q3.1: Illustrations for Absorption, Spontaneous and Stimulated Emissions.
An Active Medium consists of a large number of particles: some of them in the ground state
(level 1) and some of them in the excited state (level 2) in a two‐level particle system. If a
pumping process is there continuously feeding energy to the particles of the Active Medium,
the particles will absorb energy and will move to the excited state (level 2). The excited
particles may start their journeys to the level 1 through Spontaneous emission in which
4
Radiative energy is given in random directions. In the very beginning a small number of
Spontaneously emitted photons may travel along the axis of the Resonator through the
Active Medium and during their course they may interact with excited particles. If this
interaction occurs before the excited particles decay Spontaneously, the photons incident on
the excited particles will stimulate them to emit their photons in the direction of the
incident photons. The de‐excitation of an excited particle through the interaction of a
resonant photon (energy of the incident photon is the same as that of the excited particle) is
called Stimulated Emission. If hvo is the energy of the incident photon then the energy of the
stimulated photon will also be equal to hvo and both these photons will travel in phase and
in the same direction, that is, the crests and the troughs of the two photos will exactly match
each other during their propagation. The three processes have been explained in Figure
Q3.1.
Q.4: In a general laser system Stimulated emission is always the dominant process in which the
Active Medium’s excited particles (atoms or molecules) decay to lower states. How do you
compare the other two decaying processes: Spontaneous and Non‐Radiative decays?
Ans: There exist an infinite number of energy levels apart from the Ground or lowest energy level
where the Active Medium particles could be raised through the pumping process. These
levels may have different lifetimes. Typical lifetime for an excited state to decay through the
Spontaneous process is 10‐8 s. If the lifetime of a level is much larger ( ∼ ms), it may be
possible that the excited particle may encounter a collision with another particle and lose its
energy, that is, decay through a collision. Such decay will be non‐Radiative, that is, no
photon is given off in the process. The non‐Radiative energy may appear as the kinetic
energy or internal energy of the colliding particles.
Q.5: Write down the Decay‐Rate equations for the three processes: Radiative (Spontaneous),
non‐Radiative and Stimulated emissions.
Ans: Lasing action (emission of laser light) occurs between two specific levels in the particles of
Active Medium called upper and lower laser levels. Normally the upper level has smaller
population than the lower level. For lasing process the population of the upper level must be
greater than the lower level which is known as Population Inversion. Let Ni is the population
per unit volume of the ith level then the rate of decay of the population of the second level
(considering two‐level laser system) will be proportional to the population of that level for
⎛ dN ⎞
all the three processes, that is, ⎜ 2 ⎟ ∝ − N 2 . The equations for the rate of decay for the
⎝ dt ⎠
three processes are given by:
⎛ dN ⎞ N ⎛ dN ⎞ N ⎛ dN ⎞ N
⎜ 2 ⎟ = − 2 (Q5.1) ⎜ 2 ⎟ = − 2 (Q5.2) ⎜ 2 ⎟ = − 2 (Q5.3)
⎝ dt ⎠ sp τ sp ⎝ dt ⎠ nr τ nr ⎝ dt ⎠ st τ st
sp stands for Spontaneous, nr stands for non‐Radiative, st stands for Stimulated and τ is the
emission lifetime or simply the lifetime of the excited state. τ nr is affected by the
surrounding medium − a denser medium means more chances of collisions and smaller
lifetime of the level. τ st is affected by the intensity of the incident electromagnetic wave − a
5
more intense beam means higher chances of Stimulated emission and smaller lifetime of the
level. The rate equations for the Spontaneous and Stimulated emissions are usually
expressed using Einstein coefficients as given below.
⎛ dN 2 ⎞ ⎛ dN 2 ⎞
⎜ dt ⎟ = − AN 2 (Q5.4) ⎜ dt ⎟ = −W21 N 2 (Q5.5)
⎝ ⎠ sp ⎝ ⎠ st
When a plane wave of photon flux F illuminates excited particles in the Active Medium then
some of the excited particles will decay through stimulated emission with a cross‐section,
say σ 21 , then the Stimulated emission decay rate is given by: W21 = σ 21 F (Q5.6)
Q.6: Write down the Rate equation for the Absorption process. How do you link it with
parameters in the decay rate equation of the Stimulated Emission?
