SEM

What is SEM
Column
TV Screens
Sample
Chamber The SEM is
designed for
direct studying
of the surfaces
of solid objects

Cost: $0.8-2.4M

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a microscope that

uses electrons rather than light to form an image. There
are many advantages to using the SEM instead of a OM.
A Look Inside the Column
Column
 Electron Gun

A more e- beam

detailed
look α
inside

Source: L. Reimer,
“Scanning Electron
Microscope”, 2nd Ed.,
Springer-Verlag, 1998, p.2
 Image Formation in SEM

CRT or
M = c/x
TFT-LCD
A 10cm
e-
beam
Detector

10cm
Amplifier

A c-length of CRT scan

x-length of e- beam scan
Beam is scanned over specimen in a raster pattern in
synchronization with beam in CRT or LCD. Intensity at A
on CRT is proportional to signal detected from A on
specimen and signal is modulated by amplifier.
 Advantages of Using SEM over OM
Magnification Depth of Field Resolution
OM 4x – 1000x 15.5μm – 0.19μm ~ 0.2μm
SEM 10x – 3000000x 4mm – 0.4μm 1-10nm

The SEM has a large depth of field, which allows a large

amount of the sample to be in focus at one time and
produces an image that is a good representation of the
three-dimensional sample. The SEM also produces
images of high resolution, which means that closely
features can be examined at a high magnification.

The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of

field, greater resolution and compositional and
crystallographic information makes the SEM one of the
most heavily used instruments in research areas and
industries, especially in semiconductor industry.
 Comparison of OM,TEM and SEM
Source of
Light source electrons
Condenser
Magnetic
lenses
Specimen
Objective

Specimen
Eyepiece
Projector CRT
Cathode
Ray Tube

detector

OM TEM SEM

Principal features of an optical microscope, a transmission

electron microscope and a scanning electron microscope,
drawn to emphasize the similarities of overall design.
 電子束與試片的作用
入射電子束

Auger 背向散射電子(BEI)
Auger電子 SEM
二次電子(SEI)

陰極發光(CL) X-ray(EDS,WDS)

試片電流

2θ

繞射電子

穿透電子

TEM
Electron Beam and Specimen Interactions
Sources of Image Information
Electron/Specimen Interactions

(1-50KeV)

Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC)

 I0≠Is+Ib+ Ia 電荷殘留(Charge-up)

I0:電子束(Primary Beam)
Ib:背向電子
(Back scattered Electron)
I0

Ib Is:二次電子(Secondary Electron)

Is
Ia:樣品電流
Ia (Specimen Current)
 SEM 能為我們提供那些訊息
影像 或 分析儀 訊號 偵測器 用途

SEI（Secondary Electron Image） 二次電子 E-T 表面形貌

* * BEI （ Backscattered Electron 背向散射電子 Solid state 原子序對比

Image）
* EDS（Energy Dispersive X-ray 訊號 Si-Li or Ge 元素分析
Spectrum）
* WDS （ Wavelength Dispersive X-ray 訊號 比例計數器 高解析元素
Spectrum） 分析
* * EBSP (Electron Backscattering 繞射電子及前 Phosphor Screen Grain
向散射電子 and CCD
Diffraction Pattern) Orientation
** CL（Cathodoluminescence） 陰極發光 PMT or PbS 半導體及絕緣
體缺陷或雜質

Other: E-beam lithography

 SE2 SE1 SE1
SE2

SE

SE
SE
SE
SE
二
次
電
子
 Secondary Electrons (SE)
Produced by inelastic interactions
of high energy electrons with
Primary
valence (or conduction) electrons of
atoms in the specimen, causing the
ejection of the electrons from the
atoms. These ejected electrons with
energy < 50eV are termed
"secondary electrons".
Each incident electron can produce
several secondary electrons.
SE yield: δ=nSE/nB independent of Z BaTiO
3
δ decreases with increasing beam
energy and increases with decreasing
glancing angle of incident beam
Production of SE is very topography Growthstep
related. Due to their low energy, only SE
that are very near the surface (<10nm)
can exit the sample and be examined 5μm
SE image
(small escape depth).
 Backscattered Electrons (BSE)
Primary

BSE image from flat surface of an

Al (Z=13) and Cu (Z=29) alloy
BSE are produced by elastic interactions of beam electrons
with nuclei of atoms in the specimen and they have high
energy and large escape depth.