The rate of change of population of level 1 during the absorption “a” process is then given
by:
⎛ dN1 ⎞
⎜ dt ⎟ = −W12 N1 (Q6.2) Einstein has established that if the two levels are non‐
⎝ ⎠a
degenerate (that is, there is only one level in 1 with energy E1 and there is only one level in 2
with energy E2) then: W12 = W21 (Q6.3) which means σ12 = σ 21 (Q6.4)
For degenerate levels (that is, there are g1 levels in 1 with energy E1 and there are g 2 levels
in 2 with energy E2) then Eq. (Q6.3) takes the form: g1.W12 = g 2 .W21 (Q6.5)
Q.7: Considering a two level laser system write down the equation describing the change of
photon flux in the incident plane wave when it passes through an Active Medium with
population inversion achieved.
Ans: Let N1 is population of level 1 (particles per unit volume at time t) and N 2 is the population
of level 2. Under normal condition(s) N1 > N 2 but under suitable pumping process the
population inversion can be achieved between the two laser levels. The condition given in
the question is: N 2 > N1 and F is the photon flux of the plane wave incident on an Active
Medium of width dz . When the plane wave will pass through the Active Medium the decay
rate of population in level 2 will be greater than the absorption rate of population in level 1,
that is, at any instance more photons are added to the system due to Stimulated process
than the number of photons subtracted from the system due to Absorption process. Let dF
is the change in flux over the length dz of the Active Medium as depicted in Figure Q7.1, we
can write:
6
⎛ g ⎞
dF = ( g 2W21 N 2 − g1W12 N1 ) dz = Fσ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ dz (Q7.2)
⎝ g1 ⎠
In the derivation of Eq. (Q7.1) and (Q7.2), only Stimulated emission and Stimulated
Absorption were considered because during the lasing process the Spontaneous and Non‐
Radiative decay processes have relatively negligible contributions. Moreover, the photons
due to Spontaneous emission travel in random directions with negligibly small number
travelling along the cavity axis.
F F + dF
Active Medium
Cavity Axis
dz
Figure Q7.1: Plane waves of photon flux F through an Active Medium.
Q.8: Are the general lasers based on some sort of photon amplification process?
Ans: The word LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Lasing
process in a general LASER system requires population inversion in which N 2 > N1 or more
g2
accurately N 2 > N1 which leads to a net contribution of photon flux: dF > 0 to the
g1
incident beam flux F each time the plane waves pass through the Active Medium. The
number of stimulated photon flux keeps on adding during each passage through the Active
Medium. Immediately, equilibrium is established in terms of the gain in stimulated photons
and the loss in photons being ejected from laser source as output beam and due to
Spontaneous and non‐Radiative decay processes and laser beam of constant flux is obtained.
g
The Active Medium under the condition N 2 > 2 N1 is called Photon Amplifier and under
g1
g2
the condition N 2 < N1 as Photon Absorber. Thus a general laser system may be regarded
g1
as based on some sort of photon amplification process.
Q.9: Briefly describe the lasing process?
Ans: Lasing is the process in which a laser beam is obtained from a laser system. An appropriate
Active Medium is placed in a Resonator. The simplest Resonator will consist of two plane
mirrors: one 100% reflector and the other may have a reflection in the range 90% to 99%
depending upon the type. The latter one may be regarded as output coupler. Both mirrors
are held parallel to each other and perpendicular to the beam travelling between them. The
active medium is energised with the pumping process which may be based on collision of
7
accelerated electrons with the particles of the Active Medium or optically exciting the
particles with flash lamps. In the beginning of the pumping process, N1 > N 2 , and the Active
Medium acts as an Absorber. The pumping process raises the particles to level 2 and
particles in level 2 starts increasing. A condition is reached when N 2 > N1 called population
inversion. During the pumping process along with the absorption process the spontaneous
process also continues. After the inversion condition has reached, a spontaneously emitted
photon along the cavity axis may initialise the stimulated emission. Stimulated photons
travelling along the cavity axis through the Active Medium will repeat their paths after
bouncing back from the reflectors of the resonator resulting in photon amplification. A part
of the beam comes of the output coupler (partial reflector) in the form of output laser beam.
This loss in cavity photons is compensated by an appropriate strength of the pumping
mechanism. If pumping is done through flash lamps then the central frequency of the light
from the flash lamps should match with the energy difference between the two laser levels,
that is, equal to vo = ( E2 − E1 ) / h . The two reflectors of the Resonator act as positive
feedback supplier. This is the description of the lasing process in simple words.
Q.10: Calculate the net gain in one round trip through a laser cavity during the lasing process.
Ans: During the lasing process, photon amplification occurs through the Active Medium and
losses occur at the reflectors of the Resonator and in the space between the two reflectors.
The major losses may include non‐Radiative decay and Spontaneous emission decay and
others. Let Li represents the total loss in the cavity region between the two reflectors during
one pass and let F is the photon flux in the laser cavity just after reflector 1. Through the
Active Medium, the gain in flux dF is given by Eq. (Q7.2) which is reproduced below.
dF ⎛ g ⎞
= σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ dz (Q10.1) Here N1 and N 2 are the number of particles of
F ⎝ g1 ⎠
the Active Medium in the level 1 and level 2 respectively and g1 and g 2 are the
degeneracies of level 1 and level 2 respectively and that the population inversion exists in
g
the cavity for which: N 2 > 2 N1 . The Stimulated emission cross section is σ 21 . If l is the
g1
length of the active medium then integration of Eq. (Q10.1) gives:
dF l
⎛ g ⎞ ⎛ g ⎞
∫ = ∫ σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ dz = σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ .l + const which is simplified as given.
F 0 ⎝ g1 ⎠ ⎝ g1 ⎠
⎛ g2 ⎞
σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − N1 ⎟.l
F ′ = F .e ⎝
g1 ⎠
(Q10.2) is the gain in photon flux in one pass of the cavity. The
loss in one pass of the cavity will be F ′Li , thus the net gain in one pass of the cavity is:
F ′ − F ′Li = F ′ (1 − Li ) . This is the photon flux which is incident on the reflector 2. Let R2 is
the power reflectivity of the reflector 2, then the net gain in flux starting from the location
within the cavity just after reflector1 and ending at the location just after reflection from
⎛ g2 ⎞
σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − N1 ⎟.l
reflector2 is: F ′ (1 − Li ) R2 = F .e ⎝
(1 − Li ) R2 . This flux will travel back towards
g1 ⎠
the reflector1 and thus the net gain in one pass, that is, just after reflection from reflector1
is:
8
⎧ σ ⎛⎜ N − g 2 N ⎞⎟.l ⎫ ⎧ σ ⎛⎜ N − g 2 N ⎞⎟.l ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ 21⎝ 2 g1 1 ⎠
(1 − Li ) R2 ⎬. ⎨e (1 − Li ) R1 ⎪⎬
21 2 1
⎝ g1 ⎠
⎨ F .e
⎪⎩ ⎪⎪
⎭⎩
⎪ (Q10.3)
⎭
⎛ g ⎞
2σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟.l
= F .R1.R2 .(1 − Li )
2 ⎝ g1 ⎠
.e
This is the net gain in a laser cavity in one round trip.
Q.11: How the net loss in photon flux is balanced by the net gain in one round trip in a laser cavity
during the lasing process?
Ans: Let F is the photon flux of a plane wave at any location in a laser cavity. In one round trip of
⎛ g ⎞
2σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟.l
the plane waves the photon flux becomes equal to F .R1.R2 . (1 − Li )
2 ⎝ g1 ⎠
.e where
l is the length of the cavity and Li is the cavity loss per pass. During the lasing process the
cavity loss must be compensated by the cavity gain or in other words the flux at one location
in the cavity must be equal to the flux after one round trip which may be expressed
⎛ g ⎞
2σ 21 ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟.l
mathematically as: F = F .R1.R2 .(1 − Li )
2 ⎝ g1 ⎠
.e (Q11.1) This is known as
⎛ g ⎞
where N c = ⎜⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟⎟ is regarded as critical inversion required for the threshold condition to
⎝ g1 ⎠
reach. A second expression for N c in terms of cavity parameters can be obtained from Eq.
ln ( R1 R2 ) + 2ln (1 − Li )
(Q11.2) which is given: N c = − (Q11.3) Population inversion
2σ 21.l
required to initialise the Stimulated emission must have population in the level 2 as given:
g2 ln ( R1R2 ) + 2ln (1 − Li )
N2 ≥ N1 − (Q11.4) Pumping mechanism should be such that
g1 2σ 21.l
the population of level 2 must satisfy the condition given in Eq. (Q11.4). This condition will
ensure compensation of cavity loss and sustainability of Stimulated process and thus that of
the lasing process.
Q.12: Why a two‐level laser system is not possible?