BSE yield: η=nBS/nB ~ function of atomic number, Z

BSE images show characteristics of atomic number
contrast, i.e., high average Z appear brighter than those of
low average Z. η increases with tilt.
電子能量 二次電子
Secondary Electrons

背向電子
Backscattered
Electrons

Quantity of Electrons

1 100 10,000
Energy of Electron (eV)
(Incident beam energy : 10,000eV)
 Effect of Atomic Number (Z)
on
BSE and SE Yield BSE and SE Yield
 Atomic #
Pb: 82
Sn: 50

拋光合金 (表面平整)
SE BSE
Detector
 閃爍計數器(scintillator) for 2nd e-
• Eu-doped CaF2 (螢光粉 coated on light guide)
• 電子撞擊螢光粉→ 產生光子 → 光導管 → 光電倍
增器 → 電子脈波
固態偵測器solid state detector
• 電子束 → 半導體 → 電子電洞對 → 電流
SE BSE(YAG)
 EDX Mapping
BSE像（50pA）
N Ａ Ｓ
ｌ ｉ
Specimen : Multi layer( 5kV, 30kX,
WD=12mm )
試片準備
 I0≠Is+Ib+ Ia 電荷殘留(Charge-up)

I0:電子束(Primary Beam)
Ib:背向電子
(Back scattered Electron)
I0

Ib Is:二次電子(Secondary Electron)

Is
Ia:樣品電流
Ia (Specimen Current)
不導電之sample
Thin film Glass substrate

碳膠帶

載台

銀膠
電子槍
燈絲
 Tungsten Filament FE Tip

750μm

(For Ｗ-SEM） （For Cold FE）

SEM電子槍 V0: Accelerating voltage
V1: Extraction voltage
Filament Current Control
Flashing Voltage

Filament
V1 (～ 6.5kV)
Wehnelt Bias Voltage
Control

1st Anode
Anode 2nd Anode
V0 V0

Electron Beam

Electron Beam
Thermionic Emission Cold Field Emission
Thermionic Emission Gun

• A tungsten filament
heated by DC to
approximately 2700K or
LaB6 rod heated to around
2000K
• A vacuum of 10-3 Pa (10-4
Pa for LaB6) is needed to -
prevent oxidation of the
filament +
• Electrons “boil off” from
the tip of the filament
• Electrons are accelerated
by an acceleration voltage
of 1-50kV
 Field Emission Gun

• The tip of a tungsten needle is

made very sharp (radius < 0.1
μm)
• The electric field at the tip is
very strong (> 107 V/cm) due
to the sharp point effect
• Electrons are pulled out from
the tip by the strong electric
field
• Ultra-high vacuum (better than
10-6 Pa) is needed to avoid ion
bombardment to the tip from
the residual gas.
• Electron probe diameter < 1
nm is possible
電 Tungsten FE Tip
子 Filament ΔV=～0.2eV
ΔV= ～2eV
束
的
分
佈

Crossover of
Crossover of
Low Energy
Low Energy
Crossover of Electrons Crossover of Electrons
High Energy High Energy
Electrons Electrons
燈絲特性比較

電子數量
 Source of Electrons
Thermionic Gun E: >10MV/cm
T: ~1500oC
W

Filament
(5-50μm)

(5nm)

W and LaB6 Cold- and thermal FEG

Electron Gun Properties

Source Brightness Stability(%) Size Energy spread Vacuum
W 3X105 ~1 50μm 3.0(eV) 10-5 (τ )
LaB6 3x106 ~2 5μm 1.5 10-6
C-FEG 109 ~5 5nm 0.3 10-10
T-FEG 109 <1 20nm 0.7 10-9
Brightness – beam current density per unit solid angle
電磁透鏡
 Magnetic Lenses

• Condenser lens – focusing

determines the beam current which
impinges on the sample.

• Objective lens – final probe forming

determines the final spot size of the
electron beam, i.e., the resolution of a
SEM.
 Why Need a Vacuum?
When a SEM is used, the electron-optical
column and sample chamber must always
be at a vacuum.

1. If the column is in a gas filled environment,

electrons will be scattered by gas molecules which
would lead to reduction of the beam intensity and
stability.

2. Other gas molecules, which could come from the

sample or the microscope itself, could form
compounds and condense on the sample. This
would lower the contrast and obscure detail in the
image.
The Condenser Lens
 The Condenser Lens
• For a thermionic gun, the diameter of
the first cross-over point ~20-50µm

• If we want to focus the beam to a size

< 10 nm on the specimen surface, the
magnification should be ~1/5000, which
is not easily attained with one lens (say,
the objective lens) only.

• Therefore, condenser lenses are added

to demagnify the cross-over points.
聚焦透鏡 (Condenser Lens)
電
子
於
磁
力
透
鏡
中
之
受
力
F = -e(v x B)
 How Is Electron Beam Focused?
A magnetic lens is a solenoid designed to produce
a specific magnetic flux distribution.
Magnetic lens
(Beam diameter) (solenoid)

F = -e(v x B) p

q
Lens formula: 1/f = 1/p + 1/q

Demagnification: M = q/p

f ∝ Bo2
f can be adjusted by changing Bo, i.e., changing the
current through coil.
 Filament
Cross Over Point (d0) Wehnelt

Anode

Electron Beam a1

1st Condenser Lens M1=b1/a1

b1

Aperture
a2

2nd Condenser Lens b2 M2=b2/a2

Aperture
a3

Objective Lens M3=b3/a3

Spot Size (d) b3

Specimen
d=d0・M1・ M2・M3
The Condenser
Lens

Demagnification:
M = f/L
The Objective Lens
接物透鏡 (Objective lens)
 The Objective Lens

• The objective lens

controls the final
focus of the electron
beam by changing the
magnetic field strength

• The cross-over image is

finally demagnified to
an ~10 nm beam spot
which carries a beam
current of
approximately 10-9-10-
10-12 A.
 The Objective Lens - Focusing

• By changing the Objective

current in the lens

objective lens,
the magnetic field
strength changes
and therefore the
focal length of
the objective lens
is changed.
Out of focus in focus out of focus
lens current lens current lens current
too strong optimized too weak
 The Objective Lens – The Aperture

• Since the electrons

Electron beam
coming from the
electron gun have Objective
spread in kinetic lens
energies and directions
Wide Narrow
of movement, they may aperture aperture
not be focused to the
same plane to form a
sharp spot. Narrow disc
Wide disc of of least
• By inserting an aperture, least confusion confusion
the stray electrons are
Large beam diameter Small beam diameter
blocked and the striking specimen striking specimen
remaining narrow beam
will come to a narrow
“Disc of Least Confusion”
掃描線圈
 The Scan Coil and Raster Pattern

• Two sets of coils

are used for X-direction
scanning the scanning coil
electron beam
across the Holizontal line scan
specimen surface Blanking
in a raster pattern
similar to that on a
TV screen. y-direction
• This effectively scanning
coil
samples the
specimen surface
point by point
over the scanned Objective
area. lens
specimen
 ♁
F
F = -e(v x B)

♁
V
注意Tip之位置

電子束沒被
WC 擋到, 但
不在光軸上
注意Tip之位置

電子束被
WC 擋到
電子束射入樣品
Electron Beam and Specimen Interactions
Sources of Image Information
Electron/Specimen Interactions

(1-50KeV)

Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC)

 I0≠Is+Ib+ Ia 電荷殘留(Charge-up)