Ans: When a laser system is powered on, that is, when the pumping process is initiated the
absorption process dominates initially and the active medium particles are raised from level
1 to level 2. The pumping process increases the population of level 2 or decreases the
g2 ln ( R1R2 ) + 2ln (1 − Li )
population of level 1. At the threshold condition N 2 = N1 − the
g1 2σ 21.l
number of particles raised to level 2 (through the absorption process) will be equal to the
number of particles lowered to level 1 (through the stimulated emission), that is, the change
in photon flux during the back and forth propagation between the reflectors of the
resonator does not change, that is, dF = 0 . The active medium acts as transparent to the
propagating electromagnetic waves. This is referred to as Two‐Level Saturation. Under this
9
condition, the active medium may be assumed as absent and if there are no losses, any
photon flux propagating back and forth between the ideal cavity reflectors will remain
unchanged. No amplification and no lasing process. If one of the reflectors is partially
transmitting, the existing photon flux will immediately die.
Q.13: Give a brief description of the working principles of three and four‐level lasers.
Ans: As the name implies, a three‐level laser system involves three levels and a four‐level laser
system involves four levels. The Figure Q13.1 shows these levels. Ground level is labelled by
1. In a 3‐level laser system, pumping mechanism raises the particles from the ground level 1
to an upper level 3 which through a fast non‐radiative decay makes the particles to occupy
the intermediate level 2. Lasing action occurs between the level 2 and the level 1 after the
population inversion ( N 2 (t ) > N1 (t ) ) is achieved between these two levels. The pumping
mechanism must be strong enough to ensure the condition: N 2 (t ) > N1 (t ) during the lasing
process. The level 3 remains more or less empty.
In a 4‐level laser system, pumping mechanism raises the particles from the ground level 1 to
an upper level 4 which through a fast non‐radiative decay makes the particles to occupy the
intermediate level 3. Lasing action occurs between the level 3 and the level 2 after the
population inversion ( N3 (t ) > N 2 (t ) ) is achieved between these two levels. The population
inversion condition requires that the level 2 must be a fast decaying level through non‐
radiative process. The pumping mechanism must be strong enough to ensure the condition:
N3 (t ) > N 2 (t ) during the lasing process.
4
Fast Decay
3 3
2
Pumping 2
Lasing
Fast Decay
1 1
3‐level laser system 4‐level laser system
Figure Q13.1: Level diagrams of three and four‐level laser system.
Q.14: How will you establish that it is relatively easier to achieve population inversion in a 4‐level
laser system than in a 3‐level laser system?
Ans: For simplification we assume that the lasing levels (2 and 1 in a 3‐level system and 3 and 2
in a 4‐level system) are non‐degenerate or have the same degeneracy and that the number
of particles in the active medium in both the laser systems is equal to N o . Assuming a
negligible population in level 3, the lower lasing level (level 1 in a 3‐level system) must have
a population < N o and the level 2 must have a population > N o for the population inversion
and hence the lasing action to occur in a 3‐level laser system. There is no such condition to
10
11
population of the ground level by more than half. In 4 and Qausi 3‐level lasers the pumping
rate ( W4 g ) need not be very high and the population of the ground level may be considered
as approximately constant, that is, N1 = const . The rate equation for the upper most level
⎛ dN ⎞
due to the pumping process in a 4‐level laser is given by: ⎜ 4 ⎟ = W4 g N1 (Q17.3) Level
⎝ dt ⎠ p
4 decays very quickly to level 3 and effectively may be considered empty. The equation
⎛ dN ⎞
(Q17.3) may, therefore, be written as: ⎜ 3 ⎟ = W4 g N1 (Q17.4) Population inversion
⎝ dt ⎠ p
between the levels 3 and 2 in a 4‐level laser system can be achieved relatively easily in
comparison with a 3‐level laser system. Thus: W4 g << W3 g . The equations (Q17.2) and
⎛ dN ⎞
(Q17.4) may also be written respectively as given: ⎜ 2 ⎟ = W3 g N1 = R3 p (Q17.5)
⎝ dt ⎠ p
⎛ dN3 ⎞
⎜ dt ⎟ = W4 g N1 = R4 p (Q17.6) where R3 p and R4 p are the pump rates for a 3‐level
⎝ ⎠p
and 4‐level laser system. The pump rates ( R3 p and R4 p ) must reach respective critical
pump rate values ( R3cp and R4cp ) for the respective population inversions.
Q.18: What properties of laser beams make them distinct sources of light? Describe them briefly.