I0:電子束(Primary Beam)
Ib:背向電子
(Back scattered Electron)
I0

Ib Is:二次電子(Secondary Electron)

Is
Ia:樣品電流
Ia (Specimen Current)
電子束能量與撞擊深度

1kV 2kV 3kV

10
20
30
40
50
(nm)
 Interaction Volume: I
e-
Backscattered e
Auger e: <100顆
Backscattered e: <100顆
2nd e: >>> 100顆

Monte Carlo simulations of 100 electron trajectories

The incident electrons do not go along a

straight line in the specimen, but a zig-zag
path instead.
 Interaction Volume: II

The penetration or,

more precisely, the
interaction volume
depends on the
acceleration voltage
(energy of electron)
and the atomic
number of the
specimen.
Escape Volume of Various Signals
• The incident electrons interact with specimen
atoms along their path in the specimen and
generate various signals.
• Owing to the difference in energy of these
signals, their ‘penetration depths’ are
different
• Therefore different signal observable on the
specimen surface comes from different parts
of the interaction volume
• The volume responsible for the respective
signal is called the escape volume of that
signal.
 Escape Volumes of Various Signals

If the diameter of primary

electron beam is ~5nm
- Dimensions of escape
zone of
•Secondary electron:
diameter~10nm; depth~10nm
•Backscattered electron:
diameter~1μm; depth~1μm
•X-ray: from the whole
interaction volume, i.e., ~5μm
in diameter and depth
 Electron Interaction Volume

Pear shape

5μm

a b

a.Schematic illustration of electron beam interaction in Ni

b.Electron interaction volume in polymethylmethacrylate
(plastic-a low Z matrix) is indirectly revealed by etching
景深
 Optical Microscopy vs Scanning
Electron Microscopy

25μm
radiolarian
OM SEM
Small depth of field Large depth of field
Low resolution High resolution
 Depth of Field (景深)

Depth of Field

4x105W
D= (μm)
AM

To increase D
Decrease aperture size, A
Decrease magnification, M
Increase working distance, W (mm)
固定 W 時
 4x105W
D= (μm)
AM
 適當的工作距離的選擇
• 較短的工作距離 →
電子訊號接收較佳 →
解析度較高 →
景深縮短

• 較長的工作距離 →
解析度較差 →
影像景深較長 →
表面起伏較大的試片可得到較均勻清晰的影像
左邊的聚焦位置較靠近物鏡

右邊則具有較大的工作距離空間

在此二條件下的電磁透鏡皆具有
一樣的凝聚能力與孔徑(aperture)
尺寸

當樣品離物鏡越來越遠時，
工作距離增加
聚焦點變大
發散角增加
放大能力(解析度)減小
景深(depth of field)卻會因發散角
的降低而增加。
W: 15 mm W: 15 mm
A: 600 μm A: 100 μm

4x105W W: 45 mm
D= (μm)
AM A: 100 μm
放大倍率
CRT: 10 cm = 108 nm
Sample: 102 nm
 Image Formation in SEM
M= C/x
A 10cm
e-
beam
Detector

10cm
Amplifier

Beam is scanned over specimen in a raster pattern in

synchronization with beam in CRT.
Intensity at A on CRT is proportional to signal detected
from A on specimen and signal is modulated by amplifier.
 Magnification
e-

x Low M High M
Large x small x
40μm 7μm

1.2μm 15000x
2500x

The magnification is simply the ratio of the length of the

scan C on the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to the length of
the scan x on the specimen. For a CRT screen that is 10
cm square:
M= C/x = 10cm/x
Increasing M is achieved by decreasing x.
M x M x
100 1 mm 10000 10 μm
1000 100 μm 100000 1 μm
 Resolution Limitations
Ultimate resolution obtainable in an SEM
image can be limited by:

1. Electron Optical limitations

Diffraction: dd=1.22λ/α
for a 20-keV beam, λ =0.0087 nm and α=5x10-3 ; dd=2.1 nm
Chromatic and spherical aberrations: dmin=1.29λ3/4 Cs1/4
A SEM fitted with an FEG has an achievable resolution of
~1.0 nm at 30 kV due to smaller Cs (~20 mm) and λ.
2. Specimen Contrast Limitations
Contrast dmin
1.0 2.3nm
0.5 4.6nm
0.1 23nm
0.01 230nm
3. Sampling Volume Limitations (Escape volume)
 How Fine Can We See with SEM?