Ans: There are four fundamental properties that make laser beam a distinct source of light and
these are: Monochromaticity, Coherence, Directionality and Brightness. Monochromaticity
means single colour which actually means single frequency. If lasing action occurs between
two levels with energies E1 and E2 ( E2 > E1 ) then the single frequency of laser beam is
E2 − E1
defined as: v = (Q18.1) where h is Planck′s constant. Active medium in a laser
h
source is placed between the two mirrors and form a resonant cavity. Laser oscillations
λ c
occur at resonant frequencies and satisfy the condition: L = N = N (Q18.2) where
2 2.v
( L ) is the length of the resonant cavity, N is an integer and λ is the resonant wavelength.
A large number of resonant wavelengths with different values of N can satisfy the resonant
condition given by the equation (Q18.2). The lasing frequency given by (Q18.1) is the
dominant frequency in a laser beam and in addition some neighbouring frequencies
satisfying equation (Q18.2) can also be present in a laser beam. A laser beam with a few
resonant frequencies present in it is still regarded as monochromatic.
The concept of coherence may be viewed as Spatial Coherence and Temporal Coherence.
We first describe spatial coherence. Consider two points P1 and P2 on a single wavefront
(surface with a constant value of phase) of a laser beam. By definition the values of phases
at points P1 and P2 must be the same and the phase difference: ∆φ = φ2 − φ1 = φ − φ = 0 . If
∆φ = 0 for all t > 0 , then the points P1 and P2 are regarded as in perfect spatial coherence.
This definition of spatial coherence is valid when there is only a single value of phase over
the single wavefront. When a laser beam propagates then on its way the propagating
wavefronts may be distorted and the distorted wavefront may have varying values of phases
12
with time at different positions in space. For such a condition the spatial coherence is
defined as: Consider a point P on the wavefront and consider an area segment centred at
point P such that all the points within that area bear a constant phase relationship with the
phase value at P and that the phase relationship does not change with time then the area
around such a point P on the wavefront is known as Coherence Area or more accurately as
Spatial Coherence Area. The wave is said to possess Partial Spatial Coherence. Next we
describe the Temporal Coherence.
During the stimulated emission within a laser cavity the emitted waves oscillating within the
resonator are amplified and emitted through the output coupler in the form of wavetrains of
finite length. Three consecutive wavetrains from a typical laser source are shown each of
temporal length equal to τ o . A phase discontinuity can be observed between any two
consecutive wavetrains. The points A, B, C and D are the points of phase discontinuity. Due
to this phase discontinuity between the consecutive wavetrains, any point on one wavetrain
will not have a definite phase relationship to any other point of the following wavetrain.
Thus the phase relationship between the wavetrains is random. Consequently, if one of the
wavetrains is made to interfere with the other wavetrain the interference will not be
observable.
Now consider two points P1 and P2 on the same wavetrain. The two points will bear a
definite phase relationship as long as they are located on the same wavetrain. The maximum
temporal separation between the two points should not exceed τ o , that is, the points
P1 and P2 can be at the extreme ends of the same wavetrain to have a definite phase
relationship beyond which the phase relationship becomes random. The corresponding
length is denoted by lo = cτ o and is called coherence length or more precisely temporal
coherence length.
Figure Q18.1: Wavetrains from a laser with coherence length equal to τ o .
Directionality means that a beam of light has a negligible change in its diameter as it
propagates. Beam from a typical gas laser has high directionality or equivalently small
divergence. “High directionality” and “small divergence” are equivalent words. Directionality
is linked with spatial coherence. High spatial coherence means high directionality. Even a
beam with perfect spatial coherence always has non‐zero divergence due to diffraction of
the beam at the aperture of the laser output coupler. A perfect spatial coherence has been
13
assumed for the plane waves travelling within the laser capillary tube shown in Figure Q18.2
and incident on the semi transparent aperture of diameter D of the output coupler. The
outgoing beam will be diffracted at the aperture and will diverge by an angle θ d called angle
of divergence of the laser beam. From the diffraction theory, for diffraction limited beams:
λ
θd = ε (Q18.3) The constant ( ε ) depends on the geometry of the aperture. For
D
circular aperture it takes value equal to 1.22. Referring Figure Q18.2 the field at point P is
due to the superposition of the fields contributed by the fictitious point sources located
within the semi transparent aperture. If the field incident on the aperture has partial spatial
coherence then the corresponding angle of divergence θ bears the relationship: θ > θ d .
Fictitious point sources lying within the limiting aperture of area Sc then coherently
λ
contribute at point P giving divergence angle: θ = ε (Q18.4)
Sc
Output coupler
Laser Capillary Tube
θd
Semi transparent P
Plane Waves D
Aperture
Observation
Plane
Figure Q18.2: Diffraction of Plane Waves at the semi transparent aperture of laser output
coupler.
Even a weak laser source has a considerably high Brightness and this makes lasers a distinct
dP
source. Brightness ( B ) is defined by: = B cos φ (Q18.5) dS is an area of
dS .d Ω
source generating power dP into a solid angle dΩ in a direction which makes an angle φ
with the normal to area dS . To use the equation (Q18.5) for a laser beam, we consider the
schematic shown in Figure Q18.3 in which a laser beam is emerging out from output
resonator aperture. Plane wavefronts inside the resonator diverge out at the output coupler
(aperture) due to diffraction with an angle of divergence equal to θ. To use Eq. (Q18.5) for
the scheme shown in Figure Q18.3, the following changes are introduced. dP → P ,
2
⎛D⎞
dS → π ⎜ ⎟ , d Ω → π .θ 2 , cos φ ≅ 1 . The laser brightness formula thus takes the form:
⎝2⎠
14
4P λ
B= . (Q18.6) For a diffraction limited beam: θ → θ d = ε or equivalently
(π .D.θ ) 2 D
2
⎛ 2 ⎞
θ D → θ d D = ε .λ and Eq. (Q18.6) takes the form: Bm = ⎜ ⎟ P (Q18.7) This gives
⎝ ε .π .λ ⎠
the maximum brightness ( Bm ) of a laser beam with optical power P and operating at a
wavelength λ .
Laser output
aperture
θ
Plane Waves
θ Laser beam
d Ω = π .θ 2
2
⎛D⎞
Laser capillary tube π⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ Laser Spot
Figure Q18.3: Diffracted divergent laser beam from resonator output aperture.
Q.19: Find the intensity of a laser beam at the focal plane of a convex lens with beam divergence
equal to θ and beam diameter equal to D.
Ans: The scheme depicted in Figure Q19.1 shows a diverging beam focussed by a convex lens at
its back focal plane. The size of the laser spot as clear from the diagram is: d = 2 f θ . If the
lens is assumed lossless, the optical power at the focal plane will be equal to the power
contained in the incident laser beam. If we denote the optical power in the laser beam by
( P ) then the peak intensity ( I p ) in the focal plane of the lens is given by:
P 4P 4P P 1 1
Ip = = = = (Q19.1) from equation (Q18.6) is:
( 2) π .d π .(2 f θ ) π. f θ θ2
2 2 2 2 2
π d
B (π D )
2 2
1 ⎛ π ⎞⎛ D ⎞
= which reduces Eq. (Q19.1) to: I p = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ .B (Q19.2) For maximum
θ2 4P ⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ f ⎠
light collection, the lens should be close to the resonator output aperture and the lens
diameter ( DL ) may be considered equal to the size of the aperture ( D ), that is, DL = D
2
and the maximum intensity at the focal plane will be: I p ( )max = ⎛⎜⎝ π4 ⎞⎟⎠ ⎛⎜ DfL ⎞⎟
.B (Q19.3)
⎝ ⎠
This result can be expressed in terms of the Numerical Aperture (NA) of the lens which is
DL
ϕ 2 = DL (Q19.4) where ϕ is the
defined as: NA = nair sin ϕ = nair 2sin = nair 2
2 f f
15
angle formed at the focal point by the lens aperture. The equation (Q19.3) may therefore be
⎛π ⎞
written as: I p = ⎜ ⎟ ( NA ) .B (Q19.5) For a given numerical aperture, the peak intensity
2
⎝4⎠
in the focal plane of a lens is determined by the brightness of the beam. As the laser
brightness is very high in comparison with conventional sources the same is also applicable
to the peak intensity value.
Convex
Focussed
Lens
Laser Spot
θ θ
d=2fθ
θ
θ
f
Resonator
output Diverging Laser Beam
aperture
Figure Q19.1: Focussing of a diverging laser beam with angle of divergence equal to θ.
Q.20: Generation of short laser pulses is considered an added property of pulsed laser sources.
Comment on it.