• If we can scan an area with width 10 nm

(10,000,000×) we may actually see
atoms!! But, can we?
• Image on the CRT consists of spots
called pixels (e.g. your PC screen
displays 1024×768 pixels of ~0.25mm
pitch) which are the basic units in the
image.
• You cannot have details finer than
one pixel!
 Resolution of Images: I
• Assume that there the screen can display 1000
pixels/(raster line), then you can imagine that
there are 1000 pixels on each raster line on the
specimen.
• The resolution is the pixel diameter on
specimen surface.

P=D/Mag = 100um/Mag
Mag P(μm) Mag P(nm)
P-pixel diameter on specimen surface 10x 10 10kx 10
D-pixel diameter on CRT, Mag-magnification 1kx 0.1 100kx 1
 Resolution of Images: II
• The optimum condition for imaging is when
the escape volume of the signal concerned
equals to the pixel size.
 Resolution of Images: III
• Signal will be weak if escape volume,
which depends on beam size, is smaller
than pixel size, but the resolution is
still achieved. (Image is ‘noisy’)
 Resolution of Images: IV
• Signal from different pixel will overlap
if escape volume is larger than the
pixel size. The image will appeared
out of focus (Resolution decreased)
 Resolution of Images: V
In extremely good SEM, resolution can be a few nm. The
limit is set by the electron probe size, which in turn depends
on the quality of the objective lens and electron gun.
Pixel diameter on Specimen
Magnification µm nm
10 10 10000
100 1 1000
1000 0.1 100
10000 0.01 10
100000 0.001 1
影像品質
對比度
 Field Contrast

Electron trajectories are affected by

both electric and magnetic fields

• Electric field – the local electric potential at the

surface of a ferroelectric material or a
semiconductor p-n junction produce a special form
of contrast (Voltage contrast)

• Magnetic field – imaging magnetic domains

 Voltage contrast

+U
-U

500μm

Voltage contrast from integrated circuit recorded at 5kV.

The technique gives a qualitative view of static (DC)
potential distributions but, by improvements in
instrumentation, it is possible to study potentials which may
be varying at frequencies up to 100MHz or more, and to
measure the potentials with a voltage resolution of ±10mV
and a spatial resolution of 0.1μm.
 Magnetic Field Contrast

(monolayer)

t
+ - tc

SE electrons emitted from a clean surface ferromagnet are

spin-polarized, the sign of the polarization being opposite
to the magnetization vector in the surface of the material.

High resolution SEM image of a magnetic microstructure in

an untrathin ‘wedge-shaped’ cobalt film.
 Other Imaging Modes
Cathodoluminescence (CL)
Nondestructive analysis of impurities and
defects, and their distributions in
semiconductors and luminescence materials
Lateral resolution (~0.5μm)
Phase identification and rough assessment
of defect concentration

Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC)

Only applicable to semiconductors
Electron-hole pairs generated in the sample
External voltage applied, the pairs are then a
current – amplified to give a signal
Image defects and dislocations
CL micrographs of Te-doped GaAs

a. b.

a. Te=1017cm-3, dark-dot dislocation contrast

b. Te=1018cm-3, dot-and-halo dislocation contrast
which shows variations in the doping concen-
tration around dislocations
EBIC Image of Doping Variations
in GaAs Wafer

The variations in brightness across the material are due to

impurities in the wafer. The extreme sensitivity (1016cm-3,
i.e., 1 part in 107) and speed of this technique makes it
ideal fro the characterization of as-grown semiconductor
crystals.
電子槍之電流與電壓
高加數電壓 低加速電壓
(電荷累積)
像差