Ans: Short laser pulses are, of course, added advantage of pulsed lasers over the conventional
light sources. Mode Locking is the process by which short pulses can be generated. The
length or duration of the pulses is roughly equal to the inverse of the line width of the light
emitted between the lasing levels. Pulse widths from gas, liquid and solid state lasers are in
the ranges: sub‐nano seconds to couple of nano‐seconds, sub‐pico seconds to couple of pico
seconds and sub‐femto seconds to couple of femto seconds, respectively. If ∆t represents
the pulse duration then the concentration of pulse energy is obtainable from: ∆E.∆t ∼ or
equivalently: ∆v.∆t ∼ 1 (
2π )
. This means that broader is the line width shorter is the pulse
duration. Pulses < 1 ns can also be generated from some flash lamps. However, controlled
pulses are only possible through pulsed lasers.
Q.21: In how many general ways can laser types be categorised?
Ans: The following chart explains the general ways in which laser types can be categorised. Four
categories are shown.
16
Solid State Lasers
Continuous Active Medium Category
Liquid Lasers
Beam Sources
IR lasers Gas Lasers
Wavelength Category Visible lasers
From a few mW to
UV lasers
Laser Sources a few MW as
X‐ray lasers
Power Category continuous beam
From a few W to a
few TW as pulsed
Pulsed Beam Size Category
beam
Sources From a few µm to
a few km
Figure Q21.1: Diagram giving types and categories of laser sources.
Q.22: What is a blackbody?
Ans: An opaque and non‐reflective body held at a constant uniform temperature having a small
opening or a hole in it through which almost all characteristic wavelengths can be emitted or
absorbed and the radiations are function of temperature of the body and is independent of
the material of the body is called a blackbody. Such a blackbody at room temperature emits
radiation in the infrared and is not perceived by human eye and thus appears black to
human eyes. Many ordinary objects in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings emitting
thermal radiations spontaneously are regarded as blackbodies. A continuous frequency
spectrum emitted by a blackbody at a given temperature is also regarded as Planck
spectrum and the law that governs blackbody spectrum is referred to as Planck’s law. The
peak of blackbody spectral distribution shifts towards higher frequencies with increase in
temperature. Classical physics failed to explain the blackbody radiation laws and the new
mechanics known as quantum mechanics was founded to explain the laws. A blackbody at
temperature T and surrounded by a cloud of light at the same temperature will emit, on the
average, same amount of light into the cloud as it absorbs. Planck’s blackbody law is based
on the fact that the energy given off by the oscillators within a blackbody radiation is
quantised, that is, equal to an integral multiples of a given energy. Energy absorbed or
emitted by the particles of active medium in a laser system is quantised.
Q.23: How will you establish that there will be no net flow of energy between the two blackbodies
at temperature T connected through small openings in them?
Ans: Let the two blackbodies contain homogeneous and isotropic media and held at temperature
T. The walls of the bodies will continuously emit and absorb power in the form of
electromagnetic radiations. At equilibrium the rate of emission and absorption will be same.
Let ρ stands for energy density (electromagnetic energy contained in unit volume) of the
17
1 2 1
cavity. Then ρ = ε E (t ) + µ H 2 (t ) (Q23.1) ε is the dielectric constant of the
2 2
medium, µ is the magnetic permeability of the medium and takes into account the
average over a cycle of the radiation field. If ρv stands as the spectral energy distribution of
radiation within the cavity then ρv dv will stand as the energy density of radiation in the
∞
frequency range between v and v + dv then ρ = ∫ ρv dv (Q23.2) If there is a small hole
0
in a blackbody through which light of spectral intensity I v is leaking out then we can write
c
the relation: I v = ρv (Q23.3) Let us represent the spectral energy densities of the
4n
two cavities respectively by ρv′ and ρv′′ . Let the two blackbodies are at temperature T and
connected through an optical system focussing light escaping from the hole of cavity 1 into
the hole of cavity 2 and vice versa. If ρv′ > ρv′′ ⇒ I v′ > I v′′ which means that there will be a
net flow of electromagnetic energy from cavity 1 to cavity 2 which violates the
thermodynamics second law. According to this law, both cavities being at the same
temperature T must have: ρv′ = ρv′′ . The spectral energy density should more accurately be
written as: ρ ( v, T ) as it depends only on ( v, T ) and is independent of the nature, material
and shape of the walls of the cavity.
Q.24: Calculate the number of modes per unit volume and per unit frequency range in a
rectangular cavity.
Ans: Consider a rectangular cavity uniformly
filled with a dielectric of refractive y
index n and with perfectly conducting
walls (no energy dissipation or loss). x
The cavity is at a fixed temperature T 2a
with dimensions shown in Figure
Q24.1. Let E ( x, y , z , t ) is the value of
the field at a point ( x, y, z ) at the
instant ( t ) in the cavity. This field must 2a
satisfy Maxwell’s equation which is
1 ∂2 E L
given: ∇ 2 E − = 0 (Q24.1)
cn2 ∂t 2
() ( )
The spatial part u in component form: u x , u y , u z , satisfying the Helmholtz equation
( )
solution holds when k x , k y , k z satisfy the relationship: k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = k 2 (Q24.9) Being
( )
amplitude of standing wave, u x , u y , u z must be zero at the six cavity walls which imposes
() ( )
conditions on k , that is, k x = 0, k y = 0, k z = 0 respectively at (yz‐plane, xz‐plane, xy‐
( )
∇. u = 0 (Q24.11) Using u x , u y , u z from equation (Q24.8) and introducing
( )
a plane perpendicular to k . The components k x , k y , k z take discrete values and the tip of
their resultant vector k gives the nodal points of the 3D lattice. A few nodal points are
shown in Figure Q24.2.
Q.25: Derive the Rayleigh‐Jeans and Planck Radiation formulas. What is the significance of Planck
formula?
Ans: In order to account the distribution of radiations from blackbodies two attempts are
historically important: one by Rayleigh‐Jeans and the other one by Planck. In both attempts
we obtain a formula for energy density distribution emitted by blackbodies. First the
Rayleigh‐Jeans approach is described. The energy density ρv and the average energy
contained in each mode E are connected through the relation: ρv = pv E (Q25.1)
pv is the number of modes per unit volume per unit frequency range as given by Eq. (24.13).
According to Boltzmann’s statistics the energy of a mode to be in the range E and E + ∆E
E
−
has a probability ∼ C.e kT dE where the constant C is determined through the
∞ −
E
normalisation condition given by: ∫ C.e kT dE = 1 . The average energy of a mode is given by:
0
20
∞ −
E
∫ E.e kT dE
∞ −E
E = ∫
0
(Q25.2) Byy‐parts integration of e kT dE is worked out below.
∞ −E
0
∫
e kT dE
0
∞
∞ −E E ∞ ⎛∞ ∂ ⎛ − E ⎞∞ ⎞ E ∞ E
−1 ⎞ − kT ∞ E
⎟ ∫ dE ⎟ .dE = e kT E − ∫ ⎛⎜
− − 1 −
∫
e kT dE =e kT dE
∫ −⎜ ∫ ⎜ e kT ⎟ E.e dE = ∫ E.e kT dE
⎜ 0 ∂E ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ 0⎝
kT ⎠ kT
0 0 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠0 ⎠ 0 0
Next we discuss Planck radiation formula. Planck′s hypothesis was that the permitted values
of energy for a mode were integral multiple of a fundamental quantity ( hv ) which was
proportional to the frequency ( v ) of the mode. The energy ( E ) of a mode is given by:
E = n.hv (Q25.6) where h is the Planck′s constant and n is a positive integer. .hv is the
minimum amount of energy that can exchange within the cavity and its walls and is known
as photon energy. The formula in equation (Q25.2) was incorrect and the modified formula
according to Planck′s hypothesis for the average energy of a mode is given by the equation:
∞ nhv
−
∑ n.hv.e kT
hv
n =0
E = nhv
= hv
(Q25.7) As hv → 0 ⇒ E → kT (classical result).
∞ − kT −1
∑ e kT e
n=0
The Planck′s radiation formula for spectral energy density thus takes the following form:
8π .v 2 hv
ρv = (Q25.8) This agrees very well with the experimental blackbody
cn3 e
hv
kT −1
radiation curves provided: h = 6.62 × 10−34 Js . The plot of ρv versus v is shown in Figure
(Q25.1). The shown curves agree very well with the experimental curves. The average
E
number of photons in each mode is found from: , k is Boltzmann’s constant.
kT
Planck′s formula agreed and explained very well the experimental data from blackbodies.
This was done by introducing new concept of discrete energy. Later on this discrete‐energy
concept became the fundamental concept of energy exchange between the atomic particles
(atoms, molecules) and the foreign world. Now atoms and molecules accept energy in
21
discrete form and liberate energy in discrete form. This explains the significance of Planck′s
radiation formula.
Figure Q25.1: Plot of spectral density ( ρv ) verses v using Planck’s radiation formula.
